The Study of ancient Greek pottery

Vimarśana; úu¾Yk Journal of Junior Staff Development Programme, FSS, 2021 ISSN 2806-5077 Vimarśana úu¾Yk Journal of Junior Staff Development Programme 2021 Faculty of Social Sciences University of Kelaniya Sri Lanka Volume I: Issue II 2021 ISSN 2806-5077 Vimarśana; úu¾Yk, Journal of Junior Staff Development Programme , Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Kelaniya: Volume I; Issue II, 2021 iii Vimarśana; úu¾Yk Journal of Junior Staff Development Programme, FSS, 2021 ISSN 2806-5077 Vimarśana; úu¾Yk Journal of Junior Staff Development Programme: Volume I: Issue II © Copyright by 2021 Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka. ISSN 2806-5077 Cover Page: Darshana Somarathne, Senior Lecturer, Department of Mass Commiunication, University of Kelaniya Compiling and Page set up: D.S.A. Munasinghe, K.K.P.M. Jayathilake Graphic Designing: Rumal Vindula Published by: Facculty of Social Sciences, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka. Printed by: Vidyalankara Publications Disclaimer: Responsibilities of the content of papers included in this publication remain with the respective authors. Editorial Board of the Vimarśana; úu¾Yk Journal of Junior Staff Development Programme has no responsibility for the content or errors in the individual articles. iv Vimarśana; úu¾Yk Journal of Junior Staff Development Programme, FSS, 2021 ISSN 2806-5077 Vimarśana úu¾Yk Journal of Junior Staff Development Programme Volume II 2021 ISSN 2806-5077 Editor in Chief Prof. M.M. Gunatilake B.A. (Kel' ya), M.A. (S. J'pura), Ph.D. (Kel' ya) Dean: Faculty of Social Sciences Prof. V.D.N.S. Gunawardana B.A. (Kel’ya), M.Phil. (Kel’ya), Ph.D. (Pondicherry, India) Editorial Board Prof. Malinga Amarasinghe - Senior Professor B.A. (Kel'ya), M.Phil. (Kel'ya), Ph.D. (Kel'ya), FSLCA DeÉrtment of Archaeology Prof. W.A. Weerasooriya - Senior Professor (Head) B.A. (Kel’ya), M. Lib.I.Sc. (Punjab.), Ph.D. (Pune, India) Department of Library & Information Science. viii Vimarśana; úu¾Yk Journal of Junior Staff Development Programme, FSS, 2021 ISSN 2806-5077 Prof. K.M.G.C.K. Amarathunga B.A. (S.J’pura), MSSc. (Kel’ya) Ph.D. (Kel'ya) Department of Sociology Prof. J.M. Sudharmawathie B.A. (Kel’ya), PG. Dip., M.Sc. (Kel’ya), Ph.D. (Kel’ya) Department of History Prof. H.M. Nawarathna Banda (Head) Ph.D. (Kelaniya), MA (York), B.A. (Kelaniya) Departemnt of Economics Prof. T.W.K. Osantha Nayanapriya B.A. (C'bo), M.A. (C'bo), MSSc. (Kel'ya), Ph.D. (USM, Minden) Department of Political Science Dr. Mangala Katugampola - Senior Lecturer Gr. I B.A. (Kel'ya), PG. Dip. (PGIAR), M.Phil. (PGIAR), Ph.D. (Sichuan, China) MSLCA Departemnt of Archaeology Dr. D.M. Ubesekara Dissanayake - Senior Lecturer Gr. I (Head) B.A. (Kel’ya), M.SSc. (Kel’ya), Ph.D. (Wuhan. PRC.) Department of Sociology Dr. Nishan Sakalasooriya - Senior Lecturer Gr. I B.A. Hons. (Kelaniya), M.SSc. (Kelaniya), Ph.D. (Minnesota/Kelaniya) Dr. (Mrs.) S.A.D.H. Namali Suraweera - Senior Lecturer Gr. I B.A. (Kel’ya), M.SSc. (Kel’ya), Ph.D. (VUW, New Zealand) Department of Library & Information Science ix Vimarśana; úu¾Yk Journal of Junior Staff Development Programme, FSS, 2021 ISSN 2806-5077 Dr. H.M. Samanbandu Herath - Senior Lecturer Gr. II B.A. (Kel’ya), M.SSc. (Kel’ya), Dip. in Pali Language (BPUSL), Dip. in Sanskrit Language (Kel’ya) Department of History Ms. D.D.R. De Silva - Senior Lecturer Gr. ІІ B.A. (Kel’ya), M.SSc. (Kel’ya), Dip. In Counseling (IPS) Departemnt of Philosophy Mr. Wijayananda Rupasinghe - Senior Lecturer Gr. II B.A. (Kel'ya), M.Phil. (Kel'ya), Dip.in Development Journalism (IIMC, New Delhi, India) Department of Mass Communication Mr. Sampath Arunashantha - Senior Lecturer Gr. II B.A. Hons. (Kelaniya), MSc GIS & RS (J’Pura) Mr. Darshana Somarathna - Senior Lecturer Gr. II B.A.(Kel’ya), (Kelaniya), M.SSc. (Kel’ya) Department of Mass Communication x Vimarśana; úu¾Yk Journal of Junior Staff Development Programme, FSS, 2021 Editors Mr. D.S. Anushan Munasinghe - Assistant Lecturer B.A. (Kel'ya), DPPB (PGIAR), DPZA (PGIAR) Red, MSc (PGIAR) Red. Department of Archaeology Ms. P. Gayathri - Assistant Lecturer B.A. (Kel'ya), PG Dip. (Cl'mbo) Red. Department of Archaeology Ms. K.K.P.M. Jayathilake - Assistant Lecturer B.A. (Kel'ya), PG Dip. (PGIAR), MSc (PGIAR) Red. Department of Archaeology R.M.K. Rathnayaka - Assistant Lecturer B.A. (Kel'ya), M.Ssc. (Kel'ya) Red. Department of Geography xi ISSN 2806-5077 Vimarśana; úu¾Yk Journal of Junior Staff Development Programme, FSS, 2021 ISSN 2806-5077 Table of Content 1. foaYmd,k isÿùï iïnkaOfhka bßod isxy, mqj;am;a ksfhdackh lrk u;jd§uh ia:djrh ........................ 