A Review of Research Methods By

A Review of Research Methods By Lawrence A. Ibekwe, Ph.D September 28, 2024 Address: 6812 West 33rd Street City, State, and Zip: Little Rock, Arkansas 72204 Phone: (501) 680-1902(Cell) E-mail: [email protected] Table of Contents Page A Review of Research Methods 3 Introduction 4 A Brief History of Research Methods: Case Study 5 Research Orientation and Research Philosophies 6 Table 1.1: Research Orientation 8 Compare and Contrast Case studies with other Qualitative Methods 9 Common Types of Qualitative Research in Education 11 Compare and Contrast Qualitative, Quantitative, and Flexible (Mixed) Research Methodologies 12 Validity and Reliability in Research 14 Compare Quantitative and Qualitative Research Along These Criteria 16 Conclusion 17 Final Thoughts: Qualitative Approach a Better Alternative Research Method 19 A REVIEW OF RESEARCH METHODS Case Study, Qualitative, Quantitative and Flexible (Mixed) Approaches Merriam (1998) states that a case study seeks to discover rather than confirm. He believes that insights gleaned from conducting a case study can be used to influence policy, practice, and future research. (p. 19). Merriam describes case studies as intensive and descriptive in nature. Thus, a case study usually involves both descriptions and analyses of a single unit or bounded system, such as an individual, program, event, group, intervention, or community (Merriam, 1998). There are three basic types of research: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methodologies. Compare and contrast these techniques, and describe the environments in which each is appropriate in a research design. Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each methodology as it applies to research design. Introduction Research is simply defined as a process of gathering information needed to answer a question and thereby help the researcher to solve a problem. The basic purpose of research is to discover what the researcher intends to find. Research is producing knowledge about the world (Merriam, 1998). According to Booth, Colomb & Williams (1995), “Research is a form of inquiry, with the goal to make sense of experience and to bring about a change” (p. 5). Research activity attempts to provide an answer to solve a problem, to address a question, or to establish a relationship (Booth, Colomb, & Williams, 1995). This paper compares and contrasts the basic types of research, including qualitative, quantitative, and mixed (flexible) research methodologies. Specifically, this paper examines the case study approach and describes how it is related to various qualitative methods, such as ethnography, phenomenology, and grounded theory. Straus and Corbin (1990) describe qualitative research as any kind of research that produces findings without using statistical procedures or other means of quantification. Social and behavioral researchers use qualitative methods in their research, as well as by practitioners in the field related to human behavior and functioning. Strauss and Corbin (1990) suggested, “One can combine both qualitative and quantitative methods by using qualitative data to illustrate or clarify findings derived quantitatively; or to quantify demographic findings” (p. 17). A case study incorporates qualitative approaches in a research study. As a qualitative research method, Yin (1994) explains that a case study uses empirical inquiry to investigate a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used. Robson (1993) stated, “A case study is a strategy for doing research, which involves an empirical investigation of a particular contemporary phenomenon within a real life context using multiple sources of evidence” (p.179). Stake (1995) asserts that the purpose of using a case study approach is to maximize learning through research, to take advantage of many inputs, to focus on particularization, and to focus on vigorous interpretation. A case study can be used to draw upon participant’s experiences and knowledge. Thus, a case study can take the form of a study of both single and multiple cases, which often involve participants in the research process. A case study is employed to gain an in-depth understanding of the situation and meaning for those involved. Further, Merriam (1998) suggests that case studies can incorporate a variety of other research methods, such as qualitative analysis. For example, a case study of a school program, intervention, and practice is often presented in a descriptive and analytical form as it evolved over a period of time (Merriam, 1998). With a case study design, Merriam (1998) stated, “The interest is in process rather than in outcomes, in context rather than a specific variable. A case study seeks to discover rather than confirm. The insights gleaned from doing a case study can be used to influence policy, practice, and future research” (p. 19). A Brief History of Research Methods Instead of creating something new, Burke (1985) suggests that traditional research methodologies in western science were based more on rediscovering information derived from Arab cultural centers captured during the Crusades. Much of the discoveries found in ancient texts were the debates on research methodology advanced by Aristotle. Capra (1975) suggested that for nascent, western science, the discoveries, observations, and questions found in Aristotle’s work, as well