WOMEN AND CRUSADES

WOMEN AND CRUSADES HELEN J. NICHOLSON ЖЕНИТЕ И КРЪСТОНОСНИТЕ ПОХОДИ ХЕЛЪН ДЖ. НИКЪЛСЪН НИКОЛА БЕНИН Движението на кръстоносните походи се нуждаеше от жени: техните пари, тяхната молитвена подкрепа, тяхното активно участие и тяхното вдъхновение… Тази книга разглежда участието на жените в средновековните кръстоносни походи между втората половина на единадесети век, когато папа Григорий VII за първи път предлага покаятелна военна експедиция в помощ на християните от Изтока и 1570 г., когато последната държава на кръстоносците, Кипър, е превзета от османските турци. Хелън Дж. Никълсън разглежда действията на жените не само на бойните полета на кръстоносните походи, но и при набирането на кръстоносци, подкрепяйки кръстоносните походи чрез патронаж, пропаганда и молитва, както и като защитници, така и като агресори. В книгата се твърди, че средновековните жени са били дълбоко въвлечени в кръстоносните походи, но ролите, които са можели да играят и как техните съвременници са записвали делата им, са били продиктувани от социалните конвенции и културните очаквания. Въпреки че основният му фокус са жените от латинския християнски свят, той също така разглежда въздействието на кръстоносните походи и кръстоносците върху евреите от Западна Европа и мюсюлманите от Близкия изток, като сравнява отношенията между латински християни и мюсюлмани с отношенията между мюсюлмани и други християнски групи. Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, ox2 6dp, United Kingdom Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries © Helen J. Nicholson 2023 The moral rights of the author have been asserted First Edition published in 2023 Impression: 1 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Control Number: 2022942544 ISBN 978–0–19–880672–1 DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198806721.001.0001 Printed and bound in the UK by Clays Ltd, Elcograf S.p.A. Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials contained in any third party website referenced in this work. Preface How could women play any role in crusading? If the crusades were a military undertaking and only men could fight, then obviously women could play no practical part in them. Furthermore, clergy and canon lawyers condemned their involvement and commentators blamed women for leading crusaders into sin and bringing God’s wrath down on them. Yet evidence from medieval Europe and the Middle East during the period of the crusades (broadly the second half of the eleventh century to 1570 when Cyprus, the last crusader state, was lost to the Ottoman Turks) reveals that women played a large part in these wars, from propaganda for crusades through supplying resources and personnel, taking on some combat roles (although their menfolk generally tried to keep them out of the front line), giving support on the battlefield, raising money, and commemorating crusaders. They suffered or enjoyed the results of crusading. It can be difficult to establish exactly what they did, however, because their contemporaries and writers since tend to fit them into certain categories: women could be perfect wives, pious martyrs, and evil jezebels, but it was difficult for them to be simply people. In the period of the crusades, as now, those writing about the crusades always wanted to make a good story from events, with an appropriate happy or moral ending. Women’s involvement was usually depicted as exceptional rather than routine, romantic rather than mundane.1 vi preface While it is true that women did have to face considerable barriers, not least from cultural expectation and misogyny, this book argues against the assumption that women’s participation was exceptional, seeking to show that women’s involvement in the crusades was wide-reaching and normal.2 That said, like the contribution of most men, their contribution was often passive rather than active. The crusades were holy wars in which Latin Christians (those following the Roman tradition and acknowledging the pope as their spiritual leader) fought those of other faiths—heretical and schismatic Christians, and Muslims, and pagans—in defence of people and territory, with spiritual rewards promised to participants. They began in the late eleventh century, as economic and commercial growth spread throughout Christian Europe. The rulers of what were later Spain and Portugal started to expand their territories south into Muslim al-Andalus while growing Italian mercantile cities such as Genoa and Pisa harassed the North African coastal cities. In the Middle East in 1098–1099 the crusaders took advantage of political divisions to capture the cities of Antioch—conquered by the Seljuk Turks in 1084–85—and Jerusalem, which had been conquered by Caliph Umar in around 637. Less than a century later Jerusalem was lost to Saladin (d. 1193), but the concept of crusading continued into the sixteenth century and beyond as a structure for organizing and recruiting for wars with an underlying religious justification. This book does not set out to re-narrate the crusades. Its purpose is to examine the contribution that women made to the crusading movement from the eleventh century to the sixteenth, in all the theatres of war where the concept of crusading was applied. Many of the women considered in this book did not take the cross in the sense of taking a formal vow to go on crusade and sewing the symbol of the cross on to their clothing, but were involved in the crusade indirectly by urging family members to take part in a crusade, looking after the family estates during a crusader’s absence, purchasing a crusade indulgence which would give them the spiritual benefits of crusading preface vii without taking part in person, or taking part in a religious ritual that supported crusading. As it was not necessary to have taken a formal crusade vow to play a significant role in crusading I have not set out to identify every female crusader or to produce a list of female crusaders, which would give too narrow an impression of women’s involvement.3 Considering the roles of women in crusading shows us that although the crusades were indeed a military undertaking involving fighting men, they were very much more than that: the whole of Latin Christian society throughout Europe was deeply involved in crusading in some way or another. By studying women in the crusades we gain a greater insight not only into the campaigns of the crusades but also into European society itself over half a millennium ago. Acknowledgements I am very