Prophetic Tradition in Qumran
By Aibanteilari Sahshong
Introduction
The issue of prophecy in the Dead Sea Scrolls has attracted scholarly attention for quite some time.
The reasons for this are apparent. The scribes who wrote the Scrolls were deeply involved with the
interpretation of Hebrew prophetic scriptures, even creating exegetical literature of a new kind, the
pesharim. Until the turn of the twenty-first century, it seems less attention has been given to studying
the prophetic tradition.1 However, scholars have been curious about Qumran’s prophetic tradition.
Therefore, this paper tries to understand the prophetic tradition at Qumran by looking at the Prophetic
Vocabulary in the Dead Sea Scrolls, how prophecy is understood in the scrolls regarding the past and
the future and then emphasizing the ongoing prophetic activity. Ultimately, it will give relevance to
the present context of prophetic activity.
1. Prophetic Vocabulary in the Dead Sea Scrolls
1.1 “ נבאTo Prophesy”
The verb נבאis relatively uncommon in the Dead Sea Scrolls, with some ten occurrences altogether,
half of which belong to the book of Ezekiel in the fragments of Pseudo-Ezekiel.2 Two further
occurrences are a fragment of 3QIsaiah Pesher, which uses the verb of the prophet Isaiah (3Q4 3),
while in the Damascus Document, the verb denotes the activity of false prophets who, in contrast to
Moses and the “holy anointed ones” through whom God gave his precepts, “prophesied deceit ( נבאו
)שקדin order to divert Israel from following God” (CD VI, 1).3 Hence, the verb has both positive and
negative connotations: positive when used for an ancient prophet and negative when referring to false
prophets, whether ancient or contemporary.
1
This has been noted by James E. Bowley, Alex P. Jassen and Martti Nissinen in their works. See James E. Bowley,
“Prophets and Prophecy at Qumran,” in The Dead Sea Scrolls After fifty Years: A Comprehensive Assessment, Vol. 2,
edited by Peter W. Flint and James C. Vanderkam (Leiden: Brill, 1999), 354; Alex P. Jassen, Mediating the Divine:
Prophecy and Revelation in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Second Temple Judaism (Leiden: Brill, 2007), 2; Martti Nissinen,
“Transmitting Divine Mysteries: The Prophetic Role Of Wisdom Teachers in the Dead Sea Scrolls,” in Scripture in
Transition: Essays on Septuagint, Hebrew Bible, and Dead Sea Scrolls in Honour of Raija Sollamo, edited by Anssi Voitila
and Jutta Jokiranta (Leiden: Brill, 2008), 513.
2
Nissinen, “Transmitting Divine Mysteries,” 518.
3
Translations of Dead Sea Scrolls are taken from Florentino García Martínez and Eibert J. C. Tigchelaar, The
Dead Sea Scrolls: Study Edition (Leiden: Brill, 2000), 36.
1
1.2 “ נבואהProphecy”
Even rare but all the more interesting is the derivative of the verb נבאdenoting “prophecy,” נבואה.4 In
addition to the best-preserved text in the Great Psalms Scroll (11Q5 XXVII, 11), it has only two
occurrences, one in a broken fragment (4Q458 15 2) and another in 4QIsaiah Pesher (4Q165 1-2 1).5All
this is of great significance concerning the most important occurrence of נבואהin 11Q5 XXVII, 11,
where the following is said of King David: “All these he spoke through prophecy which had been given
to him before the Most High.”