as work done by other Greek philosopher/scientist, were considered a watershed for research methodology. In time, science-based research (the nascent forms) began to yield to divine knowledge and inferred truth. Spruill, Kennedy and Kapla (2001) wrote, “The scientific approach to knowledge catalyzed macro-level changes in western culture, religion, philosophy, and eventually, in global society “ (p. 2). In business research, the development of the scientific method lags behind similar developments in physical sciences (Cooper and Schindler, 2003). Physical scientists are more rigorous in their concepts and research procedures, and are more advanced in their development than in business field. Business research is of much more recent origin, which is largely supported by business organizations to achieve a competitive edge (Cooper and Schindler, 2003). Despite these hindrances, Cooper and Schindler observe that business researchers are making great strides in the scientific arena, as new techniques are being developed, and as rigorous research procedures are improving rapidly. Cooper and Schindler (2003) projected, “The outcome is that research-based decision-making will be more widely used in the future than it has in the past” (p. 14). Merriam (1998) suggests that linking research and philosophical traditions or schools of thought helps to illuminate the special characteristics of different research orientations or paradigms. Merriam (1998) wrote, “Many writers trace the philosophical roots of qualitative research to phenomenology and symbolic interaction, while quantitative research is most commonly linked to positivism” (p. 4). In the worldview of qualitative research, other writers draw upon constructivism, post-positivism, and critical social science. The case study traces its history within social science, and has been around for a long time (Hamel, 1993). Vancouver (1996) points out that prominent views on conducting research were rational-model based; a scientific method advanced from the fifteenth through the early twentieth century. Vancouver (1996) stated, “In the late 1800’s, the quantitative absolute to researching all phenomena carried through to industrial Revolution” (p. 165). Research Orientation and Research Philosophies The development of research can be associated with three philosophies, such as positivism, interpretative, and critical realism. 1. Positivist approach: embraces descriptive and correlational research designs to manipulate propositions using objective and unbiased measurement. Merriam (1998) explains that positivist employs rules of formal and deductive logic. This approach seeks to gain knowledge through scientific and experimental research, which are objective and quantifiable thus suggesting that the “reality” is stable, observable and measurable (Merriam, 1998, p. 4). 2. Interpretive philosophy: involves constructing multiple realities by using qualitative research designs such as case studies, ethnography, and phenomenology to gain knowledge through understanding the meaning of the process and experience. Merriam (1998) describes the interpretive approach as one that involves using subjective values, intuitions, and biases, which may not be independent of the observed realities. 3. Critical research philosophy: Robson’s view (2002) is that realists hold that theory is central to explaining reality, rather than data or the methods used to produce those data. Robson adds that a critical realist view has no problem with a flexible researcher, or with the use of qualitative data. Anastas and MacDonald (1994) explained, “Flexible or qualitative methods traditionally included the researcher and relationship with the researched within the boundary of what is examined. This is because all methods of study can produce only approximations of reality and incomplete understanding of the phenomena of interests, as they exist in the real world. The findings of the flexible research can be seen no more or no less legitimate than those of any other type of study” (p. 167). Table 1 provides an overview that highlights the basic research assumptions, research designs, philosophical systems, and philosophical branches applicable to an educational research. The positivist assumption is that reality is stable, objective, and uses deductive testing. Positivist’s idealism is that knowledge is derived by discovery using universal ideas. The nature of knowledge is by inspiration, revelation, intuition, prediction, and internal knowledge. Interpretive philosophy assumes the existence of multiple realities. Using qualitative approach, the reality is subjective. Existentialism refers to individual ideas, values, and reality. Qualitatively, knowledge is acquired by creation. For a critical research philosophy, the nature of knowledge is by sense, experience, evolution, and consensus (pragmatism). The quantitative approach is knowledge by construction. Table 1.1: Research Orientation, Qualitative Research (University of Arkansas at Little Rock, Spring1998) Review APA manual . Research Orientation Philosophies of Educational Research Research Orientation Reality Assumption Research Design Philosophical Systems Philosophical Branch Positivist Reality is stable, observable, and measurable. Reality is objective. Use of deductive testing – If, then. Quantitative Idealism/ Realism Functionalism Essentialism Interpretive Multiple realities exist, and are constructed by individuals. Reality is subjective. Explore the “lived” experiences. Use of inductive testing. Qualitative Idealism Existentialism Existentialism Critical Research Reality is explained by the social structure is used to oppress a group of people. Critical Idealism Realism Pragmatism Reconstruction Radical Theory Compare and Contrast Case Studies with Other Qualitative Research Methods As Robson (1993) wrote, “A case study is a well-established research strategy where the focus is on a case, interpreted very widely to include the study of an individual person, a group, a setting, an organization, etc.” (p. 178). Merriam (1998) describes a case study as a qualitative method that does not claim any particular techniques for data collection or data analysis. However, Merriam cautions that investigators are more likely to utilize the techniques, such as ethnography, which is associated with other qualitative methods, than with the experimental or survey methods. Case studies are differentiated from other types of qualitative research for the reason that they are intensive descriptions and analyses of a single unit or bounded system (Smith, 1978) such as an individual, program, event, group, intervention, or community (Merriam, 1998). Merriam (1998) suggests Use past tense when referring to the work of others. that case studies can and do accommodate a variety of disciplinary perspectives. For instance, she observes that qualitative case studies in education are often framed with the concepts, models, and theories from anthropology, history, sociology, psychology, and educational psychology. Robson (1993) points out that some scholars (such as Stake, 1995; Merriam, 1988) have commented on the issue of a case where they referred it as being essentially qualitative. Yin (1994) has made references with examples using both quantitative and qualitative data collection methods. Bromley (1986) wrote, “Case studies, by definition, get as close to the subject of interest as they possibly can, partly by means of direct observation in natural settings, partly by their access to subjective factors (thoughts, feelings, and desires), whereas experiments and surveys often use convenience derivative data, e.g. test results, official records. Also, case studies tend to spread the net for evidence widely whereas experiments and survey usually have a narrow focus (p. 23). Merriam (1998) explains that a case study is a particularly suitable design if the researcher is interested in process (monitoring and casual explanation). Lancy (1993) argued, “A case study does not adhere to the qualitative paradigm because questions or issues are at least partly predetermine” (p. 32). Sanders (1981) wrote, “Case studies help us to understand processes of events, projects, and programs and to discover context characteristics that will shed light on an issue or objects” (p. 44). This justifies the importance of selecting a case study as a process rather than an outcome. One of the most commonly used research approaches similar to a case study is the ethnographic approach, which is another well-established strategy that focuses on the description and interpretation of the culture and social structure of a social group. Robson (1993) explains that a case study research can be done on a situation, individual, group, organization or whatever the researcher is interested in. It typically involves participants’ observation over an extended period of time. A central feature of this tradition is that people are studied for a long period of time in their own natural environment. Lancy (1993) stated, “The case study differs in significant ways from the ethnography or the field study, which, in fact, resembles each other quite closely. Hence, I spend quite a bit of time giving an overview of the case study, using Linda McNeil’s study (1986) of social studies instruction to illustrate these ideas” (p. 139). In the ethnographic approach, however, critics are worried that researchers get too involved with the people being studied, perhaps disturbing and changing the natural setting, and hence compromising the quality of the research (Robson, 1993). The goal is to produce sufficient descriptions that allow others to understand the culture, built into the terms that the participants themselves used to describe what is going on (Robson, 1993). Another approach similar to case studies is the grounded theory approach, which is a more recently developed strategy where the main concern is to develop a theory of the particular social situation forming the basis of the study. Using a phenomenological approach, Robson (1993) observed, “The research is based on the subjective experience of the individuals studied to determine what their experience is like and how one can understand and describe what happens to them from their own point of view” (p. 195). Therefore, all types of qualitative research (such as case study, ethnography, phenomenology, or grounded theory) share the common characteristics of qualitative research, while at the same time, each can be distinguished from the others in terms of disciplinary orientation, and can work in conjunction with one another (Merriam, 1998). Common Types of Qualitative Research in Education Merriam (1998) provides five common types of qualitative research in education, including basic (generic), ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory, and case study. The characteristics of these qualitative research methods are highlighted here as shown below (p. 12). 