grateful to my colleagues in the History Department at Cardiff University for granting me research leave in 2020–2021 so that I could complete this book, and to the School of History, Archaeology and Religion for confirming their decision. I am also extremely grateful for the help of staff in Cardiff University Arts and Social Studies Library, especially the staff in Scolar (Special Collections and Archives) and in Inter-library Loan for their assistance in obtaining copies of research materials during the COVID-19 restrictions. Regrettably these restrictions have meant that despite their efforts some items have not been accessible to me. I also thank Luciana O’Flaherty of Oxford University Press for commissioning this book and for her support throughout its production, and the publisher’s anonymous expert reviewer for their constructive comments. As I have been working on this research project for many years my debts to other researchers are too numerous to set out individually here, but I have referred to as many as possible in the notes. My husband Nigel Nicholson drew the maps and has patiently and generously provided assistance as required. I drew up the family trees and made all the translations which are not otherwise attributed. All errors are, of course, my own. Contents A Note on Names xi Maps xiii 1. Locating Women in the Crusades: Definitions and Evidence 1 Women’s roles in crusading 2 Definitions of crusading 5 What was a crusade? 5 Crusade or pilgrimage? 7 Some problems with evidence 9 Motivation 19 2. Initializing Crusades 21 Beginnings 23 The Reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula and beyond 25 The Crusader States and the eastern Mediterranean 35 Family connections 37 Recruiting for crusades 42 3. Crusade Campaigns 53 Women’s roles in crusades: plans and practice 53 Accompanying husbands 56 Caring for the sick 63 Diplomacy and intelligence 65 Women acting alone 70 Making a living 77 Military action 79 Victims and prisoners of crusades 87 x contents 4. The Home Front: Supporting the Crusade 97 The costs of crusading for those left behind 98 Administering estates 103 After the crusade 109 Financing crusaders 114 Spiritual support: prayer, holy women, and saints 121 5. After the Crusade: Memory and Imagination 129 Memorials and foundations 130 Liturgy and ritual 141 Written record 142 Cultural patronage 147 Summing Up 157 Chronology of the Crusades 163 List of Popes 171 Family Trees 175 Endnotes 185 Bibliography 241 Primary sources 241 Secondary works 251 Index 277 A Note on Names It is always difficult to know how best to render personal names for a work of this geographical breadth and chronological length, especially as there may have been no single contemporary spelling. Where there is a general modern consensus on the rendering of a name into English, I have used it: so I have rendered the name of Queen Giovanna of Naples as Johanna, but Jeanne daughter of King Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine as Joanna. For individuals who are less familiar I have tried to use the spelling of their name in their original language. I have given alternative versions of names in brackets the first time each individual is mentioned. Maps Map 1. Europe, North Africa and the Middle East Map 2. Spain, France, and Italy Map 3. The Middle East 1 Locating Women in the Crusades Definitions and Evidence Could women even take part in crusades, let alone fight? Contemporary narrative accounts of the First Crusade (1096–1099) and the strictures of medieval canon lawyers certainly suggest that women contributed little to crusades and cast doubt on their status as crusaders, crucesignatae (literally ‘cross-signed’), the status accorded to those who took a formal religious vow to participate and wore a cross on to their clothing as a symbol of their vow. Women’s involvement in crusades was depicted as undesirable, consuming resources that were needed by the fighters and undermining the moral fibre of the army.1 Albert of Aachen, writing his history of the First Crusade shortly after its conclusion, described how the clergy in the crusading army blamed famine in the siege camp on sin, including adultery and fornication. Fulcher of Chartres, who took part in the crusade, reported that women were expelled from the crusader camp ‘lest perhaps [the men] should displease the Lord [God] through being contaminated with the filth of dissipation’.2 Some crusaders took clerical admonitions to avoid all sexual activity seriously, even though contemporary medical opinion held that sex is essential for good health. Ambroise and Richard de Templo, recording the events of the Third Crusade, even claimed that many participants on the Third 2 Women and the Crusades Crusade had died because they abstained from sexual intercourse with women.3 Yet women did play a constructive role in medieval European warfare and some sources show that women were expected to take part in conflict in certain circumstances.4 Indeed, scholars have identified so many women engaged in military activity in medieval Europe that women’s involvement in war now appears commonplace.5 Likewise, when researchers have actively looked for women’s involvement in crusading they have found that women were involved in and affected by crusades in many different ways.6 Nevertheless, women’s roles in crusades are still much less well known than men’s contributions, and outside specialized academic research there is very little awareness that women played any role in crusading, beyond a few high-profile queens of England such as Eleanor of Aquitaine (d. 1204) and Eleanor of Castile (d. 1290). Women’s roles in crusading Historian Sabine Geldsetzer’s 2003 study of women on crusades to the Holy Land between 1096 and 1291 established that women certainly took part in crusades. She identified fourteen women who had definitely taken a formal crusade vow, ninety-one who took part in a crusade with or without a formal vow, and fifty-nine more who may have taken part in a crusade expedition (although some of these may have been on peaceful pilgrimages rather than a crusade).7 This may not seem very many, but just as most women who were involved in crusade campaigns were not formally called crucesignatae, most men in crusade armies were not crucesignati, the male equivalent.8 Women present in the armies of the First Crusade, for instance, were full participants in the expedition even if they had not formally taken the cross.9 Just as men did, women accompanied crusaders