“All these” refers to the songs composed by David, to whom God had given “a discerning and
enlightened spirit” (line 4). The catalogue of songs on lines 4-10 is framed by the words רוחand ;נבואה
hence there is a fundamental unity of prophecy and spirit. The spirit and prophecy have been given to
David by God, and therefore, the songs he composed are not his work but well out from a divine
source. 6 James Bowley also notes that the prophetic revelation and the more general bestowing of
knowledge by the Holy Spirit (1QS 8:16) are essential aspects of the community, especially its leaders.7
1.3 נביא/ “ נביאהProphet”
The masculine noun נביא, “prophet,” is relatively common in the Scrolls (over thirty times),8 where the
biblical texts primarily inspire its use. Quite frequently, the word appears as the title of a biblical
prophet, and this often happens in formulaic phrases such as “as God has said by means of the prophet
Isaiah,” (CD IV, 13) or “as is written in the book of Daniel, the prophet,” (4Q174 1-3 II, 3) followed
by a quotation from the book attributed to the prophet in question. The prophet may even be said to
have written the word himself, as in CD XIX, 7: “When there comes the word which is written by the
hand of the prophet Zechariah.”9
While it is essential to register the single instance of “ נביאהprophetess” in the Dead Sea Scrolls (PAM
43.677 6, 2),10 little consequences can be drawn from the tiny fragment where it appears. So, according
to M. Nissinen, it is difficult to ascertain through the fragment whether the word is to be read as a
prophetess or not. She notes that theoretically, the reading נבואהwould also be possible since the letters
4
Avi Hurvitz, “Can Biblical Texts Be Dated Linguistically? Chronological Perspectives in the Historical Study of
Biblical Hebrew,” in Congress Volume Oslo 1998, edited by Magne Saebo (Leiden: Brill, 2000), 151–52.
5
John M. Allegro, Qumran Cave 4 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968), 28.
6
Nissinen, “Transmitting Divine Mysteries,” 518.
7
Bowley, “Prophets and Prophecy at Qumran,” 359.
8
See M. Abegg Jr. B. Wacholder and J. Bowley, A Preliminary Edition of the Unpublished Dead Sea Scrolls
(Washington DC: Biblical Archaeology Society, 1996), 515-518.
9
Nissinen, “Transmitting Divine Mysteries,” 518.
10
See Dana M. Pike and Andrew C. Skinner, Qumran Cave 4 XXIII: Unidentified Fragments (Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 2001), 104.
2
yod and waw look much alike in the Dead Sea Scrolls. However, according to Nissinen, the word might
probably refer to a prophetess.11
It is also important to note that the authors of the Dead Sea Scrolls never call their contemporaries
prophets with a respectful tone; the title נביאhas a positive connotation only concerning the ancient
“classical” prophets or to the future eschatological prophets (1QS IX, 10-11; 11Q13 II, 17-18).12
2. Prophets of the Past and Future
In this section, a brief discussion will consider how the authors of the Dead Sea Scrolls look into the
prophets of the past and the future.
2.1 Prophets of the Past
Attention now may have turned to discerning how the sectarian authors characterized the ancient
prophets. What was valued from the heritage of the Biblical prophets according to the authors of the
Qumran document? A majority of the occurrences that refer to someone as נביאapply to former
prophets of Israel, and many of these are found in the formulas identifying a source before a quotation,
for example, “In the words of Isaiah, son of Amos the prophet…” CD 7:10. Frequently in such
introductions, the prophet is referred to by name, in which the title הנביאmay or may not be found.13
The primary function of the prophets of the past and their primary value is the sectarian tradition in
their role as tridents of divine speech to Israel. The prophets of the past were those who spoke God’s
word.14 The prophet was also an instrument of divine instruction in matters other than future events. It
is widely known that in the view of the Qumran authors, the ancient prophets of Israel revealed the
future in their divine speaking. This notion that the ancient prophets recorded the divinely revealed
secrets of the future is indicated by the prophets in general (1QpHab 7:5, 8; 1QM 11:7-8).15
At least two events regarding ancient prophecies in the Qumran scrolls should be mentioned. First, the
sect believed that the ancient Israelites did not heed the message of their prophets and their
contemplation on false prophets.16
See her note in 30ff, in Nissinen, “Transmitting Divine Mysteries,” 521.
Peter W. Flint, “The Prophet David at Qumran,” in Biblical Interpretation at Qumran, edited by Matthias Henze
(Grand Rapids, Michigan: W.B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2005), 162.
13
Bowley, “Prophets and Prophecy at Qumran,” 359.
14
J. Fitzmyer, “The Use of Explicit Old Testament Quotations in Qumran Literature and in the New Testament,”
NTS 7 (1960-61):301-304.
15
Bowley, “Prophets and Prophecy at Qumran,” 362.
16
Bowley, “Prophets and Prophecy at Qumran,” 362.