1 2. cx.u ÿrl:k ;=< fj<`o ±kaùï iy mdßfNda.sl yeisÍu ^mdßfNda.sl ñ, § .ekSfï ;SrKj, § cx.u ÿrl:k ;=< fj<`o ±kaùïj, n,mEu ;reK m%cdjg úfYaIs;j&............. 20 3. Y%S ,xld fmd,Sish" wdh;ksl m%;srEmh iy uyck iïnkaO;d .................................................................................. 50 4. úoHq;a fi!LH ikaksfõokh yd frday,a äcsg,alrKh65 5. fhda. ufkdaúoHdj ms<sn| ufkdaúoHd;aul ú.%yhla 85 6. nyqcd;sl iud.ïj, l%shdldrS;ajh fya;=fjka ixj¾Okh fjñka mj;sk rdcHhkag isÿj we;s n,mEu ............ 97 7. ksoyiska miq Y%S ,xldfõ wd¾Ól ixl%dka;Skays iajrEmh ms<sno wOHhkhla .............................................................. 113 8. › ,xldj iy bkaÈhdj w;r mej;s oaúmd¾Yùh in`o;d furg wd¾Ól" foaYmd,k lafI%a;%hkag lrk ,o n,mEu . 133 9. ;sridr mdxY= ixrlaIKhl we;s foaYSh wjYH;djh161 10. fld<U cd;sl fl!;=ld.drfha ldis yd ñ,uqo,a .e,ßh yd tys m%o¾Ykd;aul ,laIK ............................................. 179 11. ksÜgUqj k.rfha YS>% kd.ßl ixj¾Okh fya;=fjka m%foaYfha kd.ßl N+ o¾Ykfhys isÿjQ úp,;dj ..................... 203 12. fojk O¾u ix.dhkdfjka fy<sjk ix> iudch . 218 13. mdi,a <uqkaf.a wOHdmk miqng;djh i|yd n,mdk idOl ms<sn| iudc úoHd;aul ú.%yhla ............................ 248 14. Observation on Thinking Pattern of The Down Syndrome Children .................................................................. 276 xv Vimarśana; úu¾Yk Journal of Junior Staff Development Programme, FSS, 2021 ISSN 2806-5077 15. Factors affecting on Consumer Preference for liquid and Powdered Milk in Sri Lanka................................... 286 16. Initiating the “Makerspace” Practice for Public Libraries in Sri Lanka: with Special Reference to the Children's Section 298 17. The Concept of Human Security and the Case Study of Water Scarcity and Food Shortage in Pakistan. ................ 308 18. Standards for Museum Exhibition (An analysis of National Museum of Sri Lanka & Louvre Museum France) 331 19. The Impact of the Covid-19 Pandemic on the Education Institution in Relation to Sri Lanka. ....................... 339 20. E-Learning and E-Teaching in the Era of Covid-19 Pandemic: A Critical Review ................................................... 355 21. The Study of ancient Greek pottery........................ 366 22. Apendix 01 ............................................................. 382 xvi Vimarśana; úu¾Yk Journal of Junior Staff Development Programme, FSS, 2021 ISSN 2806-5077 The Study of ancient Greek pottery Munasinghe D.S.A1, Jayathilake K.K.P.M2 1,2 Assistant Lecturer Department of Archaeology, University of Kelaniya. [email protected] Abstract Greek civilization holds paramount importance in the history of civilized man. Greek pottery is one of the most important resources in examining the significance of Greek civilization as they reveal many important pieces of evidence which help to gather important facts about Greek culture, art and human society. The main objective of this study is to examine the important facts about classical Greek society depicted in ancient Greek pottery. Greece is the birthplace of Western Civilization. Therefore, an important tool for archaeologists and historians in determining the chronology of ancient Greece. The study is based on secondary data collected from different reliable sources of published books, journals, reports and websites, the study was conducted under the qualitative research method based on textual studies. Pottery is a valuable archaeological resource in exploring the history of mankind and also a cultural expression that depicts hidden facts of a civilization. On the other hand, pottery is considered an example of the characteristic of the artistic movement in civilization. Ancient Greeks had given a respectable value to making pottery & pottery Paintings. Black-figure pottery, red-figure pottery and white pottery are the main types of pottery that we found from the Greek civilization and they contain remarkable evidence of the contemporary mythical beliefs and cults. These Greek pottery Paintings express various social activities and social movements in Greek society. In conclusion, then, We can say that through the study of ancient Greek pottery we can examine the Technology, values and social activities in ancient Greek society, which had contributed much to the Technology, art, philosophy, medicine, logic and science of the world civilization. Keywords: Ancient Greece, Pottery, Society & Culture, Archaeology, Paintings. 366 Vimarśana; úu¾Yk Journal of Junior Staff Development Programme, FSS, 2021 ISSN 2806-5077 Introduction The pottery of ancient Greece from c. 1000 to c. 400 BCE provides not only some of the most distinctive vase shapes from antiquity but also some of the oldest and most diverse representations of the cultural beliefs and practices of the ancient Greeks. Further, pottery, with its durability (even when broken) and lack of appeal to treasure hunters, is one of the great archaeological survivors and is, therefore, an important tool for archaeologists and historians in determining the chronology of ancient Greece. Whatever their artistic and historical value though, the vast majority of Greek vases, despite now being dusty museum pieces, were meant for everyday use and, to paraphrase Arthur Lane, it is perhaps worth remembering that standing on a stone pavement and drenched with water, they would have once gleamed in the Mediterranean sun. Ancient Greece Greece is a country in southeastern Europe, known in Greek as Hellas or Ellada, and consists of a mainland and an archipelago of islands. Ancient Greece is the birthplace of Western philosophy (Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle), literature (Homer and Hesiod), mathematics (Pythagoras and Euclid), history (Herodotus), drama (Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes), the Olympic Games, and democracy. The concept of an atomic universe was first posited in Greece through the work of Democritus and Leucippus. The process of today's scientific method was first introduced through the work of Thales of Miletus and those who followed him. The Latin alphabet also comes from ancient Greece, having been introduced to the region by the Phoenicians in the 8th century BCE, and early work in physics and engineering was pioneered by Archimedes, of the Greek colony of Syracuse, among others. Mainland Greece is a large peninsula surrounded on three sides by the Mediterranean Sea (branching into the Ionian Sea in the west and the Aegean Sea in the east) which also comprises the islands known as the Cyclades and the Dodecanese (including Rhodes), the Ionian Islands (including Corcyra), the isle of Crete, and the southern peninsula known as the Peloponnese. 367 Vimarśana; úu¾Yk Journal of Junior Staff Development Programme, FSS, 2021 ISSN 2806-5077 The geography of Greece greatly influenced the culture in that, with few natural resources and surrounded by water, the people eventually took to the sea for their livelihood. Mountains cover eighty per cent of Greece and only small rivers run through a rocky landscape which, for the most part, provides little encouragement for agriculture. Consequently, the early ancient Greeks colonized neighbouring islands and founded settlements along the coast of Anatolia (also known as Asia Minor, modernday Turkey). The Greeks became skilled seafaring people and traders who, possessing an abundance of raw materials for construction in stone, and great skill, built some of the most impressive structures in antiquity. The Archaic Period (800-500 BCE) is characterized by the introduction of Republics instead of Monarchies (which, in Athens, moved toward Democratic rule) organized as a single city-state or polis, the institution of laws (Draco’s reforms in Athens), the great Panathenaic Festival was established, distinctive Greek pottery and Greek sculpture were born, and the first coins minted on the island kingdom of Aegina. This, then, set the stage for the flourishing of the Classical Period of ancient Greece given as 500-400 BCE or, more precisely, as 480-323 BCE, from the Greek victory at Salamis to the death of Alexander the Great. This was the Golden Age of Athens when Pericles initiated the building of the Acropolis and spoke his famous eulogy for the men who died defending Greece at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BCE. Greece reached heights in almost every area of human learning during this time and the great thinkers and artists of antiquity (Phidias, Plato, and Aristophanes, to mention only three) flourished. Leonidas and his 300 Spartans fell at Thermopylae and, in the same year (480 BCE), Themistocles won the victory over the superior Persian naval fleet at Salamis leading to the final defeat of the Persians at Plataea in 379 BCE. Democracy (literally Demos = people and Kratos = power, so the power of the people) was established in Athens allowing all male citizens over the age of twenty a voice in government. The Pre-Socratic philosophers, following Thales' lead, initiated what would become the scientific method of exploring natural phenomena. Men like Anaximander, Anaximenes, Pythagoras, Democritus, Xenophanes, and Heraclitus 368 Vimarśana; úu¾Yk Journal of Junior Staff Development Programme, FSS, 2021 ISSN 2806-5077 abandoned the theistic model of the universe and strove to uncover the underlying, first cause of life and the universe. Their successors, among whom were Euclid and Archimedes, continued philosophical inquiry and further established mathematics as a serious discipline. The example of Socrates, and the writings of Plato and Aristotle after him, have influenced western culture and society for over two thousand years. This period also saw advances in architecture and art with a movement away from the ideal to the realistic. Famous works of Greek sculpture such as the Parthenon Marbles and Discobolos (the discus thrower) date from this time and epitomize the artist's interest in depicting human emotion, beauty, and accomplishment realistically, even if those qualities are presented in works featuring immortals. All of these developments in culture were made possible by the ascent of Athens following her victory over the Persians in 480 BCE. The peace and prosperity which followed the Persian defeat provided the finances and stability for culture to flourish. Athens became the superpower of her day and, with the most powerful navy, was able to demand tribute from other city-states and enforce her wishes. Athens formed the Delian League, a defensive alliance whose stated purpose was to deter the Persians from further hostilities. The city-state of Sparta, however, doubted Athenian sincerity and formed their association for protection against their enemies, the Peloponnesian League (so named for the Peloponnesus region where Sparta and the others were located). The city-states which sided with Sparta increasingly perceived Athens as a bully and a tyrant, while those cities which sided with Athens viewed Sparta and her allies with growing distrust. The tension between these two parties eventually erupted in what has become known as the Peloponnesian Wars. The first conflict (c. 460-445 BCE) ended in a truce and continued prosperity for both parties while the second (431-404 BCE) left Athens in ruins and Sparta, the victor, bankrupt after her protracted war with Thebes. This time is generally referred to as the Late Classical Period (c. 400-330 BCE). The power vacuum left by the fall of these two cities was filled by Philip II of Macedon 369 Vimarśana; úu¾Yk Journal of Junior Staff Development Programme, FSS, 2021 ISSN 2806-5077 (382-336 BCE) after his victory over the Athenian forces and their allies at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BCE. Philip united the Greek city-states under Macedonian rule and, upon his assassination in 336 BCE, his son Alexander assumed the throne. Although ancient Greek Society was dominated by the male citizen, with his full legal status, right to vote, hold public office, and own property, the social groups which made up the population of a typical Greek city-state or polis were remarkably diverse. Women, children, immigrants (both Greek and foreign), labourers, and slaves all had defined roles, but there was interaction (often illicit) between the classes and there was also some movement between social groups, particularly for second-generation offspring and during times of stress such as wars. The society of ancient Greece was largely composed of the following groups: 1. Male citizens - three groups: landed aristocrats (aristoi), poorer farmers (periokoi) and the middle class (artisans and traders). 2. Semi-free labourers (e.g the helots of Sparta). 3. Women - belong to all of the above male groups but without citizen rights. 4. Children - categorised as below 18 years generally. 5. Slaves - the douloi who had civil or military duties. 6. Foreigners - non-residents (xenoi) or foreign residents (metoikoi) who were below male citizens in status. The main objective of this study is to examine the important facts of classical Greek society, which depicts ancient Greek pottery. The pottery is a valuable archaeological resource in exploring the history of mankind and also a cultural expression that depicts the hidden facts of a civilization. On the other hand, pottery is considered an example of the characteristic of the artistic movement in the civilization. Ancient Greeks had given a respectable value to making pottery. The Greek pottery expresses various social activities and social movements in Greek society such as 1. Technology 2. Religious worship & games 3. Slavery & society 370 Vimarśana; úu¾Yk Journal of Junior Staff Development Programme, FSS, 2021 4. Sexuality & human life 5. Symposiums 6. War & International Sea Trading 7. Economy. ISSN 2806-5077 Materials & Production The clay (keramos) to produce pottery (kerameikos) was readily available throughout Greece, although the finest was Attic clay, with its high iron content giving an orangered colour with a slight sheen when fired and the pale buff of Corinth. Clay was generally prepared and refined in settling tanks so that different consistencies of material could be achieved depending on the vessel types to be made with it. Greek pottery was invariably made on the potter’s wheel and usually made in separate horizontal sections: the foot, the lower and upper body, the neck, and finally the handles, if necessary. These sections were then joined together with a clay ‘slip’ after drying and it is possible in many cases to see the prints of the potter impressed on the inside of the vessel. The piece was then put back on the wheel to smooth the join marks and add the final shaping. Therefore, all vases were unique and the small variations in dimensions reveal that the use of simple tools and not cut-out templates were the norm. Next, the pot was decorated. This process depended on the decorative style in vogue at the time, but popular methods included painting the whole or parts of the vase with a thin black adhesive paint which was added with a brush, the marks of which remain visible in many cases. This black paint was a mix of alkali potash or soda, clay with silicon content, and black ferrous oxide of iron. The paint was affixed to the pot by using a fixative of urine or vinegar which burned away in the heat of the kiln, binding the paint to the clay. Another technique, used more rarely, was to cover the vessel with white clay paint. Alternatively, only lines or figures were added in black using a thicker version of the black paint mentioned above and applied with a stiff brush or feather; in consequence, a slight relief effect was achieved. Minor details were often added with a thinned black paint giving a yellow-brown colour, a white pipe-clay, and a dark red of ochre and manganese. The latter two colours tended to flake off over time. 371 Vimarśana; úu¾Yk Journal of Junior Staff Development Programme, FSS, 2021 ISSN 2806-5077 The finished pot was then ready to be put in the kiln and fired at a temperature of around 960 °C, which is relatively low and explains the ‘softness’ of Greek pottery (in comparison to, for example, Chinese porcelain). Pots were fired several times (in the same kiln) to achieve the required finish and colouring. First, the pot was fired in an oxidizing fire where good ventilation to the kiln ensured that the orange/red of the clay came to the fore. Then the pot was re-fired in a kiln starved of oxygen (reduction process) by adding water or damp wood inside the kiln. This ensured that the painted colours, particularly the black, darkened in colour. A third firing, again with good ventilation, re-reddened the clay of the pot whilst the painted areas, now protected by a thin wash, kept their original colouring. This complicated process required excellent timing from the potter so as not to spoil the vase with unseemly discolouring. Potters & Painters Painter and potter (kerameus) were usually, although not always, separate specialists. However, lasting partnerships existed such as between the potter Ergotimos