as servants and companions. Just as men did, women also suffered at the hands of crusaders: they were abused, taken prisoner, enslaved, and killed.10 Locating Women in the Crusades 3 Women involved in the crusades usually did not play an active military combat role except in emergencies and few took on command roles. Some men, notably priests, were also not expected to fight in the field, and instead performed essential support roles in time of war. Like their male counterparts women were allocated specific support roles in wartime, such as herding livestock to safety, loading crossbows, boiling water, collecting or preparing munitions for use against the enemy and sometimes also delivering them, and performing labouring tasks. These were essential roles and the fact that they were performed by women did not make them any less militarily valuable.11 Royal and noble women initiated and organized campaigns, mustered and led armies to the front, but were not recorded fighting in the field. They also provided diplomatic support. The roles played by women were as essential and often the same as the roles played by men, and the fact that they were not regarded as newsworthy and so were not usually noted does not mean that their fellow-crusaders thought they were unimportant. That said, most women of child-bearing age would face certain limitations on crusade which men did not experience. Women’s monthly bleeding rendered them spiritually impure in the eyes of the clergy so that they were barred from entering some holy sites, and could leave them unable to operate for a few days each month due to ‘period pains’.12 As a married couple travelling together would probably continue sexual relations throughout the crusade for their health and to avoid the temptation to adultery, and as there were no safe and effective means of birth control, a woman travelling with her husband was likely to become pregnant during the crusade, and then might suffer from the various conditions which commonly arise in pregnancy, from morning sickness through to life-threatening conditions such as eclampsia. She might die in childbirth. If she survived, after the child’s birth she would be occupied in feeding and caring for it. Noble and wealthy women would be able to employ assistance to help them with this work, but poor women would be expected to carry the extra burden regardless and some could not do so: Albert of 4 Women and the Crusades Aachen describes women giving birth prematurely because of the harsh conditions and abandoning their dead or dying infants.13 As a result, women of child-bearing age were not always as mobile as men of a similar age and not always able to take on heavy physical work, although they might also be able to call on the assistance of their children to help with simple labouring tasks: when the crusaders captured Damietta in 1219, women and children were paid for the help they had given the warriors during the siege.14 Women’s involvement in the crusades was also limited by social status. In Europe and the Middle East during the time of the crusades opportunities available to noble women for travel and individual choice would have been very different from those available to merchant women, and even further removed from those of poor women. Noble women might raise troops, finance the construction of fortifications, act as patrons for literature connected with the crusade, commission a tomb for a dead crusader, and so on. Such contributions would probably have been beyond the financial resources of other women; yet non-noble holy women could act as effective advocates of crusading, as their spiritual authority gave them a public voice. We shall encounter several such women later in this book. All non-combatants, male and female, could be a drain on a crusade army’s resources. Popes encouraged those who could not fight to make a financial contribution to the crusade in return for a part of the spiritual reward promised to those who took part in person. The promised spiritual reward changed as the concept of crusading developed, but in general participants in the crusades believed that God would cancel some or all of the punishment due for their sins in return for their taking part; this was called an ‘indulgence’, as God indulged or remitted their punishment.15 At the end of the twelfth century Pope Innocent III formalized this arrangement of payment for the crusade indulgence, offering those who donated towards the cost of going on crusade or who sent someone else in their place the same spiritual reward as those who went in person. Experts in canon Locating Women in the Crusades 5 law, the law of the Church, assumed that women would always redeem their crusade vows by payment rather than going in person, unless they could afford to raise and lead a military force themselves.16 As most of the fighting on a crusade would be carried out not by vowed crusaders but by warriors hired to fight, most members of society—women, clergy, non-military classes, those too old or too young to fight—supported crusading not by fighting but by donating money and taking part in special liturgies (religious rituals and prayers) to win God’s help for the warriors.17 So to assess women’s full contribution to the crusades we need to look not only at the campaigns themselves but to the physical and spiritual support network for crusaders in Europe, the culture which supported the crusades and the memorialization of crusaders—activities which involved women from all levels of society.18 Definitions of crusading What was a crusade? In addition to considering a broad range of activities which supported crusading, we should consider a broad range of campaigns. Perhaps the most commonly held view of a crusade is that it was a military expedition to the eastern Mediterranean to assist Christians or to liberate or defend Jerusalem and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (built on the site in Jerusalem where Christ’s body is reputed to have lain between burial and resurrection). On this basis, crusades began in the late eleventh century and ended at the end of the thirteenth century when the final strongholds of the so-called ‘crusader states’ (polities created after the First Crusade and based around the cities of Antioch, Edessa, Jerusalem, and Tripoli) were captured by the Mamluk sultans of Egypt (a military oligarchy made up of former slaves of Central Asian origin and their descendants).19 However, contemporaries used the same terminology in referring to a much wider range of campaigns, which took place over a longer period of time and a 6 Women and the Crusades greater geographical area. Hence the word ‘crusade’ is now used to designate variously any military expedition originated, authorized, and organized by the papacy (including campaigns in the Iberian Peninsula, the Baltic region, or against heretics), any expedition which its participants depicted as a crusade (including popular movements such as the Children’s Crusade of 1212 which were not authorized by the papacy), or any instance of penitential warfare, holy war which justified fighting in defence of the Christian faith with the expectation of spiritual reward.20 According to these wider definitions, crusading began in the second half of the eleventh century, when Pope Gregory VII first proposed a penitential military expedition to help the Christians of the East, and continued into at least the sixteenth century. In the sixteenth century Latin Christians still talked of recovering Jerusalem although their main focus was to halt the advance of the Ottoman Empire.21 The language of crusading was used in a range of conflicts in defence of Christians: for example, by the military-religious Hospital of St John (the Hospitallers) defending themselves against the Ottoman Turks on Rhodes (1522) and Malta (1565), and by the Portuguese in Ethiopia (1541–1543), where a Portuguese force under Cristóvão da Gama assisted Queen Säblä Wängel (Seble Wongel) and her son King Gälawdewos to defeat the jihadi forces of Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi of the Muslim kingdom of ‘Adal.22 The campaign was described by the eye-witness and soldier Miguel de Castanhoso in crusading terms: the Portuguese came in ‘the service of God’ to ‘die for the faith of Christ’; it was a ‘holy enterprise’, fighting ‘the enemies of our holy faith’, and Cristóvão da Gama was ‘the apostle of God come to deliver [the Ethiopians] from captivity and subjection’. Castanhoso called da Gama’s death at the hands of Imam Ahmad a martyrdom and described miracles occurring at the site and on the day of his death, as if this war was a crusade, even though it had not been formally launched by the pope.23 The Spanish conquerors of Mexico led by Hernán Cortés (1519–1521) also referenced some aspects of crusading as they set up Locating Women in the Crusades 7 altars with the symbol of the Holy Cross and images of the Blessed Virgin Mary and the Infant Christ, called on St James of Santiago for aid (traditionally the helper of the crusaders in Spain against the Moors), gave Christ credit for their victories, and maintained that they were carrying out holy work (but their holy work was the conversion of non-Christians rather than the protection of Christians and Christian territory which had been the role of the crusades).24 Unlike crusaders they did not claim to be giving their lives for Christ, and they did not have papal endorsement for their campaigns. These crusades and holy and/or penitential wars were not simply between Christians and Muslims or Christians and pagans: Christians allied with Muslims and Muslims with Christians, Christians with pagans and so forth. The difference between these wars and traditional raiding for plunder and captives or a war over territory was that the pope was involved in initiating and/or organizing many of the campaigns, and they were fought in the name of Christ for a spiritual reward. Many of the women discussed in this book supported or were involved with these wider expeditions rather than expeditions to Jerusalem, but all these expeditions used the same terms to describe their purpose: referring to taking up the Holy Cross, carrying out Christ’s business, dying for Christ, and fighting an enemy who threatened Christians and Christendom. Crusade or pilgrimage? Not every woman who set out for Jerusalem was going on crusade; many were going on pilgrimage.25 It can be difficult to separate pilgrimage from crusade, because by the time of the Second Crusade (1147–1148) the armed expeditions to assist Christians and protect Christian holy places were known as ‘pilgrimages’ (in Latin, peregrinationes). Those taking part in a crusade took a vow in a liturgical rite similar to a vow of pilgrimage, both crusades and pilgrimages were deeply pious acts undertaken in expectation of a spiritual reward, and crusaders called themselves ‘pilgrims’, peregrini.26 Crusaders’ property 8 Women and the Crusades was under Church protection during their absence as was pilgrims’ property (although the protection for crusaders’ property was extended to cover their wives and children too).27 Pilgrimages are penitential journeys to a sacred place; crusades were penitential undertakings with a holy aim. Contemporary descriptions did not always make clear the difference between the two, even if they were aware that there was a legal difference.28 The liturgical connection between pilgrimage and crusade continued even after the loss of Jerusalem and the crusader states of the Holy Land, and only gradually faded in the fifteenth century as the Ottoman Turks came to be seen as the greater threat to Christendom.29 This use of the single term ‘pilgrimage’ both for peaceful journeys to holy sites and for penitential military expeditions can, of course, make it difficult to tell whether a particular woman ‘pilgrim’ was on a peaceful pilgrimage or taking part in a crusade. To compound the confusion, a woman might commute or change a pilgrimage to a holy place into a financial contribution towards the military defence of the Holy Land, as when in 1275 Helewyse Palmer and her daughter Isabel from Preston in Lancashire, England, commuted a vow of pilgrimage to the shrine of St James of Compostela into a donation to aid the Holy Land, meaning that the money would pay for warriors to defend the crusader states, and suggesting that a peaceful pilgrimage was the equivalent of military action in God’s cause.30 Women travelled in significant numbers to the Holy Land even after the destruction of the crusader states in Palestine and Syria in 1291, demonstrating that the Holy Land and Jerusalem remained important to Latin Christians.31 Some went on pilgrimages with husbands and parents, but many travelled alone.32 Margery Kempe (fl. 1438), a wealthy merchant woman from King’s Lynn in Norfolk, England, now famous for her mystical visions, was one such who made the journey to the Holy Land without husband or family, visiting Jerusalem, the Jordan, and the Mount of Temptation, and returned bearing holy relics to recount her spiritual experiences.33 However, although her pilgrimage was a physical and spiritual struggle, it was not a military expedition and she did not get caught up in military Locating Women in the Crusades 9 activity—unlike Isolda Parewastell from Somerset in England who in 1365, having travelled to Jerusalem, was caught up in Mamluk reprisals against Christians for the Latin Christians’ conquest of Alexandria in that year.34 Those who went on pilgrimage to Jerusalem or dreamt of doing so would have wanted to retain access to the holy city for pilgrims, which meant at least maintaining the possibility of military action if necessary. Interest in the Holy Land—as evinced by women such as Elizabeth of Asheton, about to set out from Dover in March 1348 for the Holy Land on pilgrimage accompanied by a chaplain and two yeoman, or Elizabeth of Combe Keynes in Dorset, who set out with some of her neighbours for the Holy Land in Christmas week of 1373 but died during the journey, and which led three named men and five unnamed women to make arrangements for a journey to the Holy Land in 1386—could translate into support for holy war against nonChristians to recover or protect the Holy Places.35 The six wealthy and devout old women who joined the same pilgrimage ship as Felix Fabri on his first pilgrimage to the Holy Land in 1480, the year of the first Ottoman siege of the Hospital of St John on Rhodes, testify to women’s continuing willingness to brave the perils of the eastern Mediterranean at a time of increasing danger to travellers.36 Although some of the women who are discussed in this book were in fact on pilgrimage when they became mixed up in a crusade, they were involved in crusade activity even if unintentionally. Other women discussed here may have been connected with a crusade expedition, or may have been independent pilgrims. All of them were involved in some way with penitential warfare, whether supporting the use of force or taking part in it themselves, rather than peaceful pilgrims. Some problems with evidence Establishing exactly what women did on crusade is not as straightforward as might first appear. The narrative accounts of the crusades are perhaps the most attractive sources for studying these campaigns, with 10 Women and the Crusades their gripping accounts of battles and the difficulties faced by the crusaders, but they do not necessarily give an accurate account of what took place. Crusade chronicles were a distinctive type of historical writing that told the story of a crusade campaign from beginning to end.37 Typically they were composed either while the crusade was in progress (to encourage recruitment), in the immediate aftermath (to explain success or defeat), or in preparation for the next one (to encourage recruitment and remind the leaders of what went wrong last time). Many were written by clerics such as Albert of Aachen and Fulcher of Chartres, whose accounts of the First Crusade have already been mentioned. Clerics often wrote in the scholarly language of Latin, which gave their work more authority, but some wrote in their own language—French, Occitan, and so on—and might use verse to make their work accessible to a wider audience. For instance, two writers recorded the events of the Third Crusade (1189–1192) with similar content but very different presentation: the Estoire de la Guerre Sainte (‘the history of the holy war’) was written in French verse, probably by a Norman priest named Ambroise, while the Itinerarium peregrinorum et gesta regis Ricardi (‘the pilgrims’ journey and the deeds of King Richard’) was written in Latin prose: the author was probably an English Augustinian canon, Richard de Templo.38 But not all historians were clerics: some crusade chronicles were written by secular warriors, such as Geoffrey of Villehardouin, one of the leaders of the Fourth Crusade, or John, lord of Joinville and seneschal of Champagne in north-eastern France, who took part in King Louis IX of France’s first crusade, to Egypt (1248–1254). Geoffrey wrote soon after the Fourth Crusade to explain and justify the course of events. John wrote some fifty years after events as an old friend of the king, incorporating his account of King Louis’s crusade into his account of Louis’s holy life.39 Some writers incorporated descriptions of crusades within wider commentaries on current and recent events, as did Archbishop William II of Tyre (d. c. 1185), historian of the kingdom of Jerusalem, and the Locating Women in the Crusades 11 English monastic chronicler Matthew Paris of St Albans Abbey (d. 1259), both writing in Latin. Matthew’s work—well-informed, readable, and enlivened by his own strong prejudices—was continued by other monastic writers, although his histories probably did not circulate outside monastic circles.40 William’s history was translated into French and continued in both Latin and French by writers working in Europe and in the kingdom of Jerusalem. In its French form (known as ‘the History of Eracles’ from its opening chapter, which tells how the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius recovered the relic of the True Cross on which Christ was crucified from the Persian king Chosroes II), this history circulated very widely among the secular nobility of Europe as well as clerical scholars. Both William and his French continuator were so prejudiced in favour of certain members of the nobility of the crusader states that at times their accounts border on fiction.41 The anonymous northern French writer known as the ‘minstrel of Reims’, writing in 1260, composed an entertaining and semi-fictionalized account in French prose of events in the Holy Land, France, Flanders, and England over the previous eighty years.42 It was not only western Europeans who wrote about the crusades. Anna Komnene or Comnena (d. c. 1153), eldest child of the Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos whose appeal to the West had initiated the First Crusade, incorporated extensive commentary on that campaign in her biography of her father, the Alexiad. Written in ‘high style Greek’, this was a learned and deliberately antiquarian work aimed at an elite readership and intended to exalt her father’s memory.43 The conflict between Saladin and the Third Crusade was recorded by Saladin’s secretary ʿImad al- ̄ Dqın al- ̄ Iṣfahanı ̄ and the ̄ qadi Baha’ al- ̄ Dın ̄ Ibn Shaddad, who wrote to praise Saladin. ̄ 44 Their contemporary, the scholar and historian Ibn al-Athır, used their work and developed it ̄ in his history of the period.45 In contrast, the Arab-Syrian nobleman, warrior, and poet Usama ibn Munqidh included stories of crusaders and women’s involvement in conflict as part of his collection of improving anecdotes, which he may have intended to present to his patron Saladin.46 12 Women and the Crusades Just as no modern reader would accept a news report without questioning whose political interests it serves, we should not accept a contemporary commentary on a crusade expedition without pausing to ask whose interests or what agenda the writer was promoting. No writer set pen to parchment without an objective in mind, be it to present a moral lesson to edify the reader, praise the deeds of a noble person in hopes of receiving their patronage, vindicate the actions of themselves or their friends or patrons, offer a moral lesson, or give a warning to future generations. Each character presented in these crusade narratives had their role to play in the author’s overall plan. Writers on all sides of the conflict depicted women in traditional gendered roles: they could be pious virgins, faithful wives and carers, pure-hearted devotees of chivalry; or they could be impious whores, weak-willed frail creatures easily led astray by their lusts, or powerful temptresses; or they could be innocent victims and suffering martyrs, or depicted as spoils of war, the just reward of the victor. Writers anxious that the presence of women in crusading armies could destroy the crusaders’ spiritual purity and lead them into sin would tend to stress the destructive influence of women in the army rather than giving them credit for their courage in undertaking the journey.47 The mother of the Muslim general Kerbogha in the account of the First Crusade known as the Gesta Francorum (‘the deeds of the Franks’) is a good example of a fictionalized character which reflects the narrator’s aims and audience expectations rather than actual events. The Gesta Francorum describes Kerbogha’s mother hurrying to reprimand her son when she hears that he is besieging the crusaders, who have just captured Antioch. She beseeches him not to fight ‘the Franks’ (the Latin Christians, who called themselves ‘Franks’): The Christians alone cannot fight with you—indeed I know that they are unworthy to meet you in battle—but their god fights for them every day, and keeps them day and night under his protection, and watches over them as a shepherd watches over his flock.48 She predicts that if her son ignores her advice he will suffer the greatest loss and dishonour, and die later in the year. This does not mean Locating Women in the Crusades 13 that Kerbogha’s mother did in fact arrive at the siege of Antioch and make such a speech; the character has an important narrative role in presenting the author’s propaganda for the crusade. It also reflects contemporary European Christian views of a mother’s social role and responsibilities, and what European Christians imagined about Muslim women and believed about crusades.49 Eleanor, duchess of Aquitaine, queen first of France and then of England, is a slightly different case: she did take part in a crusade but her role was elaborated by her contemporaries and later generations. Eleanor accompanied the Second Crusade with her first husband, King Louis VII of France, but the eye-witness account by the monk Odo of Deuil and the course of events indicate that her active role during the crusade was in diplomacy, not on the battlefield. The crusade was a failure: it made no territorial gains, and arguably its abortive siege of Damascus drove that influential city into the hands of Nūr al-Dın, ruler of Aleppo and Mosul, and formidable champion of Islam. ̄ Eleanor was among those whose actions were blamed for undermining the crusade: she was accused of having an affair with her uncle, Prince Raymond of Antioch. Raymond had hoped to persuade Louis to help him attack Aleppo, but Louis preferred to take his army on to Jerusalem. It is possible that Eleanor’s attempts to negotiate between her uncle and her husband were misinterpreted by her husband and his northern French advisors; but whatever the origin of the accusations against her, later writers developed and embellished the story, adding additional romantic liaisons. By 1260 the ‘Minstrel of Reims’ was telling a story of Eleanor having an affair with the Muslim sultan Saladin—who in 1147 would have been only ten years old. In the seventeenth century the English clergyman and historian Thomas Fuller recorded Eleanor falling in love with ‘a base Saracen jester’. Some writers imagined a military role for Eleanor. The Byzantine historian Niketas Choniates (d. 1217) wrote that there was a group of women among the crusaders who rode astride like men, ‘bearing lances and weapons as men do; dressed in masculine garb, they conveyed a wholly martial appearance more mannish than the Amazons’ led by ‘another Penthesilea’, the queen of the Amazons at the ancient 14 Women and the Crusades siege of Troy. He was probably referring to Eleanor and her ladies, but as he was not even born at the time of the Second Crusade, his account must have been based on a previous generation’s hostile memories of the crusaders, as seen through the distorting lens of the Fourth Crusade’s sack of Constantinople, which Niketas himself witnessed. For Niketas, the fact that noble women accompanied the crusade was an indication of the crusaders’ barbarity.50 Another stereotypical role for women was as victim. Preachers recruiting for crusades dwelt on the sufferings Islam had inflicted on Christian women in the Holy Land.51 Latin Christian writers also warned that Christian attacks on Muslim women would cause lethal Muslim reprisals: the continuations of Archbishop William of Tyre’s History stated that the immediate cause of the loss of kingdom of Jerusalem to Saladin in 1187–1188 was that Renaud de Châtillon, lord of Transjordan, captured a caravan in which Saladin’s mother or sister was travelling and refused to obey King Guy of Jerusalem’s order to release her. The mother or sister appears to be a later invention, as contemporary Muslim and Christian writers recorded the attack on the caravan but not Saladin’s relative.52 Similarly, Francesco Balbi di Correggio, an eyewitness of the Ottoman invasion of Malta in 1565, blamed the Ottoman attack on the Hospitallers’ capture of an elderly and influential Turkish noblewoman on her way to Mecca.53 The stereotype of the foolish and greedy woman who manipulated her loving husband into rash actions was cited as a cause of unjust campaigns. The Catalan author Ramon Muntaner blamed Beatrice of Provence for Charles of Anjou’s invasion of Sicily in 1266, a campaign that was devised and organized as a crusade against the pope’s enemies. According to Ramon, Charles had found his wife Beatrice weeping because her elder sister Margaret was queen of France while she was a mere countess, and promised her a crown. To fulfil his promise, he then informed the pope that he was prepared to undertake the conquest of Sicily.54 By claiming that Charles’s original motivation in invading Sicily was merely to please his wife rather than for pious Locating Women in the Crusades 15 reasons, Ramon strengthened the justification for the revolt of the Sicilian Vespers in 1282 against Charles. For critics of crusade campaigns, women’s involvement was evidence of the futility of the exercise and the foolishness of the participants. Commentators told humorous stories of ordinary women’s involvement in recruiting crusaders to highlight the gullibility of the common people, such as the famous story of the woman who set out with her goose to join the First Crusade—or, according to some reports, the goose led her and she followed it, accompanied by a credulous crowd.55 Some crusade chroniclers apparently invented women crusaders to improve their narrative. Historian Hilary Rhodes has discussed the case of Florina, supposedly daughter of Duke Odo I of Burgundy. Albert of Aachen described Florina’s death in battle during the First Crusade, probably in late autumn 1097. According to Albert, she was the widow of a prince of Philippi and was accompanying the army of Svend, son of the king of Denmark, hoping to marry him after the expedition was successful. After passing through Constantinople and crossing the kingdom of Rum (in what is now Turkey), the army was attacked by Turks, and both Svend and Florina were killed. However, Rhodes points out that Albert’s dates do not add up: if Florina existed, she could have been aged only fourteen at the time of this alleged incident. What is more, Duke Odo I did not mention his supposed daughter in any of his charters before setting out on his own crusade in 1101, whereas it would have been appropriate for him to have at least made a donation for her soul to a local monastery before setting out to the east himself. Rhodes concludes that Florina was an invention and that her name was possibly taken from the city of Florina in Macedonia, where there is also a city named Philippi.56 It is likely that Albert included the story for its moral value, to join his other stories warning women of the dangers of going on crusade. Just one of Albert of Aachen’s stories of a noblewoman dying on crusade can be confirmed, at least insofar as the woman in question 16 Women and the Crusades actually existed: Ida, widow of Leopold II of Austria, did take part in the crusade of 1101.57 Women did come to unhappy ends during the crusades just as their male comrades did, but Albert’s depiction of their experiences was not objective; it was deliberately framed to make his moral point.58 Reluctant to ‘lose’ a named female crusader, modern scholars have continued to list Florina as a woman crusader despite the lack of evidence for her existence. In the same way, an entirely fictional woman crusader named Valette has appeared in modern histories of the Fifth Crusade, apparently created by a misprint: in reality this was a male crusader named Jordan Valette.59 When a writer gave no name or provenance to a character we have no means of checking whether they existed. For example, both Ambroise and Richard de Templo describe the death of a woman during the siege of Acre of 1189–1191. According to their story, she was labouring with other crusaders, helping to fill in the ditch around the city with earth, when she was hit by a missile and killed. Her pious dying wish was for her body to be laid in the ditch so that even after her death she would continue the good work. Both authors mention her husband but Richard de Templo particularly emphasized that she was respectably married, depicting her making a dying request to her husband, addressing him as ‘Dilectionem tuam, Domine carissime’ (you darling, dearest lord) and imploring him in the name of ‘the sacrament of marriage, by our long-ago marital vows’ to fulfil her wish to be buried in the ditch.60 This is a heart-warming tale that could have inspired listeners to greater acts of piety, but the incident may have been invented to make a moral point. Because these writers represent her as one among many women working to fill in the ditch we may suppose that this woman represents the non-noble women who joined the Third Crusade, but the story itself cannot be validated. Stereotypes aside, it is easy to miss references to women in crusade armies. Although contemporary crusade accounts sometimes mentioned noble women by title and, less often, by name, they usually mentioned non-noble women as a group rather than as individuals (and hardly ever named them). Anna Komnene, for example, simply Locating Women in the Crusades 17 mentioned that the civilians accompanying the armies of the First Crusade included women and children, but gave no details.61 Often writers simply described the whole army as a group and did not specify men and women separately, as the language they used included both. A commentator writing in Latin, wishing to inform readers that a leader was accompanied by their followers, would refer to the followers as ‘suis’ (literally, his or hers—the Latin does not specify gender); or they might refer to ‘gens’, a feminine noun meaning ‘people’ as a group of men and women. These words have often been translated into modern English as ‘men’; so although the original text allowed for the possibility that women were involved, the modern translation does not.62 It is possible, of course, that some women went unnoticed by their contemporaries because they did not appear to be women—because they were dressed as men. There are a few references in both Christian and Muslim writings about the crusades and pilgrimage to women dressing as men, either to take part in the fighting or for safety when travelling.63 Muslim descriptions of Christian women disguised as male warriors in the crusader armies may be inventions because they are so obviously moral stories emphasizing the barbarity of the Latin Christians, their perverted