11
12
3
2.2 Prophet of the Future
The idea that the eschaton would witness prophetic activity, as demonstrated by the appearance of an
eschatological prophet, is observed in several Qumran Texts. The most explicit and best-known
reference to such a figure is found in the Community Rule (1QS 9:11), which says, “…Until the
prophet comes, and the anointed ones of Aaron and Israel.”17 Geza Vermes suggests that the prophet
mentioned in this text was later identified with Moreh Ha-sedeq (Teacher of Righteousness). He stated
that “…at this point of the sect’s history, the coming of the Prophet was no longer expected; he was
believed to have already appeared in the person of the teacher of righteousness.”18 However, John
Collins commented, “If the Teacher were regarded as the eschatological prophet, this would have been
made explicit at some point.”19 Therefore, the view that the Teacher of Righteousness is the prophet
seems unlikely. There are also suggestions that it might be the expectation of the prophet Elijah, but
even this view is difficult to conclude.20 It seems more likely that it is a prophet in the eschaton, as
expected in the Qumran texts, but the precise function of the prophet’s role is unknown.
3. Prophets of the Present: Ongoing Prophetic Practice and its Social Location
Though the Qumran prophetic tradition did not is explicitly credited with a new prophetic activity,
however, there is a small group of compositions in the Qumran library that suggests that there was an
ongoing activity that was labelled as prophecy. Thus, George Brooke noted that the compositions from
Qumran that speak of false prophets suggest that operating as a true prophet was still possible.21
Therefore, the following can be taken as the ongoing prophetic tradition at Qumran:
3.1 Condemnation of False Prophets
The first composition to be considered is 4Q375. 4Q375 contains a reworked form of Deut. 13 and 18
laws. 4Q375 opens with a section on the true prophet through whom God commands his people. A
subsequent section discusses the false prophet (4Q375 1 I, 4, 6) who rises up and teaches apostasy,
such a prophet is to be put to death (as is the case in CD VI, 1-2; 1QHa XII, 16; 4Q267 2, 6). J.
Strugnell, in his interpretation of this text (4Q375), has oscillated between seeing it as a reference on
the one hand to future or eschatological prophetic figures and on the other to understanding that “this
17
Wilfred G. E. Watson, The Dead Sea Scrolls Translated: The Qumran Texts in English, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids:
William B. Eerdmans, 1996), 13.
18
Geza Vermes, The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English (London: Penguin, 1997), 87.
19
John Collins, The Scepter and the Star: The Messiahs of the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Other Ancient Literature
(Michigan: Doubleday, 1995), 113.
20
Bowley, “Prophets and Prophecy at Qumran,” 370.
21
George J. Brooke, “Prophecy and Prophets in the Dead Sea Scrolls: Looking Backwards and Forwards,” in
Prophets, Prophecy, and Prophetic Texts in Second Temple Judaism, edited by Michael H. Floyd and Robert D. Haak (New
York: T&T Clark, 2006), 159.
4
text is giving general prescriptions for any case of prophecy.”22 A thorough investigation of the
composition by G. Brin has concluded that 4Q375 is “an example of the usage of legal material, the
law of the prophet in Deuteronomy, in a new, nonbiblical context…in practice, this reflects an attempt
to explain actual events in the life of the sect and its world-view while presenting them as biblical legal
material.”23 It is possible that the reworked legislation of 4Q375 was used at Qumran for the
community’s purposes as members tried to judge between true and false prophets.24
A further text that may belong in the same category as 4Q375 is the Aramaic 4Q339, the list of false
prophets. This list begins with Balaam (Num 22-24) and runs through the man of Bethel (1 Kgs 13:1131), Zedekiah (1 Kgs 22:1-28), Ahab and Zedekiah son of Maaseiah (Jer 29:21-24), Shemaiah the
Nehelamite (Jer 29:24-32) and Hananiah son of Azur (Jer 28). Primarily, the prophets mentioned are
contemplating the prophets of the past.25 In 4QpHos 2:4-6, it noted that instead of obeying the true
prophets, Israel listened to and revered the false prophets. The interest in false prophets went so far as
to inspire a document consisting of a list of such persons with the heading “False prophets who arose
in Israel.” According to Bowley, it seems certain that it was inspired by the present community
concerns and social experience.26 The composition implies that prophecy had not ceased in some form
or the other.
3.2 Wilderness Location
G. Brooke notes that it is clear that the technical terms for prophecy and prophetic activity are
somewhat restricted in the sectarian compositions that have survived at Qumran. However, there are
other ways of identifying prophetic activity than the use of technical labels that are explicit in nature,
like the prophets of the Hebrew Bible. One such way is to observe that the wilderness location of one
part of the movement can be understood as a symbolic prophetic activity.27
Although there is an argument against the identification of the Qumran site as of some significance
within the Essene movement, but Brooke notes that most scholars are willing to acknowledge that the
site was occupied by some kind of Essenes from the first half of the first century B.C.E. until the arrival
of the Romans in the region in 68 C.E. The precise function of the Qumran site is not yet known, but
it is commonly identified with the wilderness region in which preparation for the coming of God in
John Strugnell, “375. 4QApocryphon of Mosesa,” in Qumran Cave 4.XIV: Parabiblical Texts Part 2, edited by
M. Broshi, et al. (Oxford: Clarendon, 1995), 119.
23
Gershon Brin, Studies in Biblical Laws: From the Hebrew Bible to Dead Sea Scrolls (Sheffield: JSOT Press,
1994), 164.
24
Brooke, “Prophecy and Prophets in the Dead Sea Scrolls,” 159.
25
Brooke, “Prophecy and Prophets in the Dead Sea Scrolls,” 160.
26
Bowley, “Prophets and Prophecy at Qumran,” 362.
27
Brooke, “Prophecy and Prophets in the Dead Sea Scrolls,” 160.
22
5
judgment is to be undertaken according to prophetic tradition. Residence in the wilderness is thus a
symbolic activity, an activity which is continuous with the word of the Lord as declared especially in
Isaiah 40:3 “A voice of one calling: “In the wilderness prepare the way for the Lord, make straight in
the desert a highway for our God.””28
Something of this prophetic symbolism is significantly explained in the Rule of the Community. The
wilderness residence is continuous with the prophetic word of Isa 40:3 in IQS VIII, 14-16, which says,
“As it is written: In the desert, prepare the way of LORD, straighten in the steppe a roadway for our
God…is the study of the Law which He commanded by the hand of Moses, that they may do according
to all that has been revealed from age to age, and as the Prophets have revealed by His Holy Spirit”.29
Therefore, the study of the Law in the wilderness location also infers an ongoing prophetic activity.
3.3 Social Location
The symbolic significance of the community’s move to the wilderness has often been noted, but the
understanding of such a move has to do with the interpretation of the Law, which is a continuous
prophetic activity that has not been highlighted. In other words, it is crucial to let the Rule of the
Community provide the sect’s own interpretation of its symbolic prophetic activity through the social
location. 30 For discerning the social location of ongoing prophetic activity, the options have been laid
out precisely as either apocalyptic, priestly, scribal, or mantic.
3.3.1 Apocalyptic
The discussion as to whether and how late Second Temple apocalyptic is the legitimate heir of
prophecy is still ongoing. What becomes clear from the Qumran library is that there are virtually no
texts that can be labelled apocalypses in the strict sense (narrative reports of visions). This means, as
Edward Cook has pointed out, that there are virtually no texts that claim to be the straightforward
narration of a vision as supposedly experienced by the author.31 However, there are several
compositions conceived on a grand scale that the sectarian community clearly held to be important,
and that show some features of the proper apocalypse genre.
Chief among these is the book of Jubilees, which is conceived as the revelation of what was on the
heavenly tablets, a revelation conveyed to Moses by an angel. The content of such angelic revelation
turns out to be rewritten Torah, both in terms of narrative content and also in all kinds of laws. The
Brooke, “Prophecy and Prophets in the Dead Sea Scrolls,” 160.
Geza Vermes, The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English, 5th ed., (London: Penguin, 1998), 109.
30
Brooke, “Prophecy and Prophets in the Dead Sea Scrolls,” 161.
31
Edward M. Cook, “What Did the Jews of Qumran Know about God and How Did They Know It? Revelation
and God in the Dead Sea Scrolls,” in The Judaism of Qumran: A Systemic Reading of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Vol. 2 (Leiden:
Brill, 2001), 7.
