Can hip-hop be viewed as a global learning experience

Can hip-hop be viewed as a global learning experience? By Enock Nyaega From the United States to France, Japan, Australia, and localities in between, the culture of hip-hop has become a diaspora that spans geographic, ethnic, and linguistic boundaries. The modern youth considers global hip-hop their culture. It is a phenomenon that affects almost every nation and culture across the globe. Carol, Motley M., and Henderson Rosa Geraldine. "The Global Hip-hop Diaspora: Understanding the Culture." Journal of Business Research 61, no. 3 (2008): 243-53. Accessed March 25, 2021. doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2007.06.020. Since its inception in the early 1970s, hip-hop and its other cultural elements have transformed from rap and chant to gain commercial success globally. Hip-hop is not just a culture but also an art movement. Mostly, it refers to hip-hop music such as rap. Its main elements include rapping (MCing), Djing, breakdancing, and graffiti. Its roots trace back to the history of rock n’ roll, jazz, and the blues. When it started, hip-hop music emerged as the artistic expression of the marginalized groups’ inner-city experience. These groups’ despair, hopelessness, and poverty led to the creation of hip-hop music. Within a short time, the evolution of this subculture led to hip-hop becoming not only an industry but also a primary influence on global mainstream culture. Chris, Robinson A. "The Effects of Commercialization on the Perception of Hip Hop Culture and Black Culture in Mainstream Culture in the United States." Electronic Theses and Dissertations, no. 554 (2011): 1-130. Accessed March 26, 2021. https://digitalcommons.du.edu/etd/554. In this article, I will argue that hip-hop is a global learning experience. Meanwhile, its commercialization is a positive phenomenon, its development, and change over the years have created a hip-hop industry that is different from hip-hop, as an art form. The origins of hip-hop can be traced to South Bronx. Hip-hop stems from the musical and vocal cultural expression of Latino, Afro Caribbean, and African-American men in the 1970s. DJing, graffiti, rapping, and breakdancing represented the creation of alternative identities. Christopher, Vito. "Introduction." The Values of Independent Hip-Hop in the Post-Golden Era, 2019, 1-44. Accessed March 26, 2021. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-02481-9_1. A shared environment bound the origins of the elements of hip-hop. DJ Kool Herc is the founding father of Djing. Kennedy, Center. "Hip-Hop: A Culture of Vision and Voice." Hip-Hop: A Culture of Vision and Voice. Accessed March 28, 2021. https://www.kennedy-center.org/education/resources-for-educators/classroom-resources/media-and-interactives/media/hip-hop/hip-hop-a-culture-of-vision-and-voice/. Figure 1 is a picture of DJ Kool Herc and DJ Tony Tone. Another pioneer of hip-hop deejay is the Grandmaster Flash. Figure 2 is a picture of Grandmaster Flash. These pioneers created and stimulated improvisational dancing, as well as new turntable manipulation techniques. Later, artists such as Public Enemy created rap music by building on the Grandmaster Flash’s social consciousness. Alan, Light. "Hip-hop in the 21st Century." Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed March 27, 2021. https://www.britannica.com/art/hip-hop/Hip-hop-in-the-21st-century. Figure 3 is a picture of Public Enemy artists. Rap, which is founded on African oral traditions like signifying, testifying, and boasting, is used interchangeably with hip-hop music. The origins of hip-hop emerged to reflect the social and economic hardships of marginalized groups. However, since its foundation, it has experienced a struggle between sustaining its locality and naturalness within New York. Then again, commercialization, globalization, and the emergence of new technologies such as CD players and burners, social media, the Internet, and cassettes have enabled easier information flow and music production. Ibid. Through these technologies, the subculture is copied and moved from one society to another to reach the entire world. Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 1: DJ Tony Tone and DJ Kool Herc, 1979 Kennedy, Center. "Hip-Hop: A Culture of Vision and Voice." Hip-Hop: A Culture of Vision and Voice. Accessed March 28, 2021. https://www.kennedy-center.org/education/resources-for-educators/classroom-resources/media-and-interactives/media/hip-hop/hip-hop-a-culture-of-vision-and-voice/. Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 2: Grandmaster Flash accepting an award in 2006. Alan, Light. "Hip-hop in the 21st Century." Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed March 27, 2021. https://www.britannica.com/art/hip-hop/Hip-hop-in-the-21st-century. Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 3: Public Enemy, 1988. Alan, Light. "Hip-hop in the 21st Century." Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed March 27, 2021. https://www.britannica.com/art/hip-hop/Hip-hop-in-the-21st-century. Media scholars identify hip-hop culture as the youth’s dominant voice. For instance, rap music, which is the culture’s most visible and performative product, is not only a global phenomenon but also a billion-dollar industry. Because of this, it affects how the youths create their identity, relate with peers, and create the meaning of their surroundings. Urban youth continue to create and duplicate new artistic forms with hip-hop styles and music that the youth culture admires. Jabari, Evans. "“Deeper than Rap”: Cultivating Racial Identity and Critical Voices through Hip-hop Recording Practices in the Music Classroom." Journal of Media Literacy Education 11, no. 3 (2019): 20-36. Accessed March 27, 2021. doi:10.23860/jmle-2019-11-3-3. Through this process, we can view hip-hop as a global learning process. Hip-hop is a vital means of identity formation and expression. Many administrators and educators across the world have started to leverage hip-hop music’s popularity by integrating it into their instructional and curricula approaches. Mainly, that is