1. Basic or Generic Includes descriptive, interpretation, and understanding Identifies recurrent patterns in the form of themes or categories May delineate a process An example is meaning-making in a transformational learning (Courtney, Merriam, and Reeves) 2. Ethnography Focuses on society and culture Uncovers and describes beliefs, values, and attitudes that structure behaviors of a group An example is a study of twenty successful Hispanic high school students (Cordeiro and Carspecken, 1993) 3. Phenomenology Is concerned with essence or basic structure of a phenomenon Uses data that are the participant’s and the investigator’s firsthand experience of the phenomenon An example is the role of intuition in reflective practice (Mott, 1993) Another example is the practices that inhibit school effectiveness (Aviram, 1993) 4. Grounded Theory Is designed to inductively build a substantive theory regarding some aspect of practice Is “grounded” in the real world An example is a framework for describing development change among older adults (Fisher, 1993) 5. Case Study Is intensive, holistic description and analysis of a single unit or bounded system Can be combined with any of the above types of qualitative research methods An example is a comprehensive case study of power relationship in two graduate classrooms (Tisdell, 1993). Compare and Contrast Qualitative, Quantitative and Flexible (Mixed) Research Methodologies Robson (2202) explains that flexible designs may allow researchers to use several methods that involve both numerical data (quantitative approach) and subjective data in the form of words (qualitative approach) in some aspects of the research study. However, Robson (2002) points out that flexible approaches may be misleading. Merriam (1998) argued, “ Flexible research could best be labeled mixed-methods because it allows one to make use of two or more methods that end in using both quantitative and qualitative” (p. 5). Robson (2002) views that flexible (mixed) designs are characterized by certain “good” elements for the reason that there is an understanding of the existing traditions of inquiry that prompts researchers to identify, study, and employ one or more traditions of inquiry. The second reason is that qualitative data are analyzed using multiple levels of abstraction, and can be presented in multiple themes, and combined into larger themes or perspectives. Another reason is that in a qualitative sense, the end product of flexible methods is clearly written, gets the reader engaged and helps the readers to experience being there. It thus makes the story and finding more believable and realistic, hence it reflects accuracy in complexities of real life (Robson, 2002). Strauss and Corbin (1990) outlined some valid reasons for doing qualitative research, “First, the researcher will gain experience both in scientific discipline (such as anthropology) and philosophical orientation (such as phenomenology). Second, the nature of the research problem provides the basis for using qualitative methods. One good example is a research that is intended to find out the nature of a group of peoples’ experience with a phenomenon, such as illness, religious affiliation, or drug/alcohol addition. Third, qualitative methods are also used to discover and gain understanding of what lies behind any phenomenon about which little is yet known. Fourth, the last reason is that qualitative can give the intricate details of the phenomena that are difficult to convey with quantitative methods” (p. 19). Robson (2002) suggested “While fixed (quantitative) designs are considered by some proponents as scientific research because of their reliance on quantitative data and statistical generation, flexible designs (mixed methods) are much more difficult to pin down” (p. 5). This means that a quantitative research allows the researcher to have some degree of flexibility. Since the early 1990s, flexible (mixed) designs have generated more interest and many publications (Robson, 2002). Flexible research designs allow a researcher the freedom to make substantive use of different methods. As opposed to the fixed approach, which requires a pre-planned or pre-specification research method, flexible approaches can allow a researcher to use less pre-specification. Robson (2002) concluded, “While in the research process; research design evolves, develops, and unfolds as the research proceeds” (p. 5). Robson (2002) in Anastas and MacDonald’s report (1994) refers to qualitative designs as a flexible approach. Creswell (2002) suggests that a qualitative research method is a nonmathematical procedure to make inductive reasoning, which begins with developing a general research questions. The research procedures are open-end questions and interviews, using observation data, document data, audiovisual data text and image data. Specifically, qualitative data includes words, text, video, sound recordings, photographs, etc. While collaborating with participants, the researcher tends to be involved in the process. Qualitative research has a number of advantages: 1) the researcher focuses on a single concept; 2) the researcher brings personal values into the process; 3) the researcher is able to validate the accuracy of findings; 4) the data can be easily interpreted; and 5) there is flexibility that creates agenda for change. In quantitative research, numerical data is observed and measured. Quantitative inquiry uses controlled situations, objective observations and statistical analysis to obtain knowledge. Creswell (2002) explains that quantitative research seeks evidence concerning the validity of a theory and uses deductive logic to reach conclusions. The researcher engages in verifying and testing theories, as well as identifying study variables using statistical procedures. Quantitative data is collected through interviews, instrument based techniques, observations, and examination of documents, materials, and artifacts. Quantitative research is done through statistical analysis to determine the level of measurement; to establish the purpose of the research by examining the significance of group differences and the relationship among variables; to determine whether the observations are independent or dependent; to select the appropriate statistical procedure; and to review statistical concepts and procedures. A quantitative researcher relates variables to questions and hypothesis, using statistical procedures to ensure standards of validity and reliability (Creswell, 2002). Validity and Reliability in Research To show the validity, reliability, and practicability of research, measurement provides useful techniques for assigning numbers to research, observations, and events using rigorous sets of mapping rules (Singh, 2004 Summer Course Guide). Cooper and Schindler (2003) explain that validity of a research measurement provides the degree to which measurements are capturing the intended information. It shows the extent to which a test measures what is actually being measured. Specifically, validity can be measured using three forms, such as content validity, which measures the extent to which it provides adequate coverage of the investigative questions guiding the study. Another is criterion-related validity, which refers to the success of measures used for predicting the outcome of an event. The third form of validity is the construct validity that involves measurement or inference that shows the presence of abstract characteristics for which no empirical validation becomes possible, such as aptitude and personality tests. Where are your sources for this information? Cooper and Schindler (2003) explain that reliability means among several other things, consistency as it relates to measurement, experiment, or observation. Cooper and Schindler (2003) stated, “There must be an evidence of consistency to show the accuracy and precision of a measurement procedure or measurement instrument” (p. 231). A measure is reliable to the degree that it provides consistent results; hence it is a necessary contributor to validity, but not a sufficient condition for validity. When reliable instruments are used, reliability estimates the degree to which a measurement is free of random or unstable error. Furthermore, Cooper and Schindler (2003) suggest that the distinction of time and condition provide the basis for the frequently used perspectives on reliability because of three basic factors, such as stability, equivalence, and internal consistency. Stability is the ability to provide the same results when the same test is administered two or more times to same subjects over an interval of six months or less. Equivalence shows the degree to which alternative forms of the same measures are used to produce the same or similar results. Internal consistency shows the degree to which instrument items are homogeneous and reflect the same underlying construct (Cooper and Schindler, 2003). Cooper and Schindler (2003) remarked, “An important element of measurement is the practicability of a research measurement, which is concerned with three factors, such as economy, convenience and interpretability” (p. 221). Economically, researchers should operate within the budget to minimize the amount of instruments used (but if more instruments are used, there is higher degree of reliability), and monitor the length of time involved, be it through interview or observations, in order to work within budget and avoid unnecessary extra costs. Convenience in measurement can be achieved if materials (questions) used are not crowded, illustrations are not poorly reproduced, but clearly presently, and there is no confusion or difficulty in completing the instrument questions when there is a carryover of instrument items from page to page (Cooper and Schindler, 2003). Interpretability is another factor that makes interpretation of research returns easy and possible if the designer of data collection instrument has the required key elements in place. First, there is a statement of the functions to which the test is designed to measure the procedures. Second, there are detailed instructions for administering the tests. Third, there are scoring keys and functions, and norms for appropriate reference groups. Fourth, there are evidences about reliability, regarding the inter-correlations of sub-scores, and about the relationship of the test to other measures, and the guides for test use (Cooper and Schindler, 2003). Comparing Quantitative and Qualitative Methods Along These Criteria Since qualitative research is subjective, it is not easy to measure the validity