28
29
6
Temple Scroll is another instance of such a narrated revelation. Sadly, its opening is not preserved, but
in the rewriting of various sections of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and especially Deuteronomy, God
is the implied author and revealer of matters to Moses. With both the book of Jubilees and the Temple
Scroll addressed to Moses, his prophetic status is clarified and enhanced. Thus, Brooke concluded that
the kind of apocalyptic writing that comes to the fore in the sectarian writings are what seem to the
modern reader to be interpretations of the Torah but which present themselves as revelations from the
old.32
3.3.2 Priestly Associations
The priestly associations of this apocalyptic prophetic activity are plain to see. Not least, the interest
in the cult in the book of Jubilees is apparent both in the way in which the patriarchs are portrayed as
observing the cultic rules before they have, in fact, been revealed to Moses and also in the particular
concerns of the book, such as its concern to give some pre-eminence to Levi. Similar cultic matters
underpin the character of the contents of the Temple Scroll. It is also suggestive that the whole practice
of the interpretation of the Torah was understood to be a priestly activity. The key hallmark of the
prophetic activity of the Qumran sect is the interpretation of authoritative prophetic texts, including
the Torah; such activity is explicitly aligned with the priests in various sectarian compositions.33
3.3.3 Scribal Activity
But what kinds of priests function principally as interpreters of the Law? These are priests who
probably had extensive and long-standing affinities with various scribal schools. Such scribal schools
may be associated particularly with the education of the elites in the Second Temple period and are
commonly linked with the wisdom schools. Apparently popular among the wisdom compositions
reflecting the views of the wider movement of which the Qumran community was a particular part was
4QInstruction.34 Much of this wisdom composition falls within the standard parameters of scriptural
wisdom books that may be a little earlier or roughly contemporary with large sections of it. Such
content concerns the practical matters of daily living, social and family relations, work and financial
matters, as well as matters of public administration.35
The scribal basis of some Qumran prophetic activity may also be discerned in the poetic activities of
some members. It would seem that the identification of David’s compositions as given through
prophecy (11QPsa XXVII, 11) might suggest that the creation of poetry could be understood as an
Brooke, “Prophecy and Prophets in the Dead Sea Scrolls,” 162.
Brooke, “Prophecy and Prophets in the Dead Sea Scrolls,” 161.
34
It represents the main genre of wisdom literature found at Qumran.
35
Brooke, “Prophecy and Prophets in the Dead Sea Scrolls,” 163.
32
33
7
ongoing prophetic activity. The presence of several scrolls containing such works in the Qumran
library might reflect such an opinion. The real possibility that some or all of its contents can be
associated directly or indirectly with the leading Teacher is suggestive of the likelihood that such
activity was deemed consistent with David’s inspired psaltery.36 It seems evident that scribal activity
is essential to the community.
3.3.4 Mantological Interpretative Practices
Such concern with mysteries, as is apparent in the phrase raz nihyeh (the mystery of what is to come),
provides a link to the kind of Mantological37 interpretative practices that are also a part of the Qumran
sectarian prophetic landscape. J. C. VanderKam has argued that there is continuity with prophetic
activity at Qumran in the mantic wisdom found reflected in some Qumran texts.38 Mantological
practices discernible in the compositions preserved at Qumran include the casting of lots and the
reading of astrological information associated with the physiological features of each member
(4Q186).39 More significantly, such practices might be deemed to include dream interpretation and the
interpretation of visions, such as can be found in the prophetic literature. These are a set of mysteries
that seemingly God made known to the prophets but whose full significance is to be made known to
the sectarian interpreter, notably the Teacher of Righteousness.40
4. The Conception of Social Justice
It is also interesting to note that the scrolls explicate the conception of justice. In relation to this, the
community scroll will be taken into consideration. In the 1 QS 1 4-6 it says, “…in order to keep oneself
at a distance from all evil, and to become attached to all good works; to bring about truth, justice, and
uprightness on earth and not to walk in the stubbornness of a guilty heart.” Further in 1QS 4:3 their
moral development internal to the community included the practice of “abundant charity,” which
promotes a sense of egalitarianism, where equality prevails in the society. These lines show the
imperative for the community to uphold the truth, justice, and uprightness on earth. The reason behind
these commands suggests that injustice and falsehood prevail during that point in time, when it says,
“…Until now the spirits of truth and of injustice feud in the heart of man.” (1Qs 4:23). 41
Cook, “What Did the Jews of Qumran Know about God and How Did They Know It?,” 13.