because urban children, irrespective of their ethnicity and race, consider hip-hop culture a cultural and social site to form identity. The use of hip-hop music in educational interventions seeks to address the challenges that most urban youth face such as intense negative emotions, poverty, emotional abuse, neglect, and discrimination. For many youths across the world, hip-hop culture plays an important part in the way they form their personality and identity. It also offers acceptance and a sense of belonging; thus, contributing to the strengthening and development of relationships among the youth. Indeed, hip-hop is a tremendous force and a global phenomenon. Therefore, a growing number of students at every level have become the culture’s active inhabitants. Jabari, Evans. "“Deeper than Rap”: Cultivating Racial Identity and Critical Voices through Hip-hop Recording Practices in the Music Classroom." Journal of Media Literacy Education 11, no. 3 (2019): 20-36. Accessed March 27, 2021. doi:10.23860/jmle-2019-11-3-3. Since hip-hop has several developmental benefits that assist listeners to find their identity, it is a global learning experience. Similar to other popular music like heavy metal, punk, and rock, hip-hop’s global appeal is aesthetic. Given this, it has resulted in being used productively in new linguistic and social environments. Hip-hop stands out from other genres since it offers a voice to voiceless members of global connective marginalities. The transformation of hip-hop from marginalized to the mainstream has created a new phenomenon. Such a phenomenon offers audiences, as well as media access to people in other geographic locations. The United States has over 50 million hip-hop fans, and worldwide, there are more than 100 million fans who consume various forms of hip-hop. Carol, Motley M., and Henderson Rosa Geraldine. "The Global Hip-hop Diaspora: Understanding the Culture." Journal of Business Research 61, no. 3 (2008): 243-53. Accessed March 25, 2021. doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2007.06.020. Given that these numbers make hip-hop a lucrative market, it also signifies the extensive nature of its global learning experience. Hip-hop music and its related paraphernalia such as posters and t-shirts flood the cultural landscape. Through this, the influence of hip-hop culture on styles of dress and behavior is not only evident but also widespread. In such a context, the global learning experience stems from the way various groups in the society and market adapt hip-hop culture. The youth and young adults from various localities across the globe wear oversized t-shorts or sagging pants. The beauty, accessories, fashion, and clothing industry also seek to stay in touch with emerging trends among the fans. For instance, the fashion of baseball caps, oversized pants, droopy fashion, and Nike sneakers are some of the dominant styles for teenagers in North America, Asia, and Africa. Hip-hop culture’s diffusion entails commonalities among collective marginalities. It also displays the capability to adapt to diverse political and socioeconomic environments. Carol, Motley M., and Henderson Rosa Geraldine. "The Global Hip-hop Diaspora: Understanding the Culture." Journal of Business Research 61, no. 3 (2008): 243-53. Accessed March 25, 2021. doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2007.06.020. Because of these reasons, hip-hop is a global learning experience. Since its origins in the 1970s, hip-hop has evolved from a localized urban art to become a multi-billion dollar industry. Following this, the effects of hip-hop have extended from urban streets to boardrooms and classrooms. Initially, hip-hop comprised of disadvantaged youths of Latin and African ancestry. Today, the entire audience and cast of this subculture comprise a diverse range of ethnic and economic groups. Mainly, that is because hip-hop offers a global learning experience. As a subculture, it was, in a large part, the society’s most unappreciated and overlooked segment. Today, it dominates a big segment of modern popular culture. Innovations in lyrical content and sound production have driven the evolution of hip-hop music. Jonathan, Riesch. "Hip Hop Culture: History and Trajectory." Research Papers, Paper 32. (2005): 1-33. Accessed March 26, 2021. http://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/gs_rp/32. Therefore, what makes hip-hop a global learning experience is that it is the creators of the arts that define the culture, as well as the society around it. Around the world, the representation of hip-hop culture is evident. Various people from almost all societies self-associate with the subculture. The hip-hop community and the general public consider anybody of any birthplace, or age and who listens to hip-hop music, speaks in a modern urban dialect or dresses in hip-hop styles and fashion as representing the culture. Jonathan, Riesch. "Hip Hop Culture: History and Trajectory." Research Papers, Paper 32. (2005): 1-33. Accessed March 26, 2021. http://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/gs_rp/32. Therefore, such a phenomenon occurs since hip-hop is a learning experience. Hip-hop subculture and musical genre or style exhibit cultural practices rooted within the multicultural urban neighborhoods across the United States. Despite this, its commercial and mainstream appeal has spread worldwide. According to some of the music streaming services such as Spotify, hip-hop is the most listened to music genre throughout the world. Accordingly, it has become a global and multicultural phenomenon. Today, it encompasses diverse activities, which societies borrow, adapt, and transfer to others across geographical boundaries. Through this, the modern youth engages in hip-hop to develop hybrid, realistic identities. Hip-hop artists create their unique language of connectedness. Despite the artists originating from diverse ethnic backgrounds, they create a similar music genre that shows a unique connectedness of the subculture. Jacqueline, Nguyen M., and Ferguson M. Gail. "A Global Cypher: The Role of Hip Hop in Cultural Identity Construction and Navