The Federations of SANJAY SHAILENDRA SRIVIJAI Book

The Federations of SANJAY- SHAILENDRA-SARIVIJAI Dr Uday Dokras I Explaining SANJAY- SHAILENDRA-SHRIVIJAI “…There are things known and things unknown, and in between are the doors…”Jim Morrison Sanjaya or Sanjay (Sanskrit: सञ्जय, meaning "victory") or Sanjaya Gavalgana is an advisor from the ancient Indian Hindu war epic Mahābhārata. In Mahabharata—An ancient story of a war between the Pandavas and the Kauravas—the blind king Dhritarashtra is the father of the principals of the Kaurava side. It means means “conquering,” “triumphant,” or “victory.” Sanjay name meaning is Victory; Lord Shiva; Dhritarashtra's Charioteer; Triumphant; Caring. The dynasty promoted Hinduism on the island. Srivijaya is a Sanskrit-derived name: श्रीविजय, Śrīvijaya. Śrī means "fortunate", "prosperous", or "happy" and Vijaya means "victorious" or "excellence".The Srivijaya Empire controlled modern-day Indonesia and much of the Malay Archipelago from the seventh to twelfth centuries. The empire traded extensively with India and China, incorporating Buddhist and Chinese political practices into their traditions. Srivijaya was also a religious centre in the region. It adhered to Mahayana Buddhism and soon became the stopping point for Chinese Buddhist pilgrims on their way to India. The kings of Srivijaya even founded monasteries at Negapattam (now Nagappattinam) in southeastern India. Sailendra, Syailendra or Selendra) was the name of a notable Indianised dynasty that emerged in 8th-century Java, whose reign signified a cultural renaissance in the regionThe Shailendras were active promoters of Mahayana Buddhism and covered the Kedu Plain of Central Java with Buddhist monuments, one of which is the colossal stupa of Borobudur, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Early History As early as the 1st century CE Indonesian vessels made trade voyages as far as Africa. Picture: a ship carved on Borobudur, c. 800 CE. The history of Indonesia has been shaped by its geographic position, natural resources, a series of human migrations and contacts, wars and conquests, as well as by trade, economics and politics. Indonesia is an archipelagic country of 17,000 to 18,000 islands stretching along the equator in Southeast Asia. The country's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade; trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history. The area of Indonesia is populated by peoples of various migrations, creating a diversity of cultures, ethnicities, and languages. Example of Rice Terraces in Indonesia//Megalithic statue found in Tegurwangi, Sumatra, Indonesia, 1500 CE The Indonesian archipelago was formed during the thaw after the Last Glacial Maximum. Early humans travelled by sea and spread from mainland Asia eastward to New Guinea and Australia.  Early Indonesians were animists who honoured the spirits of the dead believing their souls or life force could still help the living. Ideal agricultural conditions, and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the 8th century BCE, allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the 1st century CE. These kingdoms (little more than collections of villages subservient to petty chieftains) evolved with their own ethnic and tribal religions. Java's hot and even temperature, abundant rain and volcanic soil, was perfect for wet rice cultivation. Such agriculture required a well-organized society, in contrast to the society based on dry-field rice, which is a much simpler form of cultivation that does not require an elaborate social structure to support it. Buni culture clay pottery flourished in coastal northern West Java and Banten around 400 BCE to 100 CE. The Buni culture was probably the predecessor of the Tarumanagara kingdom, one of the earliest Hindu kingdoms in Indonesia, producing numerous inscriptions and marking the beginning of the historical period in Java. Early kingdoms -Hindu Buddhist 8th century Borobudur Buddhist monument, Sailendra dynasty, is the largest Buddhist temple in the world/1600-year-old stone inscription from the era of Purnawarman, king of Tarumanagara, founded in Tugu sub-district of Jakarta Indonesia like much of Southeast Asia was influenced by Indian culture. From the 2nd century, through the Indian dynasties like the Pallava, Gupta, Pala and Chola in the succeeding centuries up to the 12th century, Indian culture spread across all of Southeast Asia. References to the Dvipantara or Yawadvipa, a Hindu kingdom in Java and Sumatra appear in Sanskrit writings from 200 BCE. In India's earliest epic, the Ramayana, Sugriva, the chief of Rama's army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa, the island of Java, in search of Sita. According to the ancient Tamil text Manimekalai Java had a kingdom with a capital called Nagapuram. The earliest archaeological relic discovered in Indonesia is from the Ujung Kulon National Park, West Java, where an early Hindu statue of Ganesha estimated from the 1st century CE was found on the summit of Mount Raksa in Panaitan island. There is also archaeological evidence of Sunda Kingdom in West Java dating from the 2nd-century, and Jiwa Temple in Batujaya, Karawang, West Java was probably built around this time. South Indian culture was spread to Southeast Asia by the south Indian Pallava dynasty in the 4th and 5th centuries and by the 5th century, stone inscriptions written in Pallava scripts were found in Java and Borneo. A number of Hindu and Buddhist states flourished and then declined across Indonesia. Seven rough plinths dating from the beginning of the 4th century CE were found in Kutai, East Kalimantan, near the Mahakam River known as the Yupa inscription or "Mulavarman Inscription" believed to be one of the earliest Sanskrit inscriptions of Indonesia, the plinths were written by Brahmins in the Sanskrit language using the Pallava script of India recalling of a generous king by the name of Mulavarman who donated a huge amount of alms to Brahmin priests in his kingdom, the kingdom was known as the Kutai Martadipura Kingdom located in present East Kalimantan Province, believed to be the oldest and first Hindu kingdom of Indonesia.   Tarumanagara and Sunda One such early kingdom was Tarumanagara, which flourished between 358 and 669 CE. Located in West Java close to modern-day Jakarta, its 5th-century king, Purnawarman, established the earliest known inscriptions in Java, the Ciaruteun inscription located near Bogor. And other inscriptions called the Pasir Awi inscription and the Muncul inscription. On this monument, King Purnawarman inscribed his name and made an imprint of his footprints, as well as his elephant's footprints. The accompanying inscription reads, "Here are the footprints of King Purnavarman, the heroic conqueror of the world". This inscription is written in Pallava script and in Sanskrit and is still clear after 1500 years. Purnawarman apparently built a canal that changed the course of the Cakung River, and drained a coastal area for agriculture and settlement purpose. In his stone inscriptions, Purnawarman associated himself with Vishnu, and Brahmins ritually secured the hydraulic project. India (Bharat) Connect There were several trade routes between India and the Far East. One route started from Bharukaccha to the coast of Suvarnabhumi and Yavadvipa- a term for modern Jāvā island-Derivable forms: yavadvīpaḥ (यवद्वीपः).Yavadvīpa is a Sanskrit compound consisting of the terms yava and dvīpa (द्वीप). The next route started from Masulipatam and went across Bay of Bengal to the Eastern Peninsula. Indian Boat, From Rajrajeswar Temple, Kototlpur, Hooghly, West Bengal, 1694 CE. Photo by Partha Sanyal. Second map is from the paper “Austronesian Shipping in the Indian Ocean: From Outrigger Boats to Trading Ships” (2016). This was the most direct route for Yavadvipa (Java), Suvarṇadvipa (Sumatra ), Champā (Annam) and Kamboja (Cambodia). As this route was through the high seas, a special type of ship known as colandia was required. Ptolemy informs us about another route, which was generally adopted by the traders of Kalinga. The ships starting from Polura (modern Gopalpur), near the mouth of the Ganjam, crossed the Bay of Bengal for the Eastern Peninsula in the Far East. For the traders of Mathura, Kausambi, Vārāṇasi and Campa the most convenient port was Tamralipti. From Tamralipti the ships sailed on the open sea for Suvarnabhumi and other countries like Yavadvipa, Campā and Kamboja. When a regular sea-route between India and China became popular, the port of Tamralipti (Tamluk in West Bengal) became the most suitable port for a trader from China trading with North India. A trade mission from Funan, for India, in the 1st c. CE, actually landed on the port of Tamralipti. Around the same period, in the 6th to 7th centuries (501–700 CE), the Kalingga Kingdom was established in Central Java northern coast, mentioned in Chinese account. The name of this kingdom was derived from ancient Indian kingdom of Kalinga, which suggest the ancient link between India and Indonesia. Sadhabas (or Sadhavas) were ancient mariners from the Kalinga region, which roughly corresponds to modern Odisha, India. They used ships called Boitas to travel to distant lands such as South-East Asia to carry out trade.The early hours of Kartik Purnima (the full moon day in October and November) was considered an auspicious occasion by the Sadhabas to begin their long voyages. Coconuts, earthenware, sandalwood, cloth, lime, rice, spices, salt, cloves, pumpkins, silk sarees, betel leaves, betel nuts, elephants, precious and semi-precious stones were the main items of trade. Even women went on voyages as well and were known as Sadhabanis - Odia navigators were instrumental in spreading Buddhism and Hinduism in East and Southeast Asia. In addition, they disseminated knowledge of Indian architecture, epics such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, Brahmic scripts writing system and Sanskrit loan words which are present in many Southeast Asian languages from different language families such as Khmer, Thai, Cham, Balinese etc.Maritime trade declined only in the 16th century, with the decline of the Gajapati Empire. The political history of Indonesian archipelago during the 7th to 11th (601–1100 CE) around centuries was dominated by Srivijaya based in Sumatra and Sailendra that dominated southeast Asia based in Java and constructed Borobudur, the largest Buddhist monument in the world. The history prior of the 14th and 15th centuries (1301–1500 CE) is not well known due to the scarcity of evidence. By the 15th century (1401–1500 CE), two major states dominated this period; Majapahit in East Java, the greatest of the pre-Islamic Indonesian states, and Malacca on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, arguably one of the greatest of the Muslim trading empires, this marked the rise of Muslim states in the Indonesian archipelago. Mataram Sewu temple in Special Region of Yogyakarta//Prambanan in Java was built during the Sanjaya dynasty of Mataram Kingdom; it is one of the largest Hindu temple complexes in Southeast Asia. Mataram Empire Mataram Empire, sometimes referred to as Mataram Kingdom, was an Indianized kingdom based in Central Java around modern-day Yogyakarta between the 8th and 10th centuries. The kingdom was ruled by the Sailendra dynasty, and later by the Sanjaya dynasty. The centre of the kingdom was moved from central Java to East Java by Mpu Sindok. An eruption of the volcano Mount Merapi in 929, and political pressure from Sailendrans based in the Srivijaya Empire may have caused the move. The first king of Mataram, Sri Sanjaya, left inscriptions in stone. The monumental Hindu temple of Prambanan in the vicinity of Yogyakarta was built by Pikatan. Dharmawangsa ordered the translation of the Mahabharata into Old Javanese in 996. In the period 750 CE – 850 CE, the kingdom saw the blossoming of classical Javanese art and architecture. A rapid increase in temple construction occurred across the landscape of its heartland in Mataram (Kedu and Kewu Plain). The most notable temples constructed in Mataram are Kalasan, Sewu, Borobudur and Prambanan. The Empire had become the supreme power not only in Java but also over Srivijayan Empire, Bali, southern Thailand, some Philippine kingdoms, and Khmer in Cambodia. Later in its history, the dynasty divided into two dynasties based on their own religion, the Buddhist and Shivaist dynasties. Civil war was unavoidable and the outcome was Mataram Empire divided into two powerful kingdom based on region and religion. The Shivaist dynasty of Mataram kingdom in Java led by Rakai Pikatan and the Buddhist dynasty of Srivijaya kingdom in Sumatra led by Balaputradewa. The hostility between them didn't end until in 1006 when the Sailendran based in Srivijaya kingdom incited rebellion by Wurawari, vassal of Mataram kingdom and sacked Shivaist dynasty's capital in Watugaluh, Java. Srivijaya kingdom rose into undisputed hegemonic Empire in the era as the result. Yet the Shivaist dynasty survived and successfully reclaimed the east Java in 1019 then descended to Kahuripan kingdom led by Airlangga son of Udayana of Bali. The Sanjaya–Shailendra relationship has been uncertain. Poerbatjaraka theorized that there was no distinct Sanjaya dynasty and one dynasty, Shailendra, ruled central Java. The kingdom was called Mataram (Javanese: mātaram), with its capital in the Mataram]] area. Sanjaya and his offspring belonged to the Shailendra family, who were initially Shaivist. Another theory suggests that the Sanjaya dynasty was forced into northern Java by the Shailendra dynasty, which emerged around 778. Evidence for this event is based on the Kalasan inscription. The Sanjaya and Shailendra dynasties co-existed during this period in central Java, which was characterized by peace and cooperation. The association of Shailendra with Mahayana Buddhism began after the conversion of Raja Sankhara (Rakai Panaraban or Panangkaran) to Buddhism.[3] Later Shailendran kings, successors of Panangkaran, also became followers of Mahayana Buddhism and gave it royal patronage in Java until the end of Samaratungga's reign. This theory is based on the Raja Sankhara inscription (now missing), the Sojomerto inscription, and the Carita Parahyangan manuscript. Shaivism regained royal patronage again from the reign of Pikatan to the end of the Mataram Kingdom. The Shailendra family used the Old Malay language in some of their inscriptions, which suggests the dynasty's origin in Sumatra and their connections with Srivijaya. This theory posits that the Shailendras, with their strong connections to Srivijaya, gained control of central Java and ruled the rakais (local Javanese lords); this included the Sanjaya, incorporating the dynasty's kings into their bureaucracy. The dynastic court was apparently in the southern Kedu Plain, near Magelang (north of Yogyakarta). The Javanese kingdoms maintained a close relationship with the Champa polities of mainland Southeast Asia as early as the Sanjaya dynasty. Like the Javanese, the Chams are an Austronesian people. An example of their relationship can be seen in the architecture of Cham temples, which share a number of similarities with temples in central Java built during the Sanjaya dynasty. Crown prince Rakai Pikatan married Pramodhawardhani (833–856), a daughter of the Shailendra king Samaratungga. The influence of the Hindu Sanjaya began to replace the Buddhist Shailendra in Mataram. Rakai Pikatan overthrew King Balaputra, son of Samaratungga and the brother of Pramodhawardhani. In 850, the Sanjaya dynasty became the sole ruler in Mataram. This ended the Shailendra presence in central Java and Balaputra retreated to rule in Srivijaya, Sumatra. Information about the Sanjaya dynasty is also found in the 907 Balitung inscription; when a ruler died, he assumed a divine form. From this inscription, scholars estimated the sequence of the Sanjaya kings:[5]: 88–89, 91, 92, 108, 126–127  Sanjaya (732–760) Panangkaran (760–780) Panungalan (780–800) Samaragrawira(Rakai Warak) (800–819) Rakai Garung (819–838) Rakai Pikatan (838–850) Rakai Kayuwangi (850–898), also known as Lokapala Balitung (898–910) During the Sanjaya dynasty, classic Javanese literature blossomed. Translations and adaptations of classic Hindu literature into Old Javanese were produced, such as the Kakawin Ramayana. Around the 850s, Pikatan began construction of the Prambanan temple in central Java; it was later completed and expanded by King Balitung. The Prambanan temple complex is one of the largest Hindu temple complexes in Southeast Asia, rivaling Borobudur (the world's largest Buddhist temple). Sanjaya kings after Balitung were: Daksa (910–919) Tulodong (919–924) Wawa (924–929) Mpu Sindok (929–947) In 929, Mpu Sindok moved the Mataram court from central Java to eastern Java for unclear reasons. Possible causes include an eruption of the Merapi volcano, a power struggle, or political pressure from the Shailendra dynasty in the Srivijaya Empire. The move to eastern Java marked the end of the Sanjaya dynasty, and it was followed by the Isyana dynasty. Srivijaya-Sriwijaya was a kingdom on Sumatra which influenced much of the Maritime Southeast Asia. From the 7th century, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished as a result of trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism that were imported with it.Srivijaya was centred in the coastal trading centre of present-day Palembang. Srivijaya was not a "state" in the modern sense with defined boundaries and a centralised government to which the citizens own allegiance. Rather Srivijaya was a confederacy form of society centred on a royal heartland. It was a thalassocracy and did not extend its influence far beyond the coastal areas of the islands of Southeast Asia. Trade was the driving force of Srivijaya just as it is for most societies throughout history. The Srivijayan navy controlled the trade that made its way through the Strait of Malacca. The territory of the Srivijaya empire. Historically, Srivijaya was one of the largest kingdoms in Southeast Asia//The depiction of Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa, the first king of Srivijaya By the 7th century, the harbours of various vassal states of Srivijaya lined both coasts of the Straits of Melaka. Around this time, Srivijaya had established suzerainty over large areas of Sumatra, western Java, and much of the Malay Peninsula. Dominating the Malacca and Sunda straits, the empire controlled both the Spice Route traffic and local trade. It remained a formidable sea power until the 13th century. This spread the ethnic Malay culture throughout Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, and western Borneo. A stronghold of Mahayana Buddhism, Srivijaya attracted pilgrims and scholars from other parts of Asia. The relation between Srivijaya and the Chola Empire of south India was friendly during the reign of Raja Raja Chola I but during the reign of Rajendra Chola I the Chola Empire attacked Srivijaya cities. A series of Chola raids in the 11th century weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms based, like Kediri, on intensive agriculture rather than coastal and long-distance trade. Srivijayan influence waned by the 11th century. The island was in frequent conflict with the Javanese kingdoms, first Singhasari and then Majapahit. Islam eventually made its way to the Aceh region of Sumatra, spreading its influence through contacts with Arabs and Indian traders. By the late 13th century, the kingdom of Pasai in northern Sumatra converted to Islam. The last inscription dates to 1374, where a crown prince, Ananggavarman, is mentioned. Srivijaya ceased to exist by 1414, when Parameswara, the kingdom's last prince, fled to Temasik, then to Malacca. Later his son converted to Islam and founded the Sultanate of Malacca on the Malay peninsula. Map of the expansion of the Srivijaya empire, beginning in Palembang in the 7th century, then extending to most of Sumatra, then expanding to Java, Riau Islands, Bangka Belitung, Singapore, Malay Peninsula (also known as: Kra Peninsula), Thailand, Cambodia, South Vietnam, Kalimantan, Sarawak, Brunei, Sabah, and ended as the Kingdom of Dharmasraya in Jambi in the 13th century. Srivijaya was a Buddhist thalassocratic empire based on the island of Sumatra (in modern-day Indonesia), which influenced much of Southeast Asia.[4] Srivijaya was an important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the 7th to the 11th century AD. Srivijaya was the first polity to dominate much of western Maritime Southeast Asia. Due to its location, Srivijaya developed complex technology utilizing maritime resources. In addition, its economy became progressively reliant on the booming trade in the region, thus transforming it into a prestige goods-based economy. The earliest reference to it dates from the 7th century. A Tang dynasty Chinese monk, Yijing, wrote that he visited Srivijaya in year 671 for six months.[6][7] The earliest known inscription in which the name Srivijaya appears also dates from the 7th century in the Kedukan Bukit inscription found near Palembang, Sumatra, dated 16 June 682.[8] Between the late 7th and early 11th century, Srivijaya rose to become a hegemon in Southeast Asia. It was involved in close interactions, often rivalries, with the neighbouring Mataram, Khmer and Champa. Srivijaya's main foreign interest was nurturing lucrative trade agreements with China which lasted from the Tang to the Song dynasty. Srivijaya had religious, cultural and trade links with the Buddhist Pala of Bengal, as well as with the Islamic Caliphate in the Middle East. Although it was once thought of as a maritime empire, new research on available records suggests that Srivijaya was primarily a land-based polity rather than a maritime power, fleets were available but acted as logistical support to facilitate the projection of land power. In response to the change in the maritime Asian economy, and threatened by the loss of its dependencies, the kingdoms around the Malacca Straits developed a naval strategy to delay their decline. The naval strategy of the kingdoms around the Malacca Strait was mainly punitive; this was done to coerce trading ships to be called to their port. Later, the naval strategy degenerated to raiding fleet. The kingdom ceased to exist in the 1025 CE after several raids were launched by Chola empire upon their ports. After Srivijaya fell, it was largely forgotten. It was not until 1918 that French historian George Cœdès, of l'École française d'Extrême-Orient, formally postulated its existence. Srivijaya is a Sanskrit-derived name: श्रीविजय, Śrīvijaya. Śrī[12] means "fortunate", "prosperous", or "happy" and Vijaya[ means "victorious" or "excellence".Thus, the combined word Srivijaya means "shining victory", "splendid triumph", "prosperous victor", "radiance of excellence" or simply "glorious". According to the Kedukan Bukit inscription, dated 605 Saka (683), Srivijaya was first established in the vicinity of today's Palembang, on the banks of Musi River. It mentions that Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa came from Minanga Tamwan. The exact location of Minanga Tamwan is still a subject of discussion. The Palembang theory as the place where Srivijaya was first established was presented by Cœdes and supported by Pierre-Yves Manguin. Soekmono, on the other hand, argues that Palembang was not the capital of Srivijaya and suggests that the Kampar River system in Riau where the Muara Takus temple is located as Minanga Tamwan. Other than the Kedukan Bukit inscription and other Srivijayan inscriptions, immediately to the west of modern Palembang city, a quantity of artefacts have been revealed through archaeological surveys commenced since the 20th century. Artefacts unearthed includes large amount of Chinese ceramics and Indian rouletted ware remains, also the ruins of stupa at the foot of Bukit Seguntang. Furthermore, a significant number of Hindu-Buddhist statuary has been recovered from the Musi River basin. These discoveries reinforce the suggestion that Palembang was the center of Srivijaya. Nevertheless, Palembang left little archaeological traces of ancient urban settlement. This is probably because of the nature of Palembang environment — a low-lying plain which frequently flooded by Musi River. Expert suggests that the ancient Palembang settlement was formed as a collection of floating houses made from thatched materials, such as wood, bamboo and straw roof. The 13th century Chinese account confirmed this; in his Zhu Fan Zhi, Zhao Rukuo mentioned, "The residents of Sanfo-tsi (Srivijaya) live scattered outside the city on the water, within rafts lined with reeds." It was probably only Kedatuan (king's court) and religious structures were built on land, while the people live in floating houses along Musi River. Early 20th-century historians who studied the inscriptions of Sumatra and the neighboring islands thought that the term "Srivijaya" referred to a king's name. In 1913, H. Kern was the first epigraphist that identified the name "Srivijaya" written in a 7th-century Kota Kapur inscription (discovered in 1892). However, at that time he believed that it referred to a king named "Vijaya", with "Sri" as an honorific title for a king or ruler.[15] The Sundanese manuscript of Carita Parahyangan, composed around the late 16th century in West Java, vaguely mentioned about the name "Sang Sri Wijaya". The manuscript describes princely hero that rose to be a king named Sanjaya that — after he secured his rule in Java — was involved in battle with the Malayu and Keling against their king Sang Sri Wijaya. Subsequently, after studying local stone inscriptions, manuscripts and Chinese historical accounts, historians concluded that the term "Srivijaya" was actually referred to a polity or kingdom. The main concern is to define Srivijaya's amorphous statehood as a thalassocracy, which dominated a confederation of semi autonomous harbour cities in Maritime Southeast Asia. Talang Tuwo inscription, discovered in Bukit Seguntang area, tells the establishment of the sacred Śrīksetra park. Little physical evidence of Srivijaya remains.[17] There had been no continuous knowledge of the history of Srivijaya even in Indonesia and Maritime Southeast Asia; its forgotten past has been resurrected by foreign scholars. Contemporary Indonesians, even those from the area of Palembang (around where the kingdom was based), had not heard of Srivijaya until the 1920s. The Srivijayan historiography was acquired, composed and established from two main sources: the Chinese historical accounts and the Southeast Asian stone inscriptions that have been discovered and deciphered in the region. The Buddhist pilgrim Yijing's account is especially important in describing Srivijaya, when he visited the kingdom in 671 for six months. The 7th-century siddhayatra inscriptions discovered in Palembang and Bangka Island are also vital primary historical sources. Also, regional accounts that some might be preserved and retold as tales and legends, such as the Legend of the Maharaja of Zabaj and the Khmer King also provide a glimpse of the kingdom. Some Indian and Arabic accounts also vaguely describe the riches and fabulous fortune of the king of Zabag. It's likely that the Zabag-Khmer story was based on Javanese overlordship over Cambodia. Srivijaya, and by extension Sumatra, had been known by different names to different peoples. The Chinese called it Sanfotsi, Sanfoqi or Che-li-fo-che (Shilifoshi), and there was an even older kingdom of Kantoli, which could be considered the predecessor of Srivijaya. The Arabs called it Zabag or Sribuza and the Khmers called it Melayu.[21] While the Javanese called them Suvarnabhumi, Suvarnadvipa, Melayu, or Malayu. This is another reason why the discovery of Srivijaya was so difficult.[21] While some of these names are strongly reminiscent of the name of Java, there is a distinct possibility that they may have referred to Sumatra instead. Palembang and its relevance to the early Malay state suffered a great deal of controversy in terms of its evidence build-up through the archaeological record. Strong historical evidence found in Chinese sources, speaking of city-like settlements as early as 700 AD, and later Arab travelers, who visited the region during the 10th and 11th centuries, held written proof, naming the kingdom of Srivijaya in their context. As far as early state-like polities in the Malay Archipelago, the geographical location of modern Palembang was a possible candidate for the 1st-millennium kingdom settlement like Srivijaya as it is the best described and most secure in historical context, its prestige was apparent in wealth and urban characteristics, and the most unique, which no other 1st-millennium kingdom held, was its location in junction to three major rivers, the Musi River, the Komering River, and the Ogan River. The historical evidence was contrasted in 1975 with publications by Bennet Bronson and Jan Wisseman. Findings at certain major excavation sites, such as Geding Suro, Penyaringan Air Bersih, Sarang Wati, and Bukit Seguntang, conducted in the region played major roles in the negative evidence of the 1st-millennium kingdom in the same region. It was noted that the region contained no locatable settlements earlier than the middle of the second millennium. Lack of evidence of southern settlements in the archaeological record comes from the disinterest in the archeologist and the unclear physical visibility of the settlement themselves. Archeology of the 1920s and 1930s focused more on art and epigraphy found in the regions. Some northern urban settlements were sited due to some overlap in fitting the sinocentric model of city-state urban centers. An approach to differentiate between urban settlements in the southern regions from the northern ones of Southeast Asia was initiated by a proposition for an alternative model. Excavations showed failed signs of a complex urban center under the lens of a sinocentric model, leading to parameters of a new proposed model. Parameters for such a model of a city-like settlement included isolation in relevance to its hinterland. No hinterland creates for low archaeological visibility. The settlement must also have access to both easy transportation and major interregional trade routes, crucial in a region with few resources. Access to the former and later played a major role in the creation of an extreme economic surplus in the absence of an exploited hinterland. The urban center must be able to organize politically without the need for ceremonial foci such as temples, monuments and inscriptions. Lastly, habitations must be impermanent, being highly probable in the region Palembang and of southern Southeast Asia. Such a model was proposed to challenge city concepts of ancient urban centers in Southeast Asia and basic postulates themselves such as regions found in the South, like Palembang, based their achievements in correlation with urbanization. Due to the contradicting pattern found in southern regions, like Palembang, in 1977 Bennet Bronson developed a speculative model for a better understanding of coastal-oriented states in Insular Southeast Asia, such as insular and peninsular Malaysia, the Philippines, and western Indonesia. Its main focus was the relationship of political, economic and geographical systems. The general political and economic pattern of the region seems irrelevant to other parts of the world of their time, but in correlation with their maritime trade network, it produced high levels of socio-economic complexity. He concluded, from his earlier publications in 1974 that state development in this region developed much differently than the rest of early Southeast Asia. Bronson's model was based on the dendritic patterns of a drainage basin where its opening leads out to sea. Being that historical evidence places the capital in Palembang, and in junction of three rivers, the Musi River, the Komering River, and the Ogan River, such model can be applied. For the system to function appropriately, several constraints are required. The inability for terrestrial transportation results in movements of all goods through water routes, lining up economical patterns with the dendritic patterns formed by the streams. The second being the overseas center is economically superior to the ports found at the mouth of the rivers, having a higher population and a more productive and technologically advanced economy. Lastly, constraints on the land work against and do not developments of urban settlements. An aerial photograph taken in 1984 near Palembang (in what is now Srivijaya Archaeological Park) revealed the remnants of ancient man-made canals, moats, ponds, and artificial islands, suggesting the location of Srivijaya's urban centre. Several artefacts such as fragments of inscriptions, Buddhist statues, beads, pottery and Chinese ceramics were found, confirming that the area had, at one time, dense human habitation.[29] By 1993, Pierre-Yves Manguin had shown that the centre of Srivijaya was along the Musi River between Bukit Seguntang and Sabokingking (situated in what is now Palembang, South Sumatra, Indonesia). Palembang is called  'Giant Harbour', this is probably a testament of its history as once a great port. The recent troves discovered from the muddy sediments in the bottom of Musi river seems to confirms that Palembang was indeed the commercial centre of Srivijaya kingdom. In 2021 numbers of treasures were surfaced from shallows and riverbed by local fishermen that turns to be treasure divers. The troves includes coins of certain periods, gold jewelries, Buddhist statues, gems, colourful beads, and Chinese ceramic fragments. However, these troves are immediately lost for the historical knowledge, since local treasure hunters immediately has sold them to international antiquities dealers before archaeologists can properly study them. These discoveries has led to the treasure rush in Musi river in 2021, where locals has formed groups of treasure divers operating in some parts of Musi river in and around Palembang. Jambi Muaro Jambi Buddhist temple compound, a possible location of Srivijaya's religious center Some scholar argues that the centre of Srivijaya was located in Muaro Jambi, and not Palembang as many previous writers suggested. In 2013, archaeological research led by the University of Indonesia discovered several religious and habitation sites at the Muaro Jambi Temple Compounds, suggesting that the initial centre of Srivijaya was located in Muaro Jambi Regency, Jambi on the Batang Hari River, rather than on the originally-proposed Musi River. The archaeological site includes eight excavated temple sanctuaries and covers about 12 square kilometers, and stretches 7.5 kilometers along the Batang Hari River, while 80 mounds (menapos) of temple ruins, are not yet restored. The Muaro Jambi archaeological site was Mahayana-Vajrayana Buddhist in nature, which suggests that the site served as a Buddhist learning center, connected to the 10th century famous Buddhist scholar Suvarṇadvipi Dharmakīrti. Chinese sources also mentioned that Srivijaya hosts thousands of Buddhist monks. Compared to Palembang, Muaro Jambi has richer archaeological sites, i.e. multiple red brick temples and building structures along the Batang Hari river. On the other hand, no comparable temple or building structure ever discovered in Palembang. The proponent of Muaro Jambi theory as Srivijaya's capital pointing out that the descriptions written by I-Tsing and Chau Ju-kua, the description of Srivijaya realms by the Cholas, also the archaeological findings, suggests that the Srivijaya capital fits Muaro Jambi's environs better than the marshy Palembang. The study also compares the environs, geographical location, and the economic wealth of both cities; arguing that Jambi, located on the mouth of Batang Hari river basin with its connection to Minangkabau hinterland was the centre of gold trade in the area,that described as the fabulous wealth of Srivijaya. Central Java In the second half of the eighth century, the Srivijayan mandala seem to have been ruled by the Sailendra dynasty of Central Java. Several Arabic sources mentioned that Zabag (the Javanese Sailendra dynasty) ruled over Sribuza (Srivijaya), Kalah (a place in the Malay peninsula, probably Kedah), and Ramni (a place in Sumatra, probably Lambri). However, it was unknown whether Srivijaya's capital has moved to Java or Srivijaya simply became a subordinate of Java Other places Another theory suggests that Dapunta Hyang came from the east coast of the Malay Peninsula, and that the Chaiya District in Surat Thani Province, Thailand, was the centre of Srivijaya.[39] The Srivijayan Period is referred to as the time when Srivijaya ruled over present-day southern Thailand. In the region of Chaiya, there is clear evidence of Srivijayan influence seen in artwork inspired by Mahayana Buddhism. Because of the large amount of remains, such as the Ligor stele, found in this region, some scholars attempted to prove Chaiya as the capital rather than Palembang. This period was also a time for art. The Buddhist art of the Srivijayan Kingdom was believed to have borrowed from Indian styles like that of the Dvaravati school of art.[41] Some scholars believe that Chaiya probably comes from Srivijaya. It was a regional capital in the Srivijaya empire. Some Thai historians argue it was the capital of Srivijaya itself, but this is generally discounted. Formation and growth Siddhayatra The Kedukan Bukit inscription displayed in the National Museum of Indonesia Around the year 500, the roots of the Srivijayan empire began to develop around present-day Palembang, Sumatra. The Kedukan Bukit inscription (683)—considered as the oldest inscription related to the kingdom of Srivijaya, discovered on the banks of the Tatang River near the Karanganyar site, states about the "glorious Srivijaya", a kadatuan (kingdom or polity) which was founded by Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa and his retinue. He had embarked on a sacred siddhayatra journey and led 20,000 troops and 312 people in boats with 1,312 foot soldiers from Minanga Tamwan to Jambi and Palembang. Many of this armed forces gathered under the Srivijayan rule would have been the sea people, referred to generally as the orang laut. In establishing its power, Srivijaya had first to consolidate its position in Southeast Sumatra, which at that time consists of numbers of quasi-independent polities ruled by local Datus (chieftain). From the Old Malay inscriptions, it is notable that Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa launched a maritime conquest in 684 with 20,000 men in the siddhayatra journey to acquire wealth, power, and 'magical powers'. Under the leadership of Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa, the Melayu Kingdom became the first kingdom to be integrated into Srivijaya. This possibly occurred in the 680s. Melayu, also known as Jambi, was rich in gold and held in high esteem at the time. Srivijaya recognised that the submission of Melayu would increase its own prestige. The empire was organised in three main zones: the estuarine capital region centred on Palembang, the Musi River basin which served as a hinterland, and competitor estuarine areas capable of forming competitor power centres. The areas upstream of the Musi River were rich in various commodities valuable to Chinese traders. The capital was administered directly by the ruler, while the hinterland remained under local datus or tribal chiefs, who were organised into a network of alliances with the Srivijaya maharaja or king. Force was the dominant element in the empire's relations with competitor river systems such as the Batang Hari River, centred in Jambi. The Telaga Batu inscription, discovered in Sabokingking, eastern Palembang, is also a siddhayatra inscription, from the 7th century. This inscription was very likely used in a ceremonial sumpah (allegiance ritual). The top of the stone is adorned with seven nāga heads, and on the lower portion there is a type of water spout to channel liquid that was likely poured over the stone during a ritual. The ritual included a curse upon those who commit treason against Kadatuan Srivijaya. The Talang Tuwo inscription is also a siddhayatra inscription. Discovered in Seguntang Hill, western Palembang, this inscription tells about the establishment of the bountiful Śrīksetra garden endowed by King Jayanasa of Srivijaya for the well-being of all creatures. It is likely that the Seguntang Hill site was the location of the Śrīksetra garden. II The Federation of Srivijaya Srivijaya8 – 13th century CE-(800 – 1,300 years ago) Srivijaya was a kingdom that developed into a Federation States, encompassing states on the archipelagoes of the present-day Indonesia, Such as, Sumatra and Java. It height of power was between the eighth and thirteenth century CE (800 – 1,300 years ago). A federated state (also state, province, region, canton, land, governorate, oblast, emirate, or country) is a territorial and constitutional community forming part of a federation.[1] A federated state does not have sovereignty since powers are divided between the other federated states and the federal government. Federated states are different from sovereign states. Importantly, federated states do not have standing as entities of international law. Instead, the federal union as a single entity is the sovereign state for purposes of international law.[2] Depending on the constitutional structure of a particular federation, a federated state can hold various degrees of legislative, judicial, and administrative jurisdiction over a defined geographic territory and is a form of regional government. In some cases, a federation is created from the union of political entities that are either independent or dependent territories of another sovereign entity (most commonly a colonial power).[A] In other cases, federated states have been created out of the administrative divisions of previously unitary states.[B] Once a federal constitution is formed, the rules governing the relationship between federal and regional powers become part of the country's constitutional law and not international law. In countries with federal constitutions, there is a division of power between the central government and the component states. These entities – states, provinces, counties, cantons, Länder, etc. – are partially self-governing and are afforded a degree of constitutionally guaranteed autonomy that varies substantially from one federation to another.[C] Depending on the form the decentralization of powers takes, a federated state's legislative powers may or may not be overruled or vetoed by the federal government. Laws governing the relationship between federal and regional powers can be amended through the national or federal constitution, and, if they exist, state constitutions as well. In terms of internal politics, federated states can have republican or monarchical forms of government. Those of republican form (federated republics) are usually called states (like states of the US) or republics (like republics in the former USSR). The art of Srivijaya The art of the region is known as Srivijaya started to move away from stone sculptures to a new material showing advancements in technological. Srivijayan art is characterized by a mix of influences in the early period, the Dvaravati as well as Indian and Indo-Javanese styles, and later, Khmer as shown in bronze-cast sculptures. By the mid13th C, Srivijaya lost the maritime supremacy in the region to the Chinese Song dynasty and Sukhothai, the new power of the region, extended into the peninsula and brought the southern regions under its rule. The elements of Srivijayan culture found in the region Suggest that Srivijaya was a center of the Mahayana Buddhist World considering the philosophical propagation and artistic tradition. Thus, the Srivijayan Buddhist sculptures and architectures found in Thailand are mostly related to Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism. It was particularly popular for Buddhists to produce icons of Bodhisattvas. BODHISATTVA AVALOKITESHVARA AS PADMAPANI Origin: 8-9th C, SrivijayaFound: Wat Phra Barommathat, Chaiya Surat Thani Province Moved by HRH Prince Damrong Aajanubhab to the National Museum Bangkok in 1905-bronze with silver inlay- H 63cm This beautiful bust is all that remains of a complete statue of the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, probably in the form of the universal savior Padmapani, meaning “lotus bearer”. Padmapani is one of Mahayana Buddhism’s celestial bodhisattvas, the immortal helpers of enlightened buddhas. Bodhisattvas are spiritually advanced beings who choose to hold back from their own enlightenment in order to remain in the world serving others. Cast in the round, this finely crafted bronze is poised in the tribhanga or triple-flexion posture with a loincloth tied around the hips. The rounded face has downcast eyes beneath arched brows, the hair is intricately braided, and the sacred cord is decorated with the head of an antelope over the left shoulder. The ornaments that richly adorn him are typical of a bodhisattva and symbolize his enlightened experiences. Though this image is incomplete, Padmapani usually appears with right arm lowered, the hand in the wish-granting gesture, and the left hand holds the stem of a lotus flower. Most images of Padmapani also have a small effigy of Amithaba, the Buddha of Infinite Light, in the hair just above the forehead. BUDDHA SHELTERED BY NAGA HOODS OR BUDDHA OF GRAHI Origin: 12-13th C, Srivijaya Found: War Hua Wiang, Chaiya, Surat Thani Province by HRH Prince DamrongRajanubhab Brought by King Mongkut to War Benchamabopit, moved to Bangkok, National Museum Bangkok in 1928 Material: bronze Dimension: H 165cm Location: South Wing, S9 (Srivijaya Room) Created from black, gilt bronze, this statue was cast in three separate parts: the naga’s hood, the Buddha, and the naga serpent’s intertwined coils. These sections are supported by a rectangular base bearing an inscription in Khmer, stating that the image was ordered by the Governor of Grahi, or Chaiya, a dependency of the Malayu Kingdom. The image’s unusual mix of artistic styles has been the subject of many scholarly interpretations. The serpent’s hood and coils recall Khmer sculpture. A decorative necklace adorns each of the seven naga heads and each breast has a lotus-pattern rosette formerly set with a jewel. Arranged in three horizontal bands, the coils are punctuated at the middle, and at either side, by a large blossoming lotus flower. The Buddha is seated with legs folded and hands in the “Calling the Earth to Witness” bhumisparsa mudra. His monastic robe is worn in an open style, with the left shoulder covered by a pleated flap of cloth. The arrangement of the ushnisha above the coiled hair is smooth and it is decorated with a bodhi leaf, characteristic of Srivijayan art. Reflecting pure serenity and grace, the face of the Buddha gives this statue a rare elegance. III Srivijaya: Great Mandala that Vanished Fast Facts Name: Srivijaya Empire Origin: Unified Indianized kingdoms that established economic control over the Straits of Malacca Language: Ancient Malay Religion: Buddhism (minor Hinduism) Era: 7th-13th Centuries CE Location: Centered on Sumatra, Java, and Peninsular Malaysia. Capital: Palembang Decline: Attacks from the Chola dynasty weakened Srivijaya and they were soon replaced by more powerful Javanese kingdoms. Glossary Buddhism Dharmic religion centered on the belief of karma and release from the cycle of reincarnation. Based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama. Cham Austronesian ethnic group native to Southeast Asia that once controlled the Hindu Champa civilization in the region of modern Vietnam. Today, the Cham people are a minority in Vietnam and largely practice Islam. Champa An Indianized Hindu kingdom in ancient Vietnam known for constructing Tháp Chàm, their iconic Cham Towers dedicated to Shiva and other Hindu deities. Chenla Kingdom Early period (6th-9th Centuries CE) of independent Khmer states before being united into the Khmer Empire by Jayavarman II. Dvaravati Mon-Burmese ethnic group based in modern Nakhon Pathom, Thailand. Responsible for the introduction of Buddhism (Theravada sect) to Thailand. Hinduism Dharmic religion centered on the belief of karma and release from the cycle of reincarnation. It stems from Vedic teachings and one of the oldest extant religions in the world. Khmer Empire Hindu-Buddhist kingdom which ruled much of Southeast Asia from their capital at Angkor. Strait of Malacca Narrow waterway between Sumatra and the Malaysian Peninsula that has been one of the busiest shipping lanes in the world throughout history. Srivijaya Empire Empire based in Sumatra which controlled or influenced Buch of the Malay archipelago circa 600-1200 CE. thalassocracy A maritime society that uses its navy to project power. Vajrayana Buddhism Sect of Buddhism that embraces tantric practices and mysticism. Cultural Profile: Srivijaya, Maritime Empire of Ancient Brief history of the Srivijaya Empire, a maritime power based in Sumatra that controlled ancient Indonesia and the China-India trade routes. The Straits of Malacca are often cities as the busiest commercial shipping route on Earth. Fly into any major airport along the Straits of Malacca today — be it Singapore, Kuala Lumpur, or Penang — and you will see the narrow strip of water (2.8 km at its narrowest) filled with dozens to hundreds of cargo ships. This trend has remained unchanged for over 2000 years, when these waterways were also used in transit between the cultural goliaths of China and India, and were ruled over by the Srivijaya Empire.   Who Are the Srivijaya? The Srivijaya empire was a thalassocracy (a seaborne empire) and a commercial sea-power that thrived between the 8th and 13th centuries. A large portion of this empire is what is now known as Indonesia. It was formed on the island of Sumatra, which had a strong influence on Southeast Asia. Srivijaya, also known as Sri Vijaya or Sriwijaya, was a Buddhist empire in Indonesia. It was a seaborne empire and played an important role in the expansion of Buddhism between the 8th and 12th centuries. It was a powerful state at one point in time due to its excellent maritime resources and trade. This article focuses on the complete history of the culture and civilization of the Srivijaya empire. To know more about its historical background, religious practices, and rapid cultural and economic growth, keep reading! Origins of the Srivijaya For well over 2000 years, the sea lanes between India and China have been maintained as a vital commercial shipping route. Just as massive amounts of freighters pass trough the straits surrouning Malaysian peninsula today, ancient traders would likewise make similar voyages based on he predictable seasonal weather patterns.  Along the trade routes, small pockets of of locals began to adopt Indianized cultures, societal structures, and belief systems. Along the Mainland Pacific coast, these included the Funan, Champa, and Tambralinga, while on the Indian Ocean coast, kingdoms flourished along the Straits of Malacca, including at Lembah Bujang in Northern Malaysia, and the Melayu Kingdom of Sumatra, which would later evolve into Srivijaya. It is believed that the empire began around the year 500 in Sumatra. According to the Kedukan Bukit inscription, the empire of Srivijaya was founded by Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa. Under his leadership, a classical Malay Buddhist kingdom known as the Melayu kingdom became the first to be integrated with Srivijaya. The empire was the first major Indonesian kingdom and also its first commercial sea power. It controlled the Strait of Malacca, and thereby the India-China trade route, gaining power over much of the trade at sea.  Though there are not many historical records to support this theory, historians believe that by the 7th century, the kingdom of Srivijaya had established suzerainty over many areas belonging to Sumatra, Western Java, and the Malay peninsula.  Srivijaya Name Origins “Srivijaya” is derived from the Sanskrit word, which translates to “fortunate,” “prosperous,” “glorious,” and other synonymous words of triumph and happiness.  Historians believe that the empire may have been named after a king who shared the same name, H. Kern, an epigraphist and linguist, believed that the term “Vijaya” might have referred to a king’s name, with “Sri” being a title of respect. The other variations in the spelling, such as Sri Vijaya and Sriwijaya, are based on the Sundanese and Javanese pronunciations. Culture and Beliefs of the Srivijaya The Srivijaya empire is known for its Buddhist religious beliefs and practices. Let’s look at their complex cultural beliefs and how this formed their way of life and living. Religious Beliefs The kingdom was one of the most prominent religious centers in the region. The kings of Srivijaya played a major part in the expansion and establishment of Buddhism in many places that they conquered or interacted with, such as Java and the Malayasian Peninsula.  Pilgrims of any religion were encouraged to spend time interacting with the monks in the capital city of Palembang, before heading for India.  The Srivijayan realm had numerous Buddhist temples. It is believed that these sites served as monastic Buddhist learning centers, which students and scholars from all over Asia visited. Historians are convinced that Palembang alone housed over 1000 monks who had dedicated their lives to teaching and training traveling scholars in Buddhism.  One of the most popular forms of Buddhism in the empire was Vajrayana Buddhism. This was a mystical form of the religion and involved supernatural powers through yantras. This form of Buddhism originated in India but was possibly passed on to the empire because of strong trade connections between the two regions.  The influence and the importance of Buddhism were so dominant at the time that an inscription gives an account of how a particular king did his best to claim a role as a religious figure because he believed associating himself with Buddhism would elevate his image and popularity with the public.  Srivijaya Architecture Unlike many of the other Indianized kingdoms in Southeast Asia, Srivijaya was not a culture of monumental builders. There are some examples of refined brick Buddhist architecture, such as the temple complex at the Muaro Jambi. However, most public and residential buildings, and settlements in general, were not heavily fortified cities, but rather wooden homes built either or with easy access to water. Modern Palembang in Southern Sumatra was home to the ancient capital of Srivijaya. Surrounding the city are hundreds of artificial canals and islands which have yodeled many Srivijaya artifacts. Poopulating these canals today are wooden home that are built on stilts or floating on the water, mirroring in many ways the way their Srivijaya ancestors once lived. Srivijaya Artwork Commercial trade flourished in the empire, and with that came the proliferation of art. Most of the art was influenced by Buddhism in an attempt to spread the religion through the trade of art. Furthermore, the art of Srivijaya was greatly influenced by the Indian art of the Gupta and Pala empires. There were also numerous Buddhist sculptures that were discovered by archaeologists in Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula. Additionally, Chinese artworks were very popular in the kingdom, leading to an escalation in various art styles in pottery, fabrics, and silks. History of the Srivijaya Empire Although the empire was a symbol of greatness and prosperity for many centuries, it remained almost entirely forgotten after its disappearance in the 1200s.  Although Srivijaya left few archaeological remains, the discovery of this ancient and powerful empire by the historian George Cœdès in the 1920s brought Indonesia’s former glory to light. It was also a frame of reference for how ancient globalization, maritime trade, and foreign relations had formed the Indonesian civilization. In the 20th century, it was referred to by Indonesian nationalist intellectuals to prove the Indonesian identity within the state before the establishment of the Dutch colonial state. Trade and Economic Power Sumatra was known as the ‘Land of Gold’ due to its richness in natural resources. It was a source of cloves, camphor, tortoiseshell, pepper, aloeswood, and sandalwood, all of which contributed to the empire’s growing business of trade.  Srivijaya was the first Indonesian commercial sea power. It drew most of its riches and power from its considerable naval fleet and the maritime trade that fleet enabled. By the second half of the 7th century, Srivijaya had become an important and wealthy Asian power.  Srivijaya also controlled the Sunda and Malacca straits and remained an indisputable sea power until the 13th century.  Conquests and Expansion of Srivijaya Historians believe that the empire conquered most of southern Sumatra and the neighboring islands as well. According to the inscriptions, the empire also launched a war against Java in the late 7th century. By the end of the 8th century, many western Javanese kingdoms were under the rule of the empire.  In the same century, Srivijaya managed to conquer Langkasuka on the Malay Peninsula. Within no time, Pan Pan and Tambralinga also came under Srivijayan influence. All these kingdoms on the peninsula transported goods across the peninsula’s isthmus. The Srivijayans’ Exploration Between the 9th and 12th centuries, explorers from the Srivijayan empire have gone in search of new lands for trade and commercial development. Navigators, sailors, and traders engaged in trade with Borneo, Philippines archipelago, Eastern Indonesia, coastal Indochina, and Madagascar.  The migration to Madagascar is believed to have taken place around 830 CE. It is also speculated that the settlers from Srivijaya may have colonized Madagascar.  The Srivijayan explorers reached Manila by the 10th century. A 10th-century Arab account called Ajayeb al-Hind records an invasion in Africa. The invaders are believed to have been the Malay people of Srivijaya. The main reason for this invasion was to acquire coveted African commodities like ivory and tortoiseshell for the Asian market. It is also presumed that they captured black slaves from Bantu tribes. Geography of Srivijaya The territories and cities controlled by Srivijaya were primed for easy access to the sea. Even in their homeland of Sumatra, the rulers of Srivijaya paid little attention to the affairs of the inland cultures. This seafaring nature instead brought them into contact with exotic. Cultures more often than their inland neighbors, as well as spreading Sriviujayan influence was far out as Philippines, and even Madagascar. Srivijaya in Sumatra and Java The maritime influence of Srivijaya was focused along the coastlines and riverways extending inland. Beyond this, the rulers of Srivijaya did not concern themselves too deeply with the affairs of their inland neighbors. Because of this, many inland cultures continued to thrive apart from the Indianized states, such as the Batak culture around Lake Toba or the megalithic culture of the Pasemah Highlands.  Meanwhile, Srivijaya had a strong relationship with Mataram, an inland culture based on Java. Mataram had more in common with mainland contemporaries, such as Dvaravati, in that they based their cultures on stable settlements and rice cultivations. They were also monumental builders in a way that the Srivijaya were not. The dynamic of the relationship between Mataram and Srivijaya is still debated, however, they appears to be some periods where Mataram was also the dominant of the two. Srivijaya in Mainland Southeast Asia Although their center of power was in the islands of Sumatra and Java, Srivijaya had contact with, influence over, and even conflicts with the contemporary cultures of Mainland Southeast Asia. As their power expanded, many of the small and formerly independent kingdoms were brought under the control of Srivijaya, including Indianized states such as Tambralinga, Chaiya, and Kedah in modern-day Thailand and Malaysia. Evidence also exists of conflicts between Srivijaya and both the Champa Kingdom of Vietnam and the pre-Angkorian Khmers (Chenla Kingdom) of Cambodia. Srivijaya in China Srivijaya was highly regarded as a both a powerful trade empire and bastion of Buddhism by the Chinese. Buddhist pilgrims from China seeing to travel to their religion’s roots in India would often pass through Srivijaya on their way. It was common practice for these pilgrims to remain in Srivijaya for unto two years studying scriptures and learning the language. What Happened to the Srivijaya? By the 11th century, Srivijaya had been weakened due to continuous warfare with Java and the Chola dynasty from India. The Cholas systematically plundered the Srivijayan ports along the Malacca strait, until they captured the Srivijayan king in Palembang.  These attacks marked the beginning of the end of the empire. The empire slowly started to lose its unity and began to fragment. Finally, it lost its remaining power in 1288, when the Singhasari empire from East Java invaded their empire.  Despite its far-reaching influence, the empire quickly and suddenly disappeared into obscurity.  Cities of the Srivijaya Palembang South Sumatra, Indonesia GPS: -3.01485, 104.73436 Muaro Jambi (Jambi) Jambi, Indonesia GPS: -1.47763, 103.66707 Batujaya Jakarta, Indonesia GPS: -6.05634, 107.15491 Singapura (Singapore) Singapore, Singapore GPS: 1.34789, 103.87427 Tambralinga (Nakhon Si Thammarat) Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand GPS: 8.41206, 99.96645 Chaiya Surat Thani, Thailand GPS: 9.38461, 99.18544 Monuments of the Srivijaya Borobudur Central Java, Indonesia GPS: -7.60721, 110.20334 Candi Muara Takus Riau, Indonesia GPS: 0.33456, 100.64098 Candi Muaro Jambi Jambi, Indonesia GPS: -1.47763, 103.66707 Candi Bahal Portibi Temples North Sumatra, Indonesia GPS: 1.40516, 99.73049 Wat Long Surat Thani, Thailand GPS: 9.38213, 99.19039 Thalassocracy Srivijaya’s success was to create and then manage a system by which lesser monarchs maintained their own status and local loyalty arrangements while conforming to the overall interests of the Srivijayan monarchy. The concept of a Mandala was of a set of dependent relationships in which rulers maintained their autonomy within a common interest framework. It was at the heart of an Indian notion of kingship and government, a series of concentric circles of fealty and obligation headed by one supreme leader. The pre-eminent lord led by virtue of his accomplishments, while bonds with lesser nobles were cemented through marriages. The Srivijayan Mandala was based on the city’s geographical position dominating the Melaka strait. From there it could control trade and ensure fair distribution of its revenues. Dispersed entities had their own commercial interests and their own supplies of ships and sailors. They paid tribute to Srivijaya; in return they enjoyed the benefits of being part of a larger entity which could provide protection and trade access. Over time this loose hegemony came to include all the trading ports of the peninsula, and those on the Gulf of Thailand and Mekong delta, but Srivijaya was content to be first among nominal equals. It also ensured that its own sailors, with their intimate knowledge of the rocks and shoals, were kept happy with a fair share of trade income – otherwise they would resort to piracy. Local rulers retained many of the characteristics of traditional Malay datus (chieftains), who relied heavily on personal leadership qualities. But grafted on to this were Indian ideas about the divine nature of kingship within an all-encompassing system of beliefs and codes. These required the monarch to provide honest government and to attend to the welfare of his subjects in return for their loyalty, which in turn would be rewarded…. A Persian writing in Arabic in the tenth century noted that parrots in Palembang could speak many languages including Arabic, Persian and Greek. The Guangzhou Massacre Palembang also benefited commercially from the expansion of Arab and Persian trade with China, while the Abbasid empire dominated its region and the Tang era was one of prosperity in China. Srivijaya’s political clout probably waned as the Arabs used their own ships as well as Nusantarian ones. Their merchants came to dominate trade – but they still needed Srivijayan ports and sailors. So Srivijaya still collected its dues. After an initial interruption, it also benefited from a massacre of foreign traders in Guangzhou in 878 that forced the traders to move their bases to other ports. The scale of the Guangzhou massacre, carried out by rebels opposing the Tang dynasty, gives an idea of the size of the trade: it supported a foreign community that was several thousand strong, comprising Muslim Arabs and Persians, Parsees, Jews, Hindus, and Greek, Armenian and Nestorian Christians. A century earlier, in 758, Arab, Persian and other merchants had plundered the city after being infuriated by the greed of Chinese officials. This followed an incident in 684 when Kunlun merchants had killed the governor of Guangzhou. The series of troubles illustrates both the wealth that trade generated and the weakness of Chinese imperial control over a distant province where Sinicization was still far from complete…. The industrial scale of trade is shown in the wreck of a ninth century ship in the treacherous waters near Belitung Island between Sumatra and Borneo. It carried 60,000 pieces of Chinese ceramics probably destined for Basra. Mostly made to standard designs, some had Buddhist motifs, others Islamic calligraphy. There were even ceramic pots inscribed under the glaze with Manichean writing. This was a religion which had once thrived in Persia, central Asia and western China and, though much reduced by competition and persecution, lingered on until about the fourteenth century. China in turn bought cotton textiles from India, muslin and damask from Syria, frankincense from Arabia and indigo, ivory, precious woods, tortoiseshell and aromatic oils from a variety of locations to the south and west. Although maritime archaeological evidence of this is lacking, there are plenty of Chinese written records. Malagasy Genes and African Echoes Language is the starting point for uncovering another forgotten manifestation of Nusantaria and its intercontinental maritime role. It is the key to the solution of one of the mysteries of the first millennium Ce: the first permanent human settlement of Madagascar. The island marks the most westward expansion of Austronesian language and culture, its settlement roughly coinciding with the Pacific push from Polynesia to New Zealand, Hawaii and Rapa Nui (Easter Island). The world’s fourth largest island at 592,000 square kilometres, Madagascar lies only 200 kilometres from the trading ports on the east coast of Africa and yet lay uninhabited by humans until the arrival of Nusantarian seafarers from 7,000 kilometres away. This remarkable feat has gone largely unrecorded in written history, so it can only be pieced together from scientific evidence and inferences from Arab and other sources. Much else can be inferred or guessed at, but with, as yet, limited proof. Even the modern name ‘Madagascar’ (‘Madagasikara’ in the Malagasy language) has its origin in ignorance and confusion. It was first used by the traveller Marco Polo, who never went there. He confused it with Mogadishu, the trading port on the Somali coast, and compounded the error with a corrupted transliteration. The main settlement may have occurred during the period of Srivijayan ascendancy in Nusantaria but does not appear to have been politically driven. All that is Malagasy Genes and African Echoes known for sure is that the language of Madagascar is basically Austronesian but with a significant number of words from the Bantu language from Africa, and some from Indian and Arab sources. Language origin does not itself prove that people from Nusantaria were the first settlers. But the genetic evidence does. The gene pool of the island’s population today shows that it is of roughly 50 percent Nusantarian island origin… Indian Ocean Trade Triangle  Nusantarian commerce in the western Indian Ocean did not suddenly vanish, leaving the settlements cut off from their roots. Ships from Java and Sumatra continued to play a role in Indian Ocean trade at least until the thirteenth century, not least in the slave trade. In the mid-tenth century an Arab ship encountered off Mozambique a group of raiders described as ‘Waqwaq’. ‘Waqwaq’ was a vague term used by Arabs to denote peoples from the extreme south or east, hence probably Nusantarian. (Waqwaq was the subject of myths about islands where girls grew on trees.) East Africa was a source of slaves for hundreds of years, with the Baghdad-based Abbasid empire the main market. The Zanj slaves became so numerous that they became a major factor in the long-lasting anti-Abbasid rebellion which led to the sack of Basra in 871. This horrific event was widely written about in near contemporary Arab literature, including Muhammad el-Tabari’s History of Prophets and Kings and Muhammad al-Biruni’s Chronology of Ancient Nations. Some slaves were even sold in China. A Chinese, Zhu Yu, writing around 1100, recorded that wealthy people in Guangzhou employed what they called ‘devil slaves’ from Africa… ’ Tremble and Obey: The Zheng He Voyages China’s engagement with Nusantaria during the Yuan era has been overshadowed by the attention given to the voyages of Zheng He in the early Ming dynasty. The seven voyages between 1405 and 1433 of the fleets headed by Zheng’s so-called ‘Treasure Ships’ were remarkable demonstrations of Chinese naval power. The voyages abruptly ceased as Ming China became more concerned with internal and land border issues than with seas where they faced no threats. But they did have a lasting impact on the Chinese trading and migration presence across Nusantaria…. The fleets never failed to leave a mark and a message of Chinese power. It was power wielded more benignly than by the Yuan dynasty even if the underlying assumption was that non-Chinese must bow before the emperor – and so must Chinese settled in the region. The sheer size and number of its ships was awe-inspiring. A mere envoy would never need a heavily armed fleet. That he returned with ‘treasures’ such as a giraffe from Africa, not to mention a vast collection of precious objects from other exotic places, also helped establish the Zheng He voyages as memorable, particularly for Chinese, for centuries afterwards. Chau Ju-kua had referred to the African coast, to Zanzibar and people with fuzzy hair, and gave vague descriptions of zebras and giraffes. (10) A few individual Chinese had probably been there previously on Arab or Nusantarian ships. But to go there and bring back these creatures was more memorable, at least to later generations, than the rote messages of fealty to the emperor. Today, the voyages are often presented as peaceful exercises in exploration, diplomacy and trade promotion. In reality the emperor’s goal was to make himself respected and feared around the southern and western seas and emphasize the superiority of things Chinese. At the same time, however, the emperor presented himself as an impartial peacemaker in dealing with foreign states: ‘I do not differentiate between those here and those there.’ He was the father figure who issued orders to others not to fight each other, as in a directive to Cambodia and Champa, ordering Siam not to harass Melaka. More broadly, as the Xuande emperor claimed in 1429: ‘I serve Heaven by treating the people as my children. In the 10,000 states within the four seas, I try to provide prosperity and abundance.’ The emperor’s sway was mostly rhetoric, the succinct if empty expression of China’s sense of being above all others and occasionally, as in the case of the voyages, given substance by the presence of Zheng He’s large force. The purpose of that demonstration of power was insufficiently clear in Beijing, however, leaving the Chinese at the time less impressed than the foreigners. This was to be China’s last, until very recent, attempt to extend towards the tropical regions of Nusantaria and the Indian Ocean. Dislike of the heat and humidity may have played a role, reflecting an earlier imperial comment about deployment there: “The government of our present dynasty, out of affection for the army and for the good of humanity, deemed it advisable that our troops should no longer be kept in this pestilential climate for the purpose of guarding such an unprofitable territory.” The voyages contributed nothing to global knowledge of navigation, winds and currents. Zheng He visited places that had already been in communication with each other for a millennium. The Zheng He trade legacy is also debatable, because the voyages were just a three-decade episode in a boom in Asian trade which began around 1400 and involved Europe and the Muslim world as well as China, and to which Japan also contributed. But they did make China itself more aware of the world and of the southern seas in particular. The voyages helped development of Nusantarian trade with China in which the already established Chinese Muslims, sometimes intermarried with other foreign Muslims as well as local women, played a major role. These connections speeded the advance of Islam in the archipelago as trade boomed during the following two centuries. The ending of the Ming voyages has been seen as short-sighted and opening the way for European entry into Nusantaria in the next century. But it was for legitimate economic reasons: the cost of inducing tributes was far ahead of any possible gains from trade. Nor did China face any obvious security threats from the southern seas, in contrast to the northern and western frontiers. The end of the voyages did not mean the end of trade, which continued thanks both to demand from a prospering China (and Europe) and the Chinese presence in the ports of the mercantile zone. But it did mean the end, for the next 500 years, of China’s attempts to control Nusantaria. The Indian Ocean trade routes connected Southeast Asia, India, Arabia, and East Africa, beginning at least as early as the third century BCE. This vast international web of routes linked all of those areas as well as East Asia (particularly China). Long before Europeans "discovered" the Indian Ocean, traders from Arabia, Gujarat, and other coastal areas used triangle-sailed dhows to harness the seasonal monsoon winds. Domestication of the camel helped bring coastal trade goods such as silk, porcelain, spices, incense, and ivory to inland empires, as well. Enslaved people were also traded. Classic Period Indian Ocean Trading During the classical era (4th century BCE–3rd century CE), major empires involved in the Indian Ocean trade included the Achaemenid Empire in Persia (550–330 BCE), the Mauryan Empire in India (324–185 BCE), the Han Dynasty in China (202 BCE–220 CE), and the Roman Empire (33 BCE–476 CE) in the Mediterranean. Silk from China graced Roman aristocrats, Roman coins mingled in Indian treasuries, and Persian jewels sparkled in Mauryan settings. Another major export item along the classical Indian Ocean trade routes was religious thought. Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism spread from India to Southeast Asia, brought by merchants rather than by missionaries. Islam would later spread the same way from the 700s CE on. Indian Ocean Trade in the Medieval Era During the medieval era (400–1450 CE), trade flourished in the Indian Ocean basin. The rise of the Umayyad (661–750 CE) and Abbasid (750–1258) caliphates on the Arabian Peninsula provided a powerful western node for the trade routes. In addition, Islam valued merchants—the Prophet Muhammad himself was a trader and caravan leader—and wealthy Muslim cities created an enormous demand for luxury goods. Meanwhile, the Tang (618–907) and Song (960–1279) dynasties in China also emphasized trade and industry, developing strong trade ties along the land-based Silk Roads, and encouraging maritime trade. The Song rulers even created a powerful imperial navy to control piracy on the eastern end of the route.  Between the Arabs and the Chinese, several major empires blossomed based largely on maritime trade. The Chola Empire (3rd century BCE–1279 CE) in southern India dazzled travelers with its wealth and luxury; Chinese visitors record parades of elephants covered with gold cloth and jewels marching through the city streets. In what is now Indonesia, the Srivijaya Empire (7th–13th centuries CE) boomed based almost entirely on taxing trading vessels that moved through the narrow Malacca Straits. Even the Angkor civilization (800–1327), based far inland in the Khmer heartland of Cambodia, used the Mekong River as a highway that tied it into the Indian Ocean trade network. For centuries, China had mostly allowed foreign traders to come to it. After all, everyone wanted Chinese goods, and foreigners were more than willing to take the time and trouble of visiting coastal China to procure fine silks, porcelain, and other items. In 1405, however, the Yongle Emperor of China's new Ming Dynasty sent out the first of seven expeditions to visit all of the empire's major trading partners around the Indian Ocean. The Ming treasure ships under Admiral Zheng He traveled all the way to East Africa, bring back emissaries and trade goods from across the region. Europe Intrudes on the Indian Ocean Trade In 1498, strange new mariners made their first appearance in the Indian Ocean. Portuguese sailors under Vasco da Gama (~1460–1524) rounded the southern point of Africa and ventured into new seas. The Portuguese were eager to join in the Indian Ocean trade since European demand for Asian luxury goods was extremely high. However, Europe had nothing to trade. The peoples around the Indian Ocean basin had no need for wool or fur clothing, iron cooking pots, or the other meager products of Europe. As a result, the Portuguese entered the Indian Ocean trade as pirates rather than traders. Using a combination of bravado and cannons, they seized port cities like Calicut on India's west coast and Macau, in southern China. The Portuguese began to rob and extort local producers and foreign merchant ships alike. Still scarred by the Moorish Umayyad conquest of Portugal and Spain (711–788), they viewed Muslims in particular as the enemy and took every opportunity to plunder their ships. In 1602, an even more ruthless European power appeared in the Indian Ocean: the Dutch East India Company (VOC). Rather than insinuating themselves into the existing trade pattern, as the Portuguese had done, the Dutch sought a total monopoly on lucrative spices like nutmeg and mace. In 1680, the British joined in with their British East India Company, which challenged the VOC for control of the trade routes. As the European powers established political control over important parts of Asia, turning Indonesia, India, Malaya, and much of Southeast Asia into colonies, reciprocal trade dissolved. Goods moved increasingly to Europe, while the former Asian trading empires grew poorer and collapsed. With that, the two-thousand-year-old Indian Ocean trade network was crippled, if not completely destroyed. Szczepanski, Kallie. "Indian Ocean Trade Routes." ThoughtCo, Aug. 27, 2020, thoughtco.com/indian-ocean-trade-routes-195514https://www.thoughtco. com/indian-ocean-trade-routes-195514 & Philip Bowring.I.B. Tauris.2019(978-1788314466) IV The Mysterious Origin of the enigmatic Shailendra of Java Pre-Phnom (Funan) Kingdom People of Kok Tlok (Kok means dry land and Thlok is a name of a big large tree) was a native to Phnom Kingdom (Funan recorded by Chinese) they lived in a land surrounding with water mixing from river and sea. They claimed that they were a descendant of the Naga people. Was the Funan Kingdom a Khmer nation? Funan was a Khmer nation which was later leaded by King Kao Din ( From Indian) after he married with Queen Sor Ma (Khmer). I mean the nation had already built before the Prince arrived. It was leaded by the first Cambodian queen. Queen Soma of Kok Thlok and King Kaudinya of South India ruled Phnom (Funan). They named people of their Kingdom “Khmer” and named their Kingdom “Phnom” (Mountain). King Kaudinya became the first Khmer Varman dynasty. The ruling family of Khmer Phnom (Funan) was the Kumeru-Soma clan (Lunar) who named their people Kumer later become Khmer after the King name Kumeru. Phnom Kingdom (Mountain Kingdom) Funan named by the Chinese travellers Kang Tai and Zhu Yi from Wu Kigdom of China in the 3rd century.From the 1st century ad to 6th century ad. Phnom Kingdom (First temple in Ba Phnom, Takeo province in Cambodia) Phnom (Funan) was the first large Southeast Asia civilization. It was centered on the lower Mekong Delta in present -day Cambodia. Phnom Kingdom was very famous, people from Champa, Java, India, China, Roman, Greek, Persia came to visit and trade with people of Phnom Kingdom. The Chinese named it Funan ruling by King Hun Tien and Queen Lievye. King Kumeru Kaudinya Jayavarman sent a message to his brothers at Indrapat Kingdom in India, informed them that he found a home in east near Champa Kingdom. His brothers were very happy sending ships with many men and many gifts and informed the bad news that the King father had passed away after the departure of Prince Kumeru. Phnom Kingdom had many Indian men married with women of Kok Tlok and the Indigenous women of Kok Tlok. Capital: Vyadhapura (Today Angkor Borei in Ta Keo province, Cambodia). Ethnicity: Khmer Language: Spoken old Khmer, Sanskrit writing. Culture: Mixed of native beliefs, Neak Ta. Hinduism and Buddhism. Administration; Taxes were paid in silver, gold, pearl, perfumes wood. Used bronze coins as their currency. Legacy: King and Queen of Mountain (The Java based Shailendra claimed that they were descendant of Phnom (Mounting Kingdom). Economy: Phnom (Funan) was first SEA great economy. It was prosperous through maritime trade and agriculture using Oc Eo as its important port traded with foreigners such as Indian, Cham, Java, Chinese, Roman, Greek and Persian. King and Queen of Phnom Kingdom had 11 children. King Kumeru Kaudinya Varman ruled 77 years and died in the age of 103 years. Queen Nagi Phervatei Soma die at the age of 100 years. Their children, grand-children and great-grandchildren continued to reign Phnom Kingdom until the 6th century. After that, their descendants were intermarried with their cousin the Kampu-Mera clan (Solar) of Kampuchea (Cambodia) Chenla. Quen Soma. Funan, the first Khmer Phnom Kingdom of Cambodia. Wars with Vietnem Khmer Empire Vietnam wars The Khmer Empire really tried many times to conquer the ancient Vietnamese state - Dai Viet/the Great Viet Kingdom (Vietnam) during the 12th century when the powerful Empire - Kkmer still dominated the Mainland of Southeast Asian and the Vietnamese weak state - the Dai Viet Kingdom Background: During the 12th century, the Khmer Empire was powerful country compared to its neighbouring around including Dai Viet Kingdom (Vietnam). In general, they dominated the terrritories which covered most of parts of Vietnam, Laos, Thailand today. At the time Dai Viet Kingdom (Vietnam) was in a vulnerable position due to internal conflict and a series of wars with their neighbors. In 1127, the 12-years-old Crown Prince Lý Dương Hoán became new ruler of Dai Viet. Suryavarman II , the ruler of the Khmer Empire demanded Dai Viet kingdom to pay tribute for the Khmer Empire, but it wasn't happening. After the Vietnamese refused to pay tribute to the Khmers, Suryavarman II decided to expand his territory northward into Vietnamese territory. Conflicts: In 1128: King Suryavarman II led 20,000 soldiers from Savannakhet (Laos today) to Nghe An (Central Vietnam today) but were routed in battle. The following year Suryavarman continued skirmishes on land and sent 700 ships to bombard the coastal areas of Dai Viet. In 1132: The Khmer Empire and Champa Empire jointly invaded the Dai Viet Kingdom and briefly seizing Nghe An of Dai Viet. According to the Dai Viet Su Ky Toan Thu book (“the official history book of ancient Vietnam), the Khmer Empire also attacked Dai Viet in 1136, 1149, 1150 under the Surayavarman II period, 1216, 1218 of next Khmer’s Kings (Detail later) Aftermath The Dai Viet Kingdom protected itself from the Khmer Empire but the Khmer Rouge still dominated the region until slowly weakening after a few next centuries and replaced by Vietnam and Thailand as dominant players in the eastern of Mainland Southeast Asia. Lusia Millar Matriarchal Society: Kok Tlok was ruled by a Princess Nagi, a daughter of the King and Queen of Naga. Men and women wore the animal skins on their below bodies, but nothing on top of their bodies. Only women can chose men to get married with. After marriage, husbands must come to live with their wives’ parent houses. Wives were the men of the houses, husbands had no objection when wives decided what to do, women were the leadership, women controlled the business as we can see today in every public market in the current Kampuchea (Cambodia). Women were Mé , Men were Ba. Children called their mother Mé and called their father Ba. Mé means first, chief, big or huge. Mé was played very important role in Kok Tlok Kingdom. When children get married, they needed Mé and Ba for blessing them at their wedding ceremony. Children used their mother family name instead of their father family name. People of Kok Tlok believed in nature spirits, in animal spirits and Neat Ta spirits. People of Kok Tlok killed fish, wild animals and picked fruits in the jungle for their food. They had their mother tongue speaking language, but they didn't have a writing system of language. When they died, their death bodies were brought into the jungle or cremated them in their village. The Khmer built the Naga statues in every Khmer temple in Cambodia to remind of the ancestors of Khmer before the Indian arrival. Who was the ruling family of Khmer Phnom (Funan) Kingdom, pre-Cambodia? The ruling family of Khmer Phnom (Funan) was the Kumeru-Soma clan (Lunar) who named their people Kumer later become Khmer after the King name Kumeru. Phnom Kingdom (Mountain Kingdom) Funan named by the Chinese travellers Kang Tai and Zhu Yi from Wu Kigdom of China in the 3rd century. From the 1st century ad to 6th century AD.Phnom Kingdom (First temple in Ba Phnom, Takeo province in Cambodia). Phnom (Funan) was the first large Southeast Asia civilization. It was centered on the lower Mekong Delta in present -day Cambodia Phnom Kingdom was very famous, people from Champa, Java, India, China, Rome were in toiuch with the kingdom.. The ancient Khmer did leave many historical writings on palm leaves or on stone inscriptions and even carving how the ancient Khmer living in ancient times. Some are lost because of many wars and because the enemies burned and destroyed them. The Khmer Empire is one of the strongest Empires in Mainland Southeast Asia together with the Burmese Empire, the Thai Kingdom, and the Viet Kingdom. There are many debates about your question of how the Khmer Empire fall. However, from my point of view, with the short answer, the Khmer Empire fall because the Khmer imperial court had not enough power to maintain its Empire and make its vassal states and edge territorial loyal to itself. At its height, Khmer Empire consists not only central state: Cambodia but also several vassal states around the King Ramkamheing of Siam (Thailand) Ram means (Ream=Brother) and Kamhaing means (Kamhaing=Threaten). Ram Kamhaing = Threatened by brother. The King was a brother of the Khmer King Jayavarman VIII.In the 13th century in order to found a Kingdom for his wife, his children and his Siam people who support him, he stole the secret documents from Angkor and he was threatened by his King brother. He was known as the father of Siam who invented the Siam alphabets, but he didn’t invent, he just copied the Khmer alphabets, took all the hair on top of the Khmer alphabets out and made them as the Siam a In some Indonesian history forums/pages that I follow, sometimes there’s a debate about where the Shailendra came from. One group says that Shailendra came from Sumatra. And the other says that Syailendra were originally Javanese but with Srivijaya influences. Other options are rarely discuss in Indonesia. There are 4 possibilities of the origin of Syailendra Dinasty or in Indonesian we call them “Wangsa Syailendra / Wanga Sailendra.” Shailendra dynasty - What is the meaning of Shailendra (Sanskrit शैलेंद्र) ? Shailendra (IAST: Śailendra) is a Sanskrit combined words Śaila and Indra, meaning "King of the Mountain", It is often used as an epithet of the Hindu god Shiva. It is commonly used as a male given name in the Indian subcontinent. This Javan dynasty ruled from about 750 to 850 CE. The bas relief of 8th century Borobudur depict a King sitting in Maharajalilasana ( king's posture or royal ease ) pose, with his Queen and their subjects, the scene is based on Shailendran royal court. It was the notable Indianised dynasty whose reign signified a cultural renaissance in the region. The Shailendras are considered to have been a thalassocracy and ruled vast swathes of maritime Southeast Asia, however they also relied on agricultural pursuits, by way of intensive rice cultivation on the Kedu Plain of Central Java. The dynasty appeared to be the ruling family of both the Mataram Kingdom of Central Java, for some period, and the Srivijaya Kingdom in Sumatra. The inscriptions created by Shailendras use three languages; Old Malay , Old Javanese , and Sanskrit - written either in the Kawi alphabet , or pre- Nāgarī script . The use of Old Malay has sparked speculation of a Sumatran origin, or Srivijayan connection of this family. On the other hand, the use of Old Javanese suggests their firm political establishment on Java. The use of Sanskrit usually indicates the official nature, and/or religious significance, of the event described in any given inscription. Primary sources. The Sojomerto inscription (c. 725) discovered in Batang Regency , Central Java, mentioned the name Dapunta Selendra and Selendranamah . The name 'Selendra' was another spelling of Shailendra, suggested that Dapunta Selendra was the progenitor of Shailendra family in Central Java. The inscription is Shaivist in nature, which suggests that the family was probably initially Hindu Shaivist. The earliest dated inscription in Indonesia in which clearly mentioned the dynastic name of Śailēndra as Śailēndravamśatilaka appears is the Kalasan inscription (778) of central Java, The idea that supports Shailendra’s Funan origin was proposed by Coedes.He he believed that Syailendra came from Funan because of the similar title. But he didnt discuss other proofs regarding Syailendra Dynasty origin including the inscription that was written in Old Malay language. The name 'Selendra' was first mentioned in Sojomerto Inscription (725) as "Dapunta Selendra". Dapunta Selendra is suggested as the ancestor of Shailendras. The title Dapunta is similar to those of Srivijayan King Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa, and the inscription — although discovered in Central Java north coast — was written in old Malay, which suggested the Sumatran origin or Srivijayan connection to this family. English translation of the Sojomerto Inscription: Praise to Lord Shiva Bhatara Parameshvara and all the gods ... from the honorable Dapunta Selendra Santanu is the name of his father, Bhadrawati is the name of his mother, Sampula is the name of the wife of noble Selendra. With this inscription, many historians believe that Syailendra spoke old Malay and might came from Sumatra because the used of the name Dapunta which was Srivijayan name. Other theory is they were Javanese but spoke old Malay because of Srivijaya influence. Srivijaya (Sumatran) origin theory is more convincing. Anyway, we can also look at Sailendra Dynasty relic, Borobudur. A relief on that temple shows a ship that often called as Borobudur ship. . This ship predates the bigger Majapahit ship known as Djong. Though not big, this type of ship is the one that took Srivijayans to Madagascar and helped them traded with East Africans.I honestly dont know much about Funan. But if Syailendra came from Funan, why they used old malay and painted a typical Srivijaya/Austronesia ship on their temple? Is it true that the Sailendra of Java, Indonesia, was a descendant of the Khmer royal family of Phnom (Funan) Kingdom of Cambodia? It is said that the Shailendras were active promoters of Mahayana Buddhism but there is a section that feels that they were Hindus since their names were from the Hindu Scriptures as you will read further on and rulked over the Kedu Plain of Central Java with Buddhist monuments , one of which is the colossal stupa of Borobudur. In some Indonesian history forum on the origin of Shailendras.Some say they came from Sumatra And the other says that Shailendra were originally Javanese but with Srivijaya influences. Vietnam has 1.3 million Khmer people living in the southern provinces of Tra Vinh, Soc Trang, Kien Giang, An Giang, Bac Lieu, Can Tho, and Vinh Long. The Khmer do farm work, fish, and produce handicraft products. They have a rich culture of folk songs, folk tales, festivals, temples, and pagodas. The Khmer language is a branch of the Mon-Khmer language group. Although the Khmer live in the same provinces as Kinh and Chinese people, they congregate in their own villages.The Khmer earn a living from fishing, weaving cloth and mats, The area that is today Southern Vietnam did not look at all like it is now. It was mostly swamps and dense jungles. And it was nominally under the administration of the Cambodian court. There were pockets of Khmers here and there, but for the large part, they did not really inhabit much of the area, because it was flood-prone. Khmers were more concentrated upstream of the Mekong River, in the area that is today Cambodia. First and foremost, Since 1953/1954, Cambodia has officially regained its independence and the legitimate rulers of Cambodia should be the Cambodian people instead of the Vietnamese, the Chinese or the Thai people. - SHAILEDRAS are from INDIA? This is the 5 th theorey that Mahendravarman, vraḥ kamrateṅ añ Śrī Mahendravarmma in Pre-Angkorian Khmer also titled Citrasena, was a king of the kingdom of Chenla, modern day Cambodia, during the 6th century. Chenla was the direct predecessor of the Khmer empire. Citrasena was a close relative of Bhavavarman I , whom he joined to conquer the Kingdom of Funan, and whom he succeeded as king and adopting the name Mahendravarman. After Bhavavarman's death, Mahendravarman took residence in the capital at Sambor Prei Kuk while the same time Hiraṇyavarman was ruling Cambodia. Mahendravarman sent an ambassador to Champa to "ensure friendship between the two countries.” After the death of Mahendravarman, his son Īśānavarman , had taken the control of the kingdom, where his father ruled for several years. He ruled the kingdom until 628. His sons were namned Śivadatta  Īsvarakumāra Khmer Yuvarāja  (Name not identified from historical records) All above names are Hindu names. The connection between the Pallava dynasty of India and the Varman dynasty of Cambodia (Kamboja). In 731, the Pallava king Parameswaravarman died without any heir and hence the Pallava Empire was without a king. Parameswaravarman was the last ruler of the Simhavishnu line of Pallavas. That their enemies would not utilize the opportunity to invade the country, the military leaders, scholars and representatives of mercantile and peasantry formed an entourage and undertook a long journey to reach the kingdom of– modern day Cambodia and Vietnam– ruled by a certain Kadavesa Hari Varma, who stemmed from the Pallava lineage and was 6th descendant of Bhimavarman, the brother of the great Simhavishnu. When Simhavishnu ascended the throne (6th Century AD), the Pallava dynasty was beginning to reassert its supremacy. Simhavishnu led the revival of the Pallavas, and the period starting with him came to be known as the Greater Pallavas or later Pallavas dynasty. The great struggle between the Pallavas and the Chalukyas, which would last for more than two centuries, began during the reign of Simhavishnu. The southern peninsula of India was then ruled by five dynasties. The Pallavas, the Cholas and the Pandyas shared the power in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, parts of southern and eastern Karnataka border and Ceylon; the Cheras controlled Kerala and the Chalukyas controlled Karnataka. Simhavishnu, who was known for his gallant martial courage and judicial wisdom from a young age, overthrew the Kalabras and conquered the region up to Kaveri, where he came into conflict with the Pandyas and Ceylon. He dispatched a naval expedition and occupied Malaya and Sri Lanka and established Kanchipuram as his capital. The presence of the Pallavas, much before further naval expeditions to Indo-China by their illustrious succeeding and contemporary empires such as the Pandiyans and the Cholas, is attested by the existence of specimen of art bearing striking resemblance in countries like Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, as well as scores of inscriptions in those lands in the Grantha script (a script in which both Tamil and Sanskrit can be written) in which the Pallavas were the first to specialize. checkered scarf/ Vam Ray Pagoda in Tra Vinh, Vietnam. This is one of many pagodas imbued with Khmer Buddhist architecture in the South of Vietnam. Cambodian king Kadavesa Hari Verma had four sons. The first three (Kshatriyamalla, Sangramamalla and Rajamalla) declined the offer. The last one Pallava Malla Parameswara also known as Nandivarman, who was then 14 years old, accepted the request. Nandivarman’s becoming a king at such an early age is referred to in many inscriptions and contemporary literature (referring to him as “The one of strong arms who got the kingdom at a tender age” or the one who became king at an early age). Nandivarman was an intellectual with aptitude in many arts like writing, poetry, music and philosophy. Like his predecessor Rajasimha, he is credited with augmenting temple dramatized dance worship like Kutiyattam and chakyar koothu with many plays of his own. He is known to have composed the same in Tamil, also, as can be seen from the poem “Nandikkalambakam” that celebrates his erudition in Tamil, while also hailing his great conquests. Nandi Varman is also known to have had expertise in the work of karnisuta a magnum opus in Sanskrit dealing with crimes and punishment. The alwar saint Tirumangai Alwar, who was a contemporary of this Pallava, also dedicates several verses in his Divyaprabhandam to describe successful wars at Thellaru, Nellai (Tirunelveli), Urayur and Karur and kalikottai (Kozhikode) of Tamil Chera kingdom in Kerala. He is also known for his good looks and liking for training in gymnastics. Nandivarman was a Vaishnava devotee, as is seen from his construction of the Vaikuntha Perumal temple and his patronage of Tirumangai Alvar; he paid his respects to the pair of ‘worshipful feet of Mukunta’. The copper plate grants of his times give us a picture of the privileges, especially educational, enjoyed by the Brahmins. He was a builder of temples. The Paramesvaravinnagaram at Kanchi, the Kesava Perumal temple at Kuram, the Tiruvadigai and the Muktesvara temples at Kanchi were all built by him. Nandi Varman inherited a kingdom that was made strong by the efforts of his illustrious predecessors like Parameswaravarman and Rajasimha. The Deccan enemies of the Pallavas, who had for long been at the receiving end from successive Pallava kings, used the opportunity resulting from the anarchy and seem to have attempted to march against the Pallava kingdom. Nandivarman, then only 13 years old, was not equipped physically and mentally to command an army, nor was he allowed to take to the battlefield as per war rule.  Pallavas for the first time in their illustrious history made a tactical wait and watch. This, however, did not have any consequence and the Pallava territories were never endangered. The previously mentioned enemy also is known to have been further defeated decisively during an invasion by the benevolent Pandyan Srivallabha Pandiyan in whose kingdom the alwar saint Periyalwar lived and composed. As noted from many of his inscriptions, the period witnessed general peace and trade flourished. The poem Nandikkalambakam, which informs us of his great servitor ship to saivite tradition, also says that “ships from far off continents, loaded with great wealth, creaking to the point of breaking, sailed into the kingdom regularly”. Nandi Varman was successful in defeating many of his foes, who mainly ruled states in the Deccan with the help of his brave commander called Udayachandran, who was a part of the entourage that accompanied him from Cambodia and who had long been serving in the king’s special forces in 731 A.D. Nandi Varman was also a very pious man noted for his generosity  to temples at Karkudi (the temple still bears his name as Uyyakondan Tirumalai and is mentioned in Tevaram hymns), vennainallur and parameswara vinnagaram in Kanchipuram. The Pandyan kingdom also came under Pallavan rule after their defeat in the war at nellai or tirunelveli. Several other Saiva and Vaishnava exponents like purushottama nambikal, nakkeera devar, tirukanna nambikal etc. lived during Nandivarman’s period and composed several hymns to their lord. A temple for goddess Bhagavati (Durga) was built in Nagercoil by Nandivarman and this shows that the Pallavas reigned supreme in the south during his period. Sivakamiyin sapatham and Ponniyin selvam are famous modern day literature fictionalizing the period.Nandi Varman died in 796. IV Sanjay and Shailedra Dynasties and their MOTHERLAND “Vande Mataram” (Hail to our mother) The historical context surrounding the Mataram culture and civilization of the Mataram Kingdom is not only interesting but a little confusing. The Trimurthi temple of Prambanan or Rara Jonggrang is the largest Hindu temple of ancient Java, 9th from century. Built by Rakai Pikatan to establish power of Sanjay dynasty and dedicated to Trimūrti-Brahma Vishnu Mahesh, it is an UNESCO World Heritage Site; 2nd largest Hindu temple in Southeast Asia. Prambanan temple complex at night Sanjaya (732-760) and Panangkaran (760-780)-shailendra dynasty confusion is still there? both r related? few say Sanjay as Shaiv & Shailendra kings as Buddhist? both faiths interlinked and overlapping too, in my opinion Religion in the Mataram Kingdom It played much the same role throughout much of recorded history, giving rise to early kingdoms such as Mataram. As the population of Java continues to increase and becomes more modern and urban, the Indonesia of today still holds strong to its cultural and historical roots.The Mataram society was polytheistic and combined the religious beliefs of Hinduism and Buddhism, along with native shamanism and pre-Dharmic beliefs. Under the rule of King Sanjaya, the Mataram Kingdom favored and worshipped Lord Shiva and gave much importance to his symbol, the Linga. The Mataram Kingdom flourished between 712 and 938 in Central Java, an island of Indonesia and lies southeast of Malaysia and west of Bali. It is also noted to be the world’s most populous island in the world today. Vande Mataram The Mataram Kingdom, also called the Medang Kingdom, was a Javanese Hindu-Buddhist kingdom. It was based in central and east Java and flourished between the 8th and 11th centuries. It was ruled by the Shailendra dynasty and was established by King Sanjaya.  Vajrasattva. Eastern Java, Kediri period, 10th–11th century CE, bronze, 19.5 x 11.5 cm Origins of the Mataram Kingdom Mataram means mother in Sanskrit and this mother Kingdom named itself so to give an ode to the motherland. The first major kingdom of central Java was the Medang or Mataram Kingdom, founded at the beginning of the 8th century. The earliest accounts of the Mataram Kingdom are in the Canggal inscription, which dates back to 732.  The inscription gives an account of the erection of “Linga” (symbol of Lord Shiva) in the Kunjarakunja area, which is located on the island of Yawadwipa (Java). This Linga was raised under the rule of King Sanjaya, the lord of Mataram.  According to the inscription, the kingdom was first ruled by King Sanna, who was known for his wisdom and knowledge. After his demise, there was a period of disunity, until Sanjaya, the nephew of king Sanna, ascended the throne. During his reign, there was peace and prosperity for all his subjects. However, a Sundanese book called Carita Parahyangan gives a slightly different account of the same story. In this book, Sanjaya is the son of Sanna. It also states that Sanna was overthrown by the king of Galuh and was forced to retreat to Mount Merapi. His son, Sanjaya, later avenged his father and defeated the King of Galuh. The kingdom was finally restored to the rightful heir, and Sanjaya ruled West Java, East Java, Central Java, and Bali. It is believed that King Sanjaya was the one who left the written records of these events on the Canggal inscription, though it’s impossible to know for sure.  Mataram Kingdom Name Origins Initially, the kingdom was called “Yawadvipa,” another name for the island of Java. Indonesian archaeologists such as Prof.Soekmono of Indonesia identify the kingdom as Mataram, based on a geographical location called Mataram in central Java. Additionally, king Sanjaya’s full name was “Rakai Mataram Sang Ratu Sanjaya,” which may have been another reason for the name of the kingdom. The etymology of the name “Mataram” is derived from the Sanskrit term for “mother.” The name Medang was found in East Javanese inscriptions. Some historians believe that the Central Java period (732-929) was referred to as Mataram, and the later Eastern Java period (929-1006) was identified as Medang.  However, it is also believed that the kingdom was called Medang, and the capital was Mataram, based on some phrases found in the inscriptions. Etymologically, the name Medang is an ancient Javanese term that means “to gracefully appear.” Culture and Beliefs of the Mataram Kingdom and Mataram Social Structure The Javanese had a complex social structure and also recognized the Hindu caste system. The ancient Javanese society was divided into four classes: The royal family The religious authorities The commoners Historians have discovered that the different classes had a dress code that they strictly adhered to. The royal family and their servants could be identified by their luxurious clothing and intricate golden jewelry. All the priests wore robes or cloaks called “sinhels.” The commoners, who were also described as villagers, wore very simple clothing and rarely adorned any jewelry or ornaments. Religion in the Mataram Kingdom The society was polytheistic and combined the religious beliefs of Hinduism and Buddhism, along with native shamanism and pre-Dharmic beliefs. Under the rule of King Sanjaya, the Mataram Kingdom favored and worshipped Lord Shiva and gave much importance to his symbol, the Linga.  However, during the reign of Panangkaran, Mahayana Buddhism gained popularity. Many temples were built to pay homage to Buddhist beliefs. The kingdom gave importance to the priest class in both religions. The Brahmins and the Sangha Buddhists represented their respective religions and conducted the state’s religious ceremonies together in the temples.  There were many ardent temple construction projects in the kingdom which were possibly motivated by the combined religious zeal of both religions.  In the 16th century, Islam became a major religion as the island of Java became a Muslim sultanate.  Art in the Mataram Kingdom The importance of art in the kingdom depicted through the various carvings found on the temple walls during this era. These carvings gave rich portrayals of life during the ninth century. The architecture was another form of art that flourished during this period, and can still be seen in their magnificent temples that exist even today. There was a cultural mingling in the south-western part of Java, where the Javanese and Sundanese cultures combined to create the Banyusaman culture. In addition to this, the most famous Javanese arts were gamelan music and wayang puppet shows, which became traditional arts. History of the Mataram Kingdom and flip flop betweem the Hindus and the Buyddhists: Historians believe that there were two prevailing dynasties that ruled Central Java together; the Buddhist Sailendra and Shivanist Sanjaya dynasties. This period of the dual dynasty was characterized by peaceful co-operation. However, in the middle of the ninth century, the relationship between the dynasties deteriorated. The Sailendra managed to gain full control of Central Java and became the overlords of the Sanjayas.  There is not much information regarding the Sailendra rule, but it signified a cultural renaissance in the region. The kingdom saw rapid growth during the 9th century.  However, the Sailendra rule was short-lived. In 852, the Sanjaya ruler, Pikatan, defeated the Sailendra ruler’s offspring and ended their rule in Java. The Sanjaya rule lasted until the end of the Medang Kingdom. During his reign, King Pikatan built the royal Hindu Trimurti temple known today as Candi Prambanan.  Mataram emerged in the highlands and fertile plains of Central Java, where productivity in rice cultivation was aided by the advent of the island’s iconic rice terraces. These high yields created the stable food source necessary for high population growth and an organized state society, led by those who were in control of the upland water sources. This societal organization would later go on to become proficient builders on not only the public infrastructure needed for water management, but the monumental Hindu-Buddhist religious architecture that still dots much of Java, including the renowned Borobudur and Prambanan temples. Mataram in Eastern Java Central Java was always the center of the Mataram Kingdom. But in 929, the center was shifted to East Java. Historians are uncertain about the exact cause for this sudden shift, but believe it may have been because of a natural calamity or epidemic outbreak.  They also believe that the Merapi volcano may have erupted and destroyed the Kingdom’s capital in Mataram. This expansion took place under the rule of the last king of the Sanjaya dynasty, Mpu Sindok. What Happened to the Mataram Kingdom? Mataram flouruished between the Era: 712 – 938 CE and was located in Central Java, Indonesia. Its Capital was Yogyakarta. However there was an ongoing rivalry between the Sumatran Srivijaya and Javanese Medang kingdoms, which became more hostile.  This rivalry may have been caused by the Srivijayan attempt to seize the Sailendra lands in Java. This is because the Srivijaya maharajas, Balaputra and his son, belonged to the Sailendra dynasty. The collapse of the kingdom occurred in the tenth century. In 1006, Srivijaya attacked and destroyed the Medang palace, killing most of the royal family. With the death of king Dharmawangsa and the fall of the capital, the kingdom finally collapsed. However, a nephew of king Dharmawangsa had escaped capture and had remained in exile. Later on, he reunited the fallen kingdom and re-established the kingdom (including Bali) under the name of the kingdom of Kahuripan. After many years, the kingdom was renamed as Kediri. Mataram Kingdom was an early Indianized kingdom emerging from native Javanese population. Its languages wer: Old Javanese, Sanskrit; religion: Buddhism (Mahayana), Hinduism Decline: Fell to Srivijaya, later reemerging as the Kediri Kingdom. Today Indonesia is administered so that at first level subdivisions of Indonesia is Province. A province is headed by a governor (Gubernur). Each province has its own regional assembly, called Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah (DPRD, literally "Regional People's Representative Council"). Governors and representative members are elected by popular vote for five-year terms. Provinces was formerly also known as Daerah Tingkat I (Level I Region). State emblem of Indonesia is called Garuda Pancasila. The main part of the coat of arms is the golden mythical bird Garuda with a shield on its chest and a scroll gripped by its leg bears the national motto: "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika", roughly means "Unity in Diversity". The shield's five emblems represent Pancasila, the five principles of Indonesia's national philosophy. The numbers of feathers was meant to symbolize the date of Indonesian Proclamation of Independence; 17 feathers on each wings, 8 tail feathers, 19 upper tail feathers (under the shield, above the tail), and 45 neck feathers; all symbolize 17-8-1945; 17th August 1945. Adopted as national coat of arms on February 11, 1950. The Bi-Polar Kingdom of Kediri By the beginning of the 13 th Century, according to a Chinese source in the book of Chu-fan-chi written around 1225,  the Southeast Asian archipelago had two powerful and rich kingdoms: Srivijaya and Java (Kediri). In Java he found that people adhere two religions: Buddhism and the religion of Brahmin (Hinduism). The book of Chu-fan-chi mentioned that Java (Kediri) was ruled by a maharaja, who ruled several colonies. Regarding Srivijaya, Chou-Ju-Kua reported that Kien-pi (Kampe, in northern Sumatra) with armed forced rebellion had liberated themselves from Srivijaya, and crowned their own king. The same fate befell some of Srivijaya's colonies on the Malay Peninsula that liberated themselves from Srivijaya domination. However Srivijaya was still the mightiest and wealthiest state in the western part of the archipelago. According to this source, in the early 13th century Srivijaya still ruled Sumatra, the Malay peninsula, and western Java (Sunda). Regarding Sunda, the book details that the port of Sunda (Sunda Kelapa) was excellent and strategically located, and that the pepper from Sunda was among the best quality. The people worked in agriculture; their houses were built on wooden piles (rumah panggung). However the country was infested with robbers and thieves. The Kingdom of Kediri is the successor of Airlangga's Kahuripan kingdom, and thought as the continuation of Isyana Dynasty in Java. In 1042, Airlangga divided his kingdom of Kahuripan into two, Janggala and Panjalu (Kadiri), and abdicated in favour of his sons to live as an ascetic. He died seven years later.It existed alongside the Srivijaya empire based in Sumatra throughout 11th to 12th-century, and seems to have maintained trade relations with China and to some extent India. Chinese account identify this kingdom as Tsao-wa or Chao-wa (Java), numbers of Chinese records signify that Chinese explorers and traders frequented this kingdom. Relations with India were cultural one, as numbers of Javanese rakawi (poet or scholar) wrote literatures that been inspired by Hindu mythology, beliefs and epics such as Mahabharata and Ramayana. In 11th-century, Srivijayan hegemony in Indonesian archipelago began to decline, marked by Rajendra Chola invasion to Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. The Chola king of Coromandel conquered Kedah from Srivijaya. The weakening of Srivijayan hegemony has enabled the formation of regional kingdoms, like Kediri, based on agriculture rather than trade. Later Kediri managed to control the spice trade routes to Maluku. Airlangga's embodiment statue as Lord Vishnu riding Garuda, found in Belahan, collection of Trowulan Museum, East Java.//// Statue of Vishnu. Kediri, East Java, circa 12th–13th century Era of twin kingdoms Period of reign King/Maharaja Inscriptions and events 1042-1051 Çri Samaravijaya Dharmasuparnawahana Teguh Uttunggadewa (Çri Samaravijaya) Mentioned in inscription of Pucangan (1041). Is the king of the Kediri kingdom after the event of the division of the kingdom by king Airlangga to his two sons. 1051-1112 Çri Jitendrakara Wuryyawïryya Parakrama Bhakta (Çri Jitendrakara) Mentioned in inscription of Mataji inscription (1051). 1112-1135 Çri Maharaja Rake sirikan çri Paramecwara Sakalabhuwana Tustikaranani waryyawïryya Parakrama Digjayottunggadewa (Çri Bamesvara) Mentioned in inscription of Padlegan I, Panumbangan inscription, Tangkilan inscription, Besole inscription, Bameswara inscription, Karanggayam inscription, Geneng inscription, Pagiliran inscription. 1135-1159 Çri Maharaja Sang Mapanji Jayabhaya çri Dharmmeçwara Madhusudanawataranindita Suhrtsingha Parakrama Digjayottunggadewa (Jayabaya) Mentioned in inscription of Hantang (1135), Jepun inscription (1144) and Talan inscription (1058). 1159-1171 Çri Maharaja Rakai Sirikan çri Sarwweçwara Janardanawatara Wijaya Agrajasama Singhadani Waryawirya Parakrama Digjayottunggadewa (Çri Sarvesvara) Mentioned in inscription of Kahyunan and Padlegan II inscription (1159). 1171-1181 Çri maharaja rakai hino çri Aryyeçwara Madhusudand watdrdrijalyamukha Sakalabhuwana ritiniwiryya Parakramottunggadewa (Çri Aryesvara) Mentioned in inscription of Waleri and Angin inscription (1171). 1181-1182 Çri maharaja çri Kroncarryadipa Handabhuwanapalaka Parakramanindita Digjayottunggadewanama çri Gandra (Çri Gandra) Mentioned in inscription of Jaring inscription. 1182-1194 Çri Maharaja Rake Sirikan çri Kameçvara Sakalabhuvanatustikarana Sarvanivaryyaviryya Parakrama Digjayottunggadeva (Kameçvara) Mentioned in inscription of Semanding (1182) and Ceker inscription (1185). 1194-1222 Çri maharaja çri Sarwweçwara Triwikramawataranindita Çrngga lancana Digwijayottunggadewa (Kertajaya) Mentioned in inscription of Sapu Angin inscription, Galunggung inscription, Kamulan inscription, Palah inscription, Biri inscription, Lawadan inscription, Nagarakretagama), fall in 1144 Shaka (1222). Jayakatwang's rebellion from Gelang-gelang or Gegelang which revived the short-lived second dynasty of Kadiri. 1292-1293 Çri Jayakatwang (Jayakatwang) Mentioned in inscription of Nagarakretagama (1365).[2]: 168  The first king of Kediri to leave historical records was Maharaja Çri Samaravijaya. His royal seal was Garudmukhalancana or Garudmukha, the same as Airlangga's. he reigned from 1042-1051 and succeeded by Çri Jitendrakara Parakrama Bakta in 1051-1112. It is not known exactly when Çri Bamesvara ascended the throne of the Kediri Kingdom. The Lanchana (royal seal) of his reign was a skull with a crescent moon called chandrakapala, the symbol of Shiva. During the reign of Maharaja Çri Bamesvara himself, there were at least ten inscriptions containing the development of Java in the eastern part around 1112-1135. Jayabhaya (reigned 1135-1157) succeeded Bamesvara. His formal stylised name was Çri Maharaja çri Dharmmeçwara Madhusudanawataranindita Suhrtsingha Parakrama Digjayottunggadewa. The Lanchana (royal seal) of his reign was Narasinghavatara depicts one of the avatars of Lord Vishnu, namely Narasinghavatara. His form is described as a human with a lion's head tearing the stomach of Hiranyakasipu (King of the Giants). The name Jayabhaya was immortalised in Sedah's Kakawin Bharatayuddha, a Javanese version of the Mahabharata, written in 1135. This Kakawin was perfected by his brother, Mpu Panuluh. Mpu Panuluh wrote Hariwangsa and Gatotkacasraya. Jayabhaya's reign was considered the golden age of Old Javanese literature. The Prelambang Joyoboyo, a prophetic book ascribed to Jayabhaya, is well known among Javanese. It predicted that the archipelago would be ruled by a white race for a long time, then a yellow race for a short time, then be glorious again. The Jayabhaya prophecies mention Ratu Adil, the Just Prince, a recurring popular figure in Javanese folklore. During the reign, Ternate was a vassal state of Kediri. Jayabhaya's successor was Sarwweçwara/Sarvesvara (reigned from 1159 to 1171) the royal symbol is named Sarwwecwaralancana, wing-shaped numbering nine and at the end there is a crested circle. Where everything is surrounded by three striped circles. followed by Aryyeçwara/Aryesvara (reigned 1171-1181), who uses Ganesha the elephant-headed god as Lanchana of his kingdom. and became the (royal seal) of his reign and the Kingdom of Kadiri as stated in the inscription. The next monarch was king Gandra his formal stylised name was Çri maharaja çri Kroncarryadipa Handabhuwanapalaka Parakramanindita Digjayottunggadewanama çri Gandra. An inscription (dated 1181) from his reign documents the beginning of the adoption of animal names for important officials, such as Kbo Salawah, Menjangan Puguh, Lembu Agra, Gajah Kuning, and Macan Putih. Among these highly ranked officials mentioned in the inscription, there is a title Senapati Sarwwajala, or laksmana, a title reserved for navy generals, which means that Kediri had a navy during his reign. The eighth king was Kameçvara. His formal stylised name was Çri Maharaja Rake Sirikan çri Kameçvara Sakalabhuwanatustikarana Sarwaniwaryyawiryya Parakrama Digjayottunggadewa. He uses the (winged shell) as his royal seal under the name Kamecwaralancana. During his reign, Mpu Dharmaja wrote Smaradhana, in which the king was adored as the incarnation of Kamajaya, the god of love, and his capital city Dahana was admired throughout the known world. Kameçvara's wife, Çri Kirana, was celebrated as the incarnation of Kamaratih, goddess of love and passion. The tales of this story, known as Panji cycle, spread throughout Southeast Asia as far as Siam. The last king of Kediri was Kritajaya/Kertajaya (1194–1222), King Çrngga or Kritajaya ruled Kediri, with the official name Çri maharaja çri Sarwweçwara Triwikramawataranindita Çrngga lancana Digwijayottunggadewa. He used a Crnggalancana picture of (Cangkha) flanked by two horns and continued with the words "Krtajaya" above. The presence of a dominant horns makes this badge called Crnggalancana or horned badge. In 1222 he was forced to surrender his throne to Ken Arok and so lost the sovereignty of his kingdom to the new kingdom of Singhasari. This was the result of his defeat at the battle of Ganter. This event marked the end of Kediri era, and the beginning of the Singhasari era. Srivijaya and Kediri around 12th to early 13th century AD According to a Chinese source in the book of Chu-f Agastya The Canggal inscription is a Sanskrit inscription dated to 732, discovered in the Gunung Wukir temple complex in Kadiluwih village, Salam, Magelang Regency, Central Java, Indonesia. The inscription is written in the Pallava alphabet. The inscription documents an edict of Sanjaya, in which he declared himself the universal ruler of Mataram Kingdom. The inscription describes the erection of a lingam (the symbol of Shiva) on the country of Kunjarakunja, by Sanjaya's order. The lingam is sited on the noble island of Yava (Java), which the inscription describes as "rich in grain and gold mines".Yawadwipa ("Java island"), and had long been under the rule of the wise and virtuous king Sanna, but fell into disunity after his death. Amid a period of confusion Sanjaya, son of Sannaha (the sister of Sanna) ascended to the throne. Sanjaya mastered holy scriptures, martial arts, and displayed military prowess. After the conquest of neighboring areas his reign was peaceful and prosperous. The inscription makes reference to Kunjarakunja-desa, perhaps meaning "the hermitage land of Kunjara", which has been identified as the hermitage of Rishi Agastya, a Hindu Maharishi revered in Southern India. The Ramayana contains a reference to a visit to Agastya hermitage on Kunjara by Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana. The name Sanjaya, Sanna and Sannaha curiously was also mentioned in Carita Parahyangan, a book from later period composed around 16th century which suggested refer to same historical person. The main temple of the Penataran complex took the form of a stepped pyramid. Penataran or Panataran (Indonesian: Candi Penataran) is one of the largest Hindu temple ruins complex in East Java, Indonesia. It is located in Penataran, Blitar Regency, roughly 12 km northeast of Blitar, with the closest airport being farther away at Malang. Believed to have been constructed between the 12th century to the 15th century, the temple played a significant role in the Majapahit Kingdom, especially under King Hayam Wuruk. He considered his favorite sanctuary. Penataran dates from the Kediri era. This temple was identified in Nagarakretagama as Palah temple and reported being visited by King Hayam Wuruk during his royal tour across East Java. The site is being considered to be put on the World Heritage list of sites that have "outstanding universal value" to the world.  However, on 2015, the site was pulled out from the tentative list along with 11 other sites. Candi Panataran is a Shiva (Siwa) temple. It is notable for including one of the largest Indonesian collection of reliefs showing life stories of Hindu god Vishnu in different avatar. In particular, the temple site include the Rama story in the Javanese version of the epic Ramayana, as well Krishna story as depicted Triguna's Krishnayana epic poem.  Comparative studies of reliefs related to Hindu epics at Penataran and Prambanan temple (Yogyakarta) complexes have attracted the attention of archaeologists.[ The dated temple in the Penataran complex. The Penataran Temple is a temple that is four centuries old because it was built and developed by several kingdoms at once, from the Kingdom of Kediri to Majapahit. Candi Penataran, the Largest Ancient Hindu Temple Compound in East Java Swirling tongues of fire welcomed erstwhile royal families and priests who ascended the stairs of Palah, a late 12th-century Hindu temple located on the southwestern slopes of Mount Kelud. The volcano was so active and unpredictable that a temple was deemed necessary to appease Acalapati, the mountain god, so he would spare the surrounding settlements from his erratic wrath. Inspired by Krishnayana (Krishna’s life told in an epic poem), the upper walls of the temple were encrusted with bas-reliefs depicting scenes from the epic. One panel portrayed Krishna’s escape from Kalayawana (Kalayavana), a ruthless king who was killed by Muchukunda through his burning gaze (another version of the story refers to Wiswamitra/Vishvamitra as the killer of Kalayavana). The flames were indeed a metaphor for Kelud’s volcanic eruptions. More than eight centuries later, I find myself looking at the same weathered relief, carved on andesite rock on the second level of the stone platform. The motif itself is not instantly recognizable, but on a closer inspection the outline of the flames is clearly the centerpiece of the ornately-carved panel. Penataran, as Palah is known today, was commissioned by the king of Kediri, a kingdom that emerged as a prominent power in eastern Java during the mid-11th century. Two centuries before the construction of Penataran, Java was already home to great Hindu and Buddhist temples, including Borobudur and Prambanan, both built by the Central Javanese rulers of the Medang kingdom. As the center of power on the island gradually shifted to the east in the decades that followed, new temples were commissioned around the new capital. However, unlike most Central Javanese temples which followed a concentric layout (also known as mandala, representing the Hindu-Buddhist universe) with the most important structure located at the center of the temple compound, Penataran – the largest Hindu temple in East Java – was constructed in a linear layout where the sanctum is situated at the back of the compound. This centuries-old layout is in fact still used in Bali to build Balinese Hindu temples known as pura. For three centuries since its completion, new structures were added to Penataran temple complex by different rulers of East Java. Candi Naga, ‘dragon temple’, was commissioned in the 13th century when this part of Java was controlled by the kingdom of Singhasari. Named after its distinctive serpentine carvings, held by nine figures clad in opulent costumes, the temple is believed to have functioned as a reliquary for sacred weapons. In front of Candi Naga lies Candi Candra Sengkala, a 14th-century tall and slender addition to the temple compound. Constructed in a typical East Javanese architectural style, the temple was built under the rule of Hayam Wuruk, the greatest of all Majapahit kings. Majapahit itself was the last great Hindu kingdom to ever rule much of Java. Candi Naga, Named after the Mythical Serpent Carved around the Structure’s Walls// The Story of Sri Tanjung, Popular in the 13th-Century East Java The Slender and Distinctively East Javanese Candi Candra Sengkala Ever-Menacing Kala above Candi Candra Sengkala’s Doorway Candi Naga, South Side Candi Naga, North Side Candi Penataran, the Main Structure in the Compound Following the decline of Majapahit as more and more people on the island converted to Islam, Penataran’s importance gradually diminished until it was completely abandoned. In the span of centuries, neglect and natural disasters caused heavy damage to the formerly imposing temple. The rediscovery of Penataran is credited to Thomas Stamford Raffles, a British colonial governor at a time when Java was briefly occupied by the British. The ruins of the temple were first mentioned in a 1815 account, although reconstruction work did not begin in earnest until many years later. Further studies revealed that the lower walls of the three-tiered main temple were adorned with stories from the Ramayana, one of the greatest and most well-known Hindu epics alongside the Mahabharata. The Ramayana had inspired ancient Javanese sculptors to immortalize figures, animals, plants and other motifs from the epic on andesite rock – widely available in volcanic Java – which were then used to decorate a plethora of Hindu temples on the island. However, Penataran’s medallions – depicting real and mythical animals – are unique to the temple as they aren’t found on any Central Javanese temple. In front of Candi Candra Sengkala is Batur Pendapa, where it is believed that devotees once placed offerings in religious ceremonies. Modern-day visitors would likely notice the strange look of the main sanctum, Batur Pendapa, as well as Bale Agung – also located at the front part of the compound – for they all seem to have lost their upper structures. Believed to be made from perishable materials – possibly wood and ijuk (palm fiber) – these structures have long succumbed to the power of nature. Fortunately some relief panels at the lower part of the main temple suggest how the whole structure used to look, which unsurprisingly reminds me of some Hindu temples in Bali given the fact that many Javanese royals fled to the neighboring island following the decline of Hinduism in Java. Candi Penataran’s Unique Medallions and Relief Panels A Scene from the Ramayana Each Panel Has Its Own Style A Centuries-Old Masterpiece Straight Lines and Curves Ancient Javanese Architecture Apart from the architecture, what stays the same is the activity of Mount Kelud itself. Unlike most accounts about volcanic eruptions across the archipelago which were exclusively written by the Europeans during the colonial period, Kelud’s eruption was mentioned in a 14th-century epic Javanese poem. The volcano erupted in the same year when Hayam Wuruk was born, perceived by the locals as a divine sign of great things the baby would accomplish in his life – Majapahit was in fact at its peak during Hayam Wuruk’s rule. Interestingly, centuries after the island’s conversion to Islam and the arrival of Christianity from Europe, the Javanese reverence toward volcanoes has barely changed. In 1901, Kelud erupted again with a mighty explosion (heard hundreds of kilometers away) and an ash cloud that reached as far as West Java. Two weeks later, a baby boy was born, and as goes with tradition, the locals saw this as an omen of something great about to happen to him. Less than five decades later, the same boy had grown up to become none other than the first president of Indonesia. Even in the 21st century, volcanic eruptions are often interpreted as a prelude to major political events. But when no such thing occurs following an eruption, the locals will still tell you stories about Mount Kelud with a sense of veneration, pride and astonishment. “When Kelud erupted in 2014, Yogyakarta was covered in thick ash,” a local tells me in reference to Kelud’s latest major eruption which paralyzed the city, more than 200 km away to the west of the volcano. The ash forced the closure of major airports across Java, causing weeks-long travel disruptions. “But strangely, Blitar was safe,” he adds, referring to the nearest city to the volcano. As tempting it is to explain the phenomenon from a scientific perspective, to him and many other people Penataran seems to serve its purpose after all. It has been protecting the surrounding areas from the wrath of the mountain god, more than eight centuries since its completion. A Metaphorical Depiction of Mount Kelud///A Small Asian Elephant along with Foreign-Looking Soldiers Winged Lions and Serpents//An Artistic Creation during the Peak of Hinduism in East Java A Fierce-Looking Winged Snake//A Guardian of Batur Pendapa An Intricately-Decorated Pond at the Back of the Main Temple Penataran is still not very well known among Indonesians – when we returned to Jakarta and I told my coworkers about it, none of them had ever heard of the temple. As for the why Penataran is not that well-known even among Indonesians, I think it’s because of its location which is not as easily accessible from big cities as Borobudur or Prambanan.https://harindabama.com/2017/07/30/penataran-appeasing-the-mountain-god/ 5 WORLD RECORDS of DR Uday Dokras as World #1 Highest number of Literary ventures in Hindu Temple Architecture and Vastu ///Highest number of Literary ventures in the world 2000 books and research Papers, Seen here with Ms. Mansse Bhandari, COO FUN and FOOD Village Nagpur, Delhi and Uzbekisthan LINK to 3 World Awards+ titel to 2 more https://www.uniqueworldrecords.com/records/posts/most-articles-on-dhamma https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/maximum-number-of-books-written-on-hindu-temples-by-an-individual-world-record-by-dr-uday-dokras https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/largest-number-of-religious-research-papers-written-by-an-individual-world-record-by-uday-dokras Highest number of Literary Endeavours in the World by an Individual. URL to come later Highest number of articles and books written on Hindu/ Buddhist Temples of Indonesia( Including Borobudur and Prambanan). URL Later  AGENCY TITLE https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/largest-number-of-religious-research-papers-written-by-an-individual-world-record-by-uday-dokras https://www.uniqueworldrecords.com/records/posts/most-articles-on-dhamma Maximum number of books written on Hindu Temples by an Individual https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/maximum-number-of-books-written-on-hindu-temples-by-an-individual-world-record-by-dr-uday-dokras#:~:text=The%20World%20Record%20For%20Maximum,The%20Worldwide%20Book%20Of%20Records. Highest number of articles and books written on Hindu Buddhist Temples of Indonesia( Including Borobudur and Prambanan) Highest number of Research Papers/ Books (Literary endeavours) published by an Individual- UNIQUE Book of world records Maximum sociocultural research papers uploaded by an individual on a single website INDIA BOOK of RECORDS [email protected] https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/largest-number-of-religious-research-papers-written-by-an-individual-world-record-by-uday-dokras Maximum number of books written on Hindu Temples by an Individual https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/maximum-number-of-books-written-on-hindu-temples-by-an-individual-world-record-by-dr-uday-dokras#:~:text=The%20World%20Record%20For%20Maximum,The%20Worldwide%20Book%20Of%20Records. https://www.uniqueworldrecords.com/records/posts/most-articles-on-dhamma Highest number of articles and books written on Hindu Buddhist Temples of Indonesia( Including Borobudur and Prambanan) NOT THERE Highest number of Research Papers/ Books (Literary endeavours) published by an Individual………….FREE UNIQUEBook of world records Maximum sociocultural research papers uploaded by an individual on a single website INDIA BOOK of RECORDS [email protected]  ABOUT THE AUTHOR DR UDAY DOKRAS About the Author The author has worked for 30 years in the human resources arena in India and abroad. He was Group Vice -President of MZI Group in New Delhi and has anchored Human Relations in Go Air and Hotel Holiday Inn;was General Manager-Health Human Resources at the Lata Mangeshkar Hospital amd Medical college. Is currently Consultant to Gorewada International Zoo,Nagpur and visiting Faculty at the Central Institute of Business Management and Research, Nagpur. In Sweden he anchored HR in Stadbolaget RENIA, SSSB and advisor to a multi millionaire. He has studied in Nagpur, India where he obtained degrees of Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Arts (Managerial Economics) and Bachelor of Laws. He has done his Graduate Studies in labour laws from Canada at the Queen's University, Kingston; a MBA from USA, and Doctorate from Stockholm University, Sweden. Apart from that he has done a Management Training Program in Singapore. A scholar of the Swedish Institute, he has been an Edvard Cassel Fund and Wineroth Fund Awardee.A scholar for the Swedish Institute for 5 years. In 1984 he was involved with the Comparative Labour Law Project of the University of California, Los Angeles, U.S.A. He was also visiting lecturer there. In 1985 he was invited by the President of Seychelles to do a study of the efficacy of the labour laws of Seychelles. Author of a book on a Swedish human resource law, his brief life sketch is part of the English study text book of 7 th Class Students in Sweden -“Studying English. SPOTLIGHT 7”- and 8th Class students in Iceland - “SPOTLIGHT 8- Lausnir.” Authors-DR Uday DOKRAS B.Sc., B.A. (Managerial Economics), LL.B., Nagpur University, IndiaCertificat'e en Droit, Queen’s University. Ontario, Canada, Ph.D. Stockholm University, Sweden, Vastu,Temple Construction and Management and Efficacy Consultant, India/Bangkok From the Newspaper Times of India March 24, 2018 Iceland & Sweden- both countries use the English Text SPOTLIGHT-one of the lessons in which is about Dr Uday Dokras Prof. S.Deshpande,President of the Indian Institute of Architects, New Delhi INDIA releasing the book of Dr Dokras HINDU TEMPLES on the web in CARONA times( May 2020) DIRECTOR (Techn Some of the 2500 Research Papers and 670 BOOKS written by DR UDAY DOKRAS Published by The Indo Nodic Author’s Collective Sweden and Finland Dr. Uday Dokras Tamil People as Traders and Voyagers The Cambodian Trilogy I.HINDU CAMBODIA II.HYDROLOGY of ANGKOR ANGKOR is known as a Hydraulic city- full or canals and river and waterways. It is this water system they say that brought the downfall of this intrinsic kingdom. But is that TRUE? III.ENTER…… THE KINGDOM THAT VANISHED- Angkor Building Materials of the Hindu Temple Indo Nordic Author's collective, 2021 In depth study of how Building Materials of the Hindu Temple was used in India,Indonesia and Cambodia and India The Art & Architecture of THE GOLDEN TEMPLE COMPLEX, AMRITSAR Mathematics in Temple Designs Jain ART Book on Jain Art and Iconography Jain Temples- Part I -Complete Compendium-Book I A to Z of the architecture, Design,Cosmology,Philosophy of Jain temples in Jain Temples II DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARCHITECTURE OF JAIN TEMPLES AND THE ACTUAL PHOTOGRAPHS(ORIGINAL) OF 3JAIN TEMPLES of Nagpur DWARKA- CELESTIAL MYSTERIES of the Lost CITY of KRISHNA TIRUPATI TEMPLE Book part I TIRUPATI TemplePart II Vahanas- the vehicles of Hindu Gods Vahanas- the vehicles of Hindu Gods. Animals in Hinduism. demi Gods SATYANARAYAN PUJA-The Complete Compendium Satyanarayan Puja or 9 Graha Puja( a puja of 9 planets) has been performed by most Hindus not only now but for 1,000’s of years. MAHALAXMI Puja Hindu Goddess MAHALAXMI Puja ARCHITECTURE OF PALESTINE Palestine my Love Palestine my Love is about the culture arts and crafts of palestine so we recognize it as a entity that is fighting for recognition of not only its legitimacy but also its cultural heritage QUINTET (5) BOOKS ON MANDALA Unravelling the MAZE of the MANDALA BOOK I First part of a two book treatise on MANDALAS. This introductory phase introduces mandalas Maze of MANDALA BOOK II Advanced Mandala routine for those who want to know more about MANDALAS Mandala BOOK III on Nakshatra BOOK IV MANDALA & ARCHITECTURE The Use of Mandalas in Building Temples and Modern Buildings Book V on Mandala of the Oriental Kingdoms Islamic Architectureal Arts of of Imam Ali's 2 Shrines Hindu Gods in Scandinavia Did the Hindu Gods originate or live in Scandinavia once? Find out Book on Divinity and Architecture What is divinity? How has man tried to harness architecture to create magic in space Virat Hridaya Padma-sthalam CHIDAMBARAM Temple -Celestial Mysteries This book is about a mysterious and revered tempe built by the Chola Kings of South India 2000 years ago T2- Temple Tech. A Book How are Hindu temples built and the technology that follows this craft. From A to Z Complete Guide. Rendezvous with Sri RAM Portfolio of Temple Art by Srishti Dokras, Architect Special section on Hindu Foods by Karan Dokras, Product Guru Best Foot Forward The story of Footwear through the ages up to COVID times Hindu Temple Panorama-Celestial Mysteries A to Z of Temples. A total Panoramic View of design and architecture of Hindu temples in 350 page... DUOLOGY (2) on JAINISM Ativir ATIVIR means Very Brave and is the name given to Lord Mahavir the 24 th Saint(TIRTHANKAR) Contains rare translations of the Dialogue of the Mahavir with his disciples called GHANDHARVAVAD Vardhaman-वर्धमान IThis book is about Jainism- written by a non- THE TRILOGY(3) on DEVRAJA The God kIngs of Khemer Book I DEVRAJ- The God Kings of Indo China-Cambodia. This is the first Book of a Trilogy that traces the growth of Hinduism in South East Asia. BOOK I I DEVRAJA- The Great Civilizations of South East Asia -HINDU Era How Hinduism reached Cambodia and how the Hindu Kings called Devraj Built these magnificent structures Devraja BOOK II I Devraja and Raj Dharma God King and Kingly Religion The HINDU Era of Great Civilizations of Khemer Book 2 of a Trilogy that traces the advent of Hinduism on South East Asian and Indo-Chinese Vayu- Man's taming of the winds Man's conquest of nature spans a million years. How was wind tamed by him. Here is the full story... more  VIMANA Ancient Conquests of Wind Ancient flying machines of Gods and Men(?) Were they true. Did they really exist. 7000 years ago? LIGHT HOUSES In words and pictures BOOK Architecture of the Lighthouse of Alexandria-BOOK Indo Swedish Author's Collective, 2020 The lighthouse was built on an island off the coast of Alexandria called Pharos. Its name, legend Cosmology of lotus Indo Nordic Author's Collective, 2020 The Lotus is the king of the flower world but few know it as a part of creation. Find out the Cosmology. Celestial Mysteries of the Borobudur Temple Borobudur remains a mystery even today. The largest Buddhist Stupa in the world has many unanswered... Win with this new DIET Hindu tempel of India , Cambodia and Indonesia Hindu Temples dot India, Cambodia and Indonesia DISRUPTION-Book Book Architecture Creativity Creativity and Architecture are linked and go hand in hand. This Book is a culmination of 16 publications that have been put together as a book Project HR Management Indo Swedish Author's Collective PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT/'Dr UDAY DOKRAS The project sphere has not been valued appropriately Human Resource Engineering in Theme Parks. by Dr. Uday Dokras and Mansse Bhandari As theme parks evolve into facilitating for greater thrill seeking audience,the role of human res... more  Health Human Resource Management Management of Health care workers in hospitals and the human resource practices to be followed in hospitals. WIN DIET Lose fat-Diet and Exercise Book ONLY BODY SHAPING GUIDE YOU NEED The Act on Co-determination at Work – an Efficacy study Thesis of the Author for the degree of Doctor of Law Stockholm University, SWEDEN 1990 The special meaning of Prambanan Temple BOOK Durga Tantric goddess Development of the Garbagriha The 4 sided Hindu Mandir( temple ) plan Vahanas the vehicles of Hindu Gods Book on Rajmandala TEMPLE MOUNTAIN o1 or ???? Borobudur as a Tantric Yantra Mandalification BOOK All you wanted to know about the structure of Buddhist Cosmology featured in the Borobudur- but were afraid to ask Will you walk with me to Borobudur Bayon...Temple Mountain of Jayagiri Dr. Uday Vasant Dokras, gets WORLD RECORD of writing and uploading Highest number of Books and Research papers on Hindu Temples, Vastu etc VISHNU as a DESIGN COMPONENT of Angkor Design Your Destiny. Astrological Readings of Dr Uday Dokras The Orthogonal plan of Angkor Thom Spiritual Technologies at Borobudur BOOK Tantricity of the PRAMBANAN GROUP of Temples BOOK Borobudur- Waiting for the Maitreya Selected Essays on some Celestial Mysteries of the Borobudur.. Book Borobodur BOOK Celestial Mysteries of the Borobodur Temple Scientific Borobudur Transition between the pre and post Jayavarman II period Jayavarman II BOOK The Monarch of the Khmer Empire JAYAVARMAN II Book The Mystery of the Tantric Dwarpals or Door Guardians in the ELLORA Hindu Temple Architecture Architecture and Creativity BOOK The Book of SriYantra MANDALA and ARCHITECTURE Maze of MANDALA PART II DISRUPTION Book Hill Temples BOOK Borobudur---The Tantric Mystique of the Big Boro/ BOOK “Direction of the Wind “ - “Movement of the Water” Voyage of the Tantra to South East Asia The secrets of the Moolasthanam Consecration of Hindu & Other Temples The Mysterious Continent of Nusuntara Book Angkorean Tantricism Revealed Angkorean Tantricism Revealed COLLECTION of ESSAYS DWARKA & Dvaravati -------Mysterious lost cities of the Hindu World of Lord KRISHNA Rama as DEVRAJA Rama as DEVRAJA in India (Bharat) and Angkor Krishna's Astonishment BOOK Krishna's Astonishment BOOK The Complete Compendium of Rock Cut Temple Architecture of Hindu Manndirs. Building Materials of the Hindu Temple THE COSMOLOGY OF ANGKOR The Enigma of KRISHNA in the KINGDOM of FUNAN (Dvaravati) The Enigma of KRISHNA in the KINGDOM of FUNAN (Dvaravati) Lingapura or KOH KER The complete Story-- BOOK Erotic Sentiment in Indian Temple Sculptures Dr Uday Dokras MANDALA and Territorial Continuity in SE ASIA Mandala of the Tantra Selected Essays on some Celestial Mysteries Grand iteration in Tantrism of Borobudur BOOK Grand iteration in Tantrism of Borobudur BOOK SACRED LANDSCAPE - BOROBUDUR & the COMPLEXITIES of its CONSTRUCTION SACRED LANDSCAPE - BOROBUDUR & the COMPLEXITIES of its CONSTRUCTION Detailed PROJECT Complexities of the Construction work of Angkor Wat The Complex Layout and Construction Plan of ANGKOR TEMPLE )==SHORT BOOKLET(100 pages ) The Complex Layout and Construction Plan of ANGKOR TEMPLE DWARKA----- CELESTIAL MYSTERIES of the Lost Continent of KRISHNA DWARKA----- CELESTIAL MYSTERIES of the Lost Continent of KRISHNA MARCO POLOS OF ANCIENT MARITIME TRADE MARCO POLOS OF ANCIENT MARITIME TRADE The amazing Tamilians as traders and voyagers Neither here nor there- but where (NUSUNTARA) The concept Nusantara is derived from two Sanskrit words: nusa meaning ‘island’ and antara meaning space ATLANTIS The lost Continent -BOOK ATLANTIS The lost Continent -BOOK THUGEE Book Before everything else, let me stress that there are 4 theories about the existence of the Thugee Prambanan Temple BOOK Book V on Mandala of the Oriental Kingdom The curtain walls in Khmer Architecture Also featuring The 5 gates of Angkor Thom The curtain walls in Khmer Architecture Also featuring The 5 gates of Angkor MANDALA of BOROBUDUR Borobudur as "Bhumisambharabhudura" \book Borobudur as "Bhumisambharabhudura" \book collection of Essays Shiva Bhairava worship in India and Indonesia. Featuring the Tantric Ganesh The Hidden cities of Angkor book Mandala 6 Book The destiny of Borobudur BOOK Book V on Mandala of the Oriental Kingdoms The destiny of Borobudur BOOK Destiny of Borobudur(How a Hindu Shiva Temple ended up becoming the Worlds biggest monument to 2 religions Triptych Mandirs(Temples) of Angkor-BOOK A triptych is an artwork made up of three pieces or panels. Often used to impart narrative. THE TEMPLE OF Mahishasuramardini in JAVA - BOOK THE TEMPLE OF Mahishasuramardini in JAVA - BOOK The Mystic SHIKHARA ---A BOOK The Mystic SHIKHARA ---A BOOK Enter Mysterious Borobudur (REPRINT) BOOK Enter Mysterious Borobudur (REPRINT) BOOK One Against Many- the Tantric Temples of Indonesia One Against Many- the Tantric Temples of Indonesia Fully explained right from how tantrcism reached Indonesia of those days.. SELECTED ESSAYS on Hindu Temples SELECTED ESSAYS on Hindu Temples The Troglodyte Architecture of ancient India part II book The Troglodyte Architecture of ancient India part II book Divinity and Royalty in the Khmer Lands Indo Nordic Authors' Collective, 2022 Divinity and Royalty in the Khmer Lands Was Angkor connected to the power of the Kings to use as a sword in their people The Technology of Hindu Mandirs (temples) Indo Nordic Authors Collective, 2022 600 + pages of all info needed to understand the tech of the Hindu mandirs The Empire that Practiced HYDROLOGY book Angkor-The Empire that Practiced HYDROLOGY book Collection of the author's essays Hydrology of Angkor (BOOK) HYDROLOGY of the Hindu Mandir BOOK INAC, 2022 HYDROLOGY of the Hindu Mandir Water and the Holy Places of Hinduism SACRED INDIA Collection of Essays (BOOK) SACRED INDIA Collection of Essays (BOOK) PART I-The Hindu Land of Bharat Varsh (INDIA) The Mandala of the Sunyata In Search of the Mandala of emptyness If Mandalas are circular then why are they bare and emply. In Search of the Square Mandala In Search of the Square Mandala If Mandalas are circular then is there a SQUARE?... The world OF sanskrit book Khmer cities' Town Planning How were the Khmer cities planned? BOOK Chapter I-Town Planning in Khmer Times- Multiplicity of Hindu Temple Meaning BOOK Indo Nordic Authors' Collective, 2020 Multiplicity of Hindu Temple Meaning Is the Hindu mandir A Mandala A stepped Pyramid A temple Mountain. Angkor as a SPIRITUAL LIGHTHOUSE Angkor as a SPIRITUAL LIGHTHOUSE that attracted the Hindu Masses of the Khmer Kings. The Pillars and Mandapa of the Hindu Mandir Dr Dokras( LEFT) with Dr Harish Rathi leading medical practitioner of Nagpur,India 68