and painter Kleitas. Many individual potters and less frequently, painters, have been identified with certainty through their signatures although the majority of Greek vases are unsigned. However, Professor J. D. Beazley, working in the 20th century CE, identified more than 500 unsigned artists distinguishable through their particular styles. Beazley’s systematic and comprehensive cataloguing of Greek pottery has also allowed for the study of its evolution in techniques, designs, and decoration. Painters often worked in collective workshops, generally under the supervision of one ‘master’ potter (which suggests form was more important than decoration for the Greeks). Although artists were free from centralized political control or restrictions, they no doubt were driven by the market demand for particular styles, subjects, and fashions. Many potters and artists were prolific in their output and some cases over 200 vases may be attributed to a single artist. The majority of pottery workers would have been paid no more than any other manual labourer and a good vase probably cost only a day’s wages. Certainly, though, a few artists would have been in great demand and their goods were sold not only locally but far and wide throughout the Mediterranean. 372 Vimarśana; úu¾Yk Journal of Junior Staff Development Programme, FSS, 2021 ISSN 2806-5077 Potters themselves sometimes relocated to other cities, particularly colonies, often taking with them their regional style. There was also some rivalry between artists as indicated by one signed comment on a vase, “better than Euphronias could ever have done”. Shapes Although Greek pottery provides us with a wide range of shapes from cups to plates to massive amphorae, many of the forms remained relatively constant over centuries. This is primarily because Greek potters were producing wares for practical use - holding wine, water, oil, and perfumes - and once the optimum practical shape had evolved, it was copied and maintained. However, despite this restriction in form, the Greek potters and painters could express their versatility in the decoration of the vase. The most common forms of pottery were amphorae for storing wine, large kraters for mixing wine with water, jugs (oinochoai) for pouring wine, kylixes or stemmed cups with horizontal handles for drinking (especially practical if lifting a cup from the floor when reclining on a lounger at dinner), hydra with three handles for holding water, skyphoi or deep bowls, and lekythoi jars for holding oils and perfumes. Precisely because these objects were for practical use, handles (when present) are generally sturdy affairs, yet the potter, by using carefully considered shapes, often managed to blend these additions into the overall harmony of the vessel and was aided in this endeavour with subtle decorative additions by the painter. Decorative Styles Greek pottery, particularly in terms of decoration, evolved over the centuries and may be categorized into four broad groups: 1. Proto-geometric pottery 2. Geometric pottery 3. Black-figure pottery 4. Red-figure pottery 373 Vimarśana; úu¾Yk Journal of Junior Staff Development Programme, FSS, 2021 ISSN 2806-5077 Black-figure pottery Ancient Greek black-figure pottery (named after the colour of the depictions on the pottery) was first produced in Corinth c. 700 BCE and then adopted by pottery painters in Attica, where it would become the dominant decorative style from 625 BCE and allow Athens to dominate the Mediterranean pottery market for the next 150 years. Laconia was a third, albeit minor, producer of the style in the first half of the 6th century BCE. The more than 20,000 surviving black-figure vessels make it possible not only to identify artists and studios, but also provide the oldest and most diverse representations of Greek mythology, religious, social, and sporting practices. The pottery vessels are also an important tool in determining the chronology of ancient Greece. Evolving from the earlier geometric designs on pottery, the black-figure technique depicted animals (more favoured in Corinth) and human silhouette figures (preferred in Athens) in naturalistic detail. Before firing, a brilliant black pigment of potash, iron clay, and vinegar (as a fixative) was thickly applied to vases and gave a slight relief effect. Additional details such as muscles and hair were added to the figures using a sharp instrument to incise through the black to reveal the clay vessel beneath and by adding touches of red and white paint. Vessel borders and edges were often decorated with floral, lotus, and palmette designs. Certain colour conventions were adopted such as white for female flesh, black for male. Other conventions were an almond shape for women’s eyes, circular for males, children are like adults but on a smaller scale, young men are beardless, old men have white hair and sometimes stoop, and older women are fuller-figured. Some gestures also became conventional such as the hand to the head to represent grief. Another striking feature of the style is the lack of literal naturalism. Figures are often depicted with a profile face and frontal body, and runners are in the impossible position of both left (or right) arms and legs moving forward. There was, however, some attempt at achieving perspective, frontal views of horses and chariots being especially popular. Typical vessels of the style are amphorae, lekythoi (handled bottles), kylixes (stemmed drinking cups), plain cups, pyxides (lidded boxes), and bowls. 374 Vimarśana; úu¾Yk Journal of Junior Staff Development Programme, FSS, 2021 ISSN 2806-5077 Painters and potters were usually, although not always, separate specialists. The first signed vase was by Sophilos and dates to c. 570 BCE. Many other individual painters have been identified with certainty through their signatures (most commonly as ‘...made this’) and many more unsigned artists may be recognised through their particular style. Perhaps the most celebrated example of the technique is the Francois Vase, a large volute krater, by Kleitias (c. 570 BCE) which is 66 cm high and covered in 270 human and animal figures depicting an astonishing range of scenes and characters from Greek mythology including, amongst others, the Olympian gods, centaurs, Achilles, and Peleus. The technique would eventually be replaced by the red-figure (reverse) technique around 530 BCE. The two styles were parallel for some time and there are even ‘bilingual’ examples of vases with both styles, but the red figure, with its attempt to more realistically portray the human figure, would eventually become the favoured style of Greek pottery decoration. Red-figure Pottery Red-figure Pottery is a style of Greek vase painting that was invented in Athens around 530 BCE. The style is characterized by drawn red figures and a painted black background. Red-Figure Pottery grew in popularity, and by the early 5th century BCE it had all but replaced black-figure pottery as the predominant pottery type in Athens. The last recorded examples of Attic red-figure pottery are from about 320 BCE. In red-figure pottery, the figures are created in the original red-orange clay. This allowed for greater detail than in black-figure pottery, for lines could be drawn onto the figures rather than scraped out. This made the painted scenes both more detailed and more realistic and allowed red-figure painters the opportunity to work with greater perspective. In black-figure painting, figures were almost always shown in profile, but red-figure allowed for frontal, back and three-quarter views, therefore creating a third dimension to the painting. 375 Vimarśana; úu¾Yk Journal of Junior Staff Development Programme, FSS, 2021 ISSN 2806-5077 Like black-figure pottery, red-figure pottery was created in a variety of shapes for specific uses. Daily use of pottery, such as amphora for transporting goods and hydria for drawing water, often depicted scenes of daily life. Pots designed for ritual use, such as the lekythos for pouring libations, usually had scenes of religious importance. Athens remained the lead producer of red-figure pottery, in both quality and quantity, but eventually, the style spread to other Greek regions, especially Southern Italy. The subject matter of red-figure vases varied greatly, from portraits of gods and heroes to depictions of everyday Athenian life. As such, these paintings provide an archaeological record of historical, social, and mythological information. Academics have been able to identify individual artists and artistic groups as painters of these red-figure vessels. The most definitive work on the identification of these artists is Sir John Beazley’s Attic Red-figure Vase-painters, first published in 1925. Beazley, a professor at Oxford University, catalogued over 65,000 vases and fragments and identified over 17,000 artists. Of these identified painters, the Andokides Painter is usually credited with the invention of the style. He was joined by several other early adopters of the technique, including the so-called “Pioneer Group” of Euphronios, Euthymides, and Phintias. These early red-figure painters were often “bilingual,” meaning that they worked in both red- and black-figure for some time. Notable painters emerged from the late Archaic period such as the Berlin Painter, the Kleophrades Painter, and Douris, as the technique became more refined and began to dominate in the Mediterranean world. Mastery of the technique continued in the Classical period with famous painters such as the Achilles Painter, the Providence Painter, and the Pan Painter. Later famous artists include the Eretria Painter, the Meidias Painter, who achieved new levels of detail in painting garments, and the Meleager Painter. 376 Vimarśana; úu¾Yk Journal of Junior Staff Development Programme, FSS, 2021 ISSN 2806-5077 Greek Pottery Timeline c. 1000 BCE The first distinctive Greek pottery is produced in the Proto-geometric style. c. 900 BCE The Geometric style of Greek pottery is first produced. c. 800 BCE The first stylized human and animal figures appear on Greek Geometric pottery. c. 625 BCE Black-figure pottery was created in Corinth. c. 625 BCE - 600 BCE The Orientalizing style of Greek pottery becomes popular in Corinth. c. 620 BCE - 600 BCE Proto-corinthian reaches its zenith in artistic quality by producing the best pottery in Greece. 600 BCE - 480 BCE Attic black-figure pottery dominates the greek ceramic market. 600 BCE - 550 BCE Laconia produces black-figure pottery. 570 BCE First signed example of black-figure pottery by Sophilos. 377 Vimarśana; úu¾Yk Journal of Junior Staff Development Programme, FSS, 2021 ISSN 2806-5077 c. 570 BCE - c. 560 BCE The black-figure Francois Vase is produced in Attica by Ergotimos (potter) and Kleitias (painter). 570 BCE - 560 BCE Kleitias, one of the masters of black-figure pottery decoration is active. 560 BCE - 520 BCE Chalkidian black-figure pottery is produced in southern Italy. 545 BCE - 530 BCE Exekias, perhaps the greatest black-figure pottery painter is active. c. 530 BCE Red-figure pottery style takes precedent over the black figure. 530 BCE The Andokides Painter invents red-figure pottery. 520 BCE - 500 BCE The Pioneer Group of red-figure painters is active. 510 BCE - 470 BCE The Kleophrades Painter of red-figure pottery is active. 500 BCE - 460 BCE Douris, the red-figure pottery painter is active. 490 BCE - 460 BCE 378 Vimarśana; úu¾Yk Journal of Junior Staff Development Programme, FSS, 2021 ISSN 2806-5077 The Berlin Painter of red-figure pottery is active. 480 BCE - 450 BCE The Pan Painter of red-figure pottery is active. 470 BCE The Providence Painter of red-figure pottery is active. 470 BCE - 425 BCE The Achilles Painter of red-figure pottery is active. 440 BCE The Eretria Painter of red-figure pottery is active. 420 BCE - 400 BCE The Meidias Painter of red-figure pottery is active. 400 BCE - 375 BCE The Meleager Painter of red-figure pottery is active. 320 BCE Last recorded examples of Attic Red-Figure Pottery. Conclusion In conclusion, then, we may say that not only has Greek pottery given us some of the most distinctive, influential, and beautiful shapes and designs of antiquity but it has also given us a window into the lives, practices, and beliefs of a people long gone and of whom we very often have no contemporary written record. These everyday objects, unlike those other archaeological survivors’ literature, sculpture, and architecture, 379 Vimarśana; úu¾Yk Journal of Junior Staff Development Programme, FSS, 2021 ISSN 2806-5077 allow us to feel a little closer to the ordinary people of the ancient world, those who could not afford fine art or precious jewellery but could indulge in possessing a finely made object such as a Greek vase. Reference Boardman, J. (1975). Athenian red-figure vases, the archaic period. London: Thames and Hudson. Boardman, J. (1991). Athenian black-figure vases. London: Thames and Hudson. Boardman, J. (1998). Early Greek vase painting. 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