religious fanaticism and their godlessness, demonstrating that their cause was doomed to failure.64 Given that one of these women pilgrims in male disguise, Hildegund von Schönau (d. 1188), was depicted as constantly anxious that others would realize she was really a woman, there were obviously problems in trying to maintain such a disguise for a long period.65 We can only speculate how many women might have taken part in crusading in disguise, because if their disguises were successful then they would not have been recorded. As the narratives sources present so many challenges of interpretation we might question how we may ever know that any women were involved in the crusades. However, the narrative accounts of crusades are not the only source of evidence. There are also personal letters, records in bishops’ registers commuting women’s vows 18 Women and the Crusades (changing their crusade vow to a pilgrimage to a nearer destination, or to a money payment, as Helewyse Palmer and her daughter Isabel did), records in the papal registers recording various aspects of women’s involvement, charter evidence (documents recording legal transactions, such as loans taken out to finance a crusade), evidence from legal cases (such as disputes between the heirs when a crusader died overseas), references to crusades and crusade-related matters in the lives of saints (such as Hildegund von Schönau), and so on. Again, more evidence survives for nobles than for non-nobles. In contrast to the narrative records these documentary records give us the names of non-noble women involved in the crusades: for example, making a will when they were about to set out. Some of them offer us glimpses of the motivations behind women’s interest in the crusades. All of these sources require interpretation, and (as we will see) some personal letters may be later forgeries; but they generally take a positive view of women’s involvement. Unfortunately, as they are scattered throughout the archives of Europe and only a small proportion of them have been published, it is impossible to judge whether the sample that we have is representative of the whole. For example, a passenger list from a ship named ‘St Victor’ which was at Messina in Sicily in July 1250 lists many women among wouldbe ‘pilgrims’ going to join a crusade. To judge from the passengers’ names the ship had set out from France, and it was sailing to Damietta to join Louis IX’s first crusade. Of 453 passengers, forty-two (almost ten per cent) were women. As none of these were noble crusaders, the chance survival of this record gives us a rare insight into how nonnoble women could travel to join a crusade. Half of these women were travelling with male companions—fourteen with a husband, one with husband and son, one with father, one with her brother, two with brother and sister-in-law and two with a ‘socius’ (a male companion, undefined)—and half without male company. Nine of the remaining women travelled alone, ten may have have been travelling with another woman or women, and two were identified as travel companions: one may have been the other’s servant.66 It is tempting Locating Women in the Crusades 19 to assume that this list is typical of crusader ships and that all crusades would have included a similar proportion of women, but regrettably it is the only such list which has so far been identified. There is no information about why they had joined the crusade, but the fact that they were collectively called ‘pilgrims’ indicates that they had joined for spiritual reward. Motivation Like our own age, the people of Europe in the period of the crusades were extremely concerned about health and purity, going to enormous lengths to ensure that they and their society were safe from infection. Nowadays this concern is primarily focussed on physical health and what damages the physical body, but their focus was on spiritual health and those things which destroy the soul. The infection that they sought to avoid was the infection of sin rather than physical disease. To ensure their spiritual health, Latin Christians fasted at certain times, endowed religious houses and hospitals, undertook other charitable giving, and travelled on pilgrimage to holy sites to gain a spiritual reward. Support for the crusade, with its call to recover Christ’s patrimony from unbelievers and protect other Christians from persecution, was a means of cleansing the soul from the taint of sin through fighting against the infection of false belief. The enormous challenges and personal costs of crusading made it a penitential exercise that would bring spiritual health to both the individual and wider society, but the costs and the need to protect family interests limited how far any woman or man could participate.67 Women’s ability to join a crusade was primarily dependent on their social class.68 Crusading was very expensive: it has been estimated that ‘a poor knight would have to find at least four times his average annual income’ in order to join the First Crusade. As most crusaders would have made a considerable financial loss in crusading, the obvious 20 Women and the Crusades conclusion to draw is that they and the families who supported them were inspired by religious idealism.69 The fact that men and women vowed to go on crusade and then commuted their vow to a cash payment also suggests that piety was an important factor in crusading; the spiritual reward was worth the payment. The enormous personal cost which some women paid to support a crusade again strongly suggests that piety was a major stimulus. Yet we have to deduce this from events and actions; few of the sources state this explicitly. Motives are seldom straightforward, and everyone involved will have had many reasons for venturing on a crusade over and beyond simple piety. Dynastic interests and the need to escape difficult situations at home could be motivations for crusading in addition to the desire to serve God and win a spiritual reward.70 Many women took part in crusades because they were accompanying their husband, father, brother, or son, and they may have had no choice over whether they participated.71 Others were in employment and accompanied their employer (for example as ladies’ maids), or conducted their business (for instance, as merchants selling food to the army). Family tradition was perhaps the most important motivation for crusading, after piety, and women played a significant role in upholding this tradition and introducing it to each new generation.