and reliability. However, the researcher brings personal values into the process to validate the accuracy of findings, and to make it easily interpreted. Qualitative research is easy to interpret because it provides the functions to which the test is designed to measure the procedures. The researcher uses nonmathematical procedures, such as open-end questions and interviews, using observation data, document data, audiovisual data text and image data to make inductive reasoning. With flexibility in qualitative research, it creates agenda for change. As Morse (1991) contended, reliability and validity are not relevant to qualitative inquiry. Quantitative research uses objective procedures to analyze data collected through interviews, instrument based techniques, observations, and examination of documents, materials, and artifacts. The researcher engages in verifying and testing theories. Quantitative research seeks evidence to determine the validity of a theory and uses deductive reasoning to reach conclusions. A quantitative researcher relates variables to questions and hypothesis, using statistical procedures to ensure standards of validity and reliability (Creswell, 2002). In quantitative research, the researcher is able to prove the stability and equivalency of the results. Quantitative research is stable if the test measurement produces the same results when the same test is repeated two or more times to same subjects over an interval of six months or less. It is also possible to prove the equivalency of test results using quantitative measurement to show the degree to which alternative forms of the same measures are used to produce the same or similar results. Quantitative method allows the researcher to show the success of measurements used for predicting the outcome of an event. This process is called criterion-related validity. Construct validity is another form of validity applicable to quantitative method that involves measurement or inference. The researcher uses measurement or inference to show the presence of abstract characteristics, which is not possible in empirical validation, such as aptitude and personality tests (Cooper and Schindler, 2003). The validity of a quantitative research must prove there is an evidence of consistency to show accuracy and precision of a measurement procedure or measurement instrument (Cooper and Schindler, 2003). Qualitative research can also prove its reliability when there is an evidence of inter-correlations of sub-scores, and about the relationship of the test to other measures, as well as the guides for test use (Cooper and Schindler, 2003). Conclusion Case study is a qualitative method, but does not claim any particular techniques for data collection or analysis (Lancy, 1993). A case study, however, does not adhere to the qualitative paradigm hence questions are partly predetermined. An example is McNeil’s research (1986) that explicitly or implicitly compared what was observed with some standards. In essence, a case study obligates a researcher to draw pointed conclusions, and explicitly or implicitly making recommendations that will alter policy and/or practice (Lancy, p. 143). The product of a case study may be deemed too lengthy, too detailed, or too involved for busy policy makers and educators to read and use (Moore, 1986). Merriam (1998) suggests that in a qualitative study, the right way to analyze data is to perform it simultaneously with the data collection. The researcher should know what the problem is at the outset of a qualitative study, and has selected a sample to collect data in order to address the problem. Some researchers, such as Guba and Lincoln (1989) who use qualitative approach stated, “Flexible designs deny the relevance of canons of scientific enquiry” (p. 168). Robson (2002) implies that other views rejected the notion of reliability and validity as evaluative criteria (Wolcott, 1994). In contrast, Lincoln and Guba (1985) prefer using the terms credibility, transferability, dependability, and conformability to evaluate flexible (mixed) research. Morse (1991) contends that reliability and validity are not relevant to qualitative inquiry. Where it becomes necessary, quantitative approach for measurement and coding is used in order to make confirmed decisions. Cooper & Schindler (2003) observes that popular view on research suggests that most research stems from seeking to solve a problem or to answer questions. Cooper & Schindler (2003) recommended nine approaches to a good research, such as “providing clearly defined research purpose; providing detailed research process; developing a thoroughly planned research design; establishing and applying high ethical standards; frankly revealing all research limitations in your procedural designs, and estimating their effect on the findings; providing appropriate and adequate data analysis to meet decision maker’s needs; results of the research (the findings) presented must show some evidence of competence and integrity of the researcher ;conclusion must be justified; and researcher’s experience should be reflected on the final product of the research work” (p. 14). Final Thoughts: Qualitative Approach as a Better Alternative Research Method This paper provides a better alternative research frame to the traditional positivist model of quantitative research. 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