It is the art or practice that seeks to foresee or foretell future events or discover hidden knowledge by the aid of
supernatural powers. (Meaning from the Meriam Dictionary)
38
James C. Vanderkam, “Mantic Wisdom in the Dead Sea Scrolls,” DSD, Vol. 4 (1997):338-40. (336-53)
39
4Q186 is a horoscope document. It talks about physiological feature of humans. See the translation of this
fragment in The Dead Sea Scrolls Translated: The Qumran Texts in English, by Florentino Garcia Martinez (Leiden: Brill,
1992), 456.
40
Brooke, “Prophecy and Prophets in the Dead Sea Scrolls,” 163.
41
M. Mendoza, “Justice and DSS,” University of Oregon, accessed 13th Feb 2024,
https://blogs.uoregon.edu/rmendoza412/2014/06/10/justice-and-the-dds-final-copy/
36
37
8
Therefore, their conception of justice is a perpetual reflection from the prophets of the Hebrew Bible.
They might not be social agitators like the prophets of old in their society because they are a secluded
community. However, their promotion of justice within their own community indicates that there is a
social imbalance outside the community which induces them to follow the instructions of the Torah
and the prophets in order to develop a just and equal community.
5. Implications
The Qumran community, associated with the Dead Sea Scrolls, provides valuable insights into the
prophetic tradition within the community. Let’s explore some implications:
5.1 Re-evaluation of Prophecy
Traditionally, scholars assumed that prophecy ceased after biblical Israel and the Babylonian exile.
However, recent research challenges this view. The Qumran texts reveal a reimagined prophetic
tradition. Rather than a dormant institution, prophecy took on new forms and expressions. The Qumran
community engaged in inspired interpretation of scripture, akin to prophetic activity. Their Pesharim
(commentaries) demonstrate this approach. It is not only the explicit interpretation but also their
apocalyptic, priestly, scribal, and mantological associations.
Their ongoing explicit interpretation gives the idea that they used the Hebrew Bible according to the
needs of their context, making it relevant to the audience. Their interpretation of the texts seems
subjective in nature, which shows how interpretation can evolve over time. This opens the door and
gives room for the ongoing interpretation of today’s world according to the social issues that surround
society through an intellectual activity.
5.2 Ethical Foundations
The Qumran sect formulated their ethics by drawing from scriptural traditions. They appropriated
various genres of authoritative texts (laws, narratives) to discern God’s demands. This underscores the
interplay between prophecy, ethics, and sacred texts within the community. Their conception of social
justice, particularly in the Community Scrolls, gives us a hint that justice was not practiced outside
their community. Their interest in abundant charity also promotes a society that is egalitarian in nature,
where everyone is equal.
However, the issue of justice persists in our society even today, where minorities such as the Dalits,
Tribals, Adivasis, the poor are struggling for their rights in society. The sectarian texts, in line with the
classical prophets, perpetually emphasize the promotion of justice and righteousness, ultimately
promoting a just and equal society. Therefore, it gives room for modern-day interpreters to uphold the
9
concept of justice for those who need emancipation in the social spheres of life, be it economic, social
or political.
Conclusion
This study has argued that in the light of the attention given to the explicitly inspired interpretation of
unfulfilled prophetic texts, it is appropriate to view the exegetical activity of many of the compositions
found in the Qumran library both as continuous with earlier prophetic activity but also as an intellectual
transformation of it. The exposition of heavenly mysteries in the compositions in the Qumran library
takes many forms, and those forms can be identified with various interests. The intellectual
transformation of prophecy reflected in the Qumran library is at home not in any one social location
but in a distinctive combination of apocalyptic, priestly, scribal, and mantological concerns, the
interrelationships of which should be appreciated fully.
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10
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“Justice
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University
of
Oregon. Accessed
13th
Feb
https://blogs.uoregon.edu/rmendoza412/2014/06/10/justice-and-the-dds-final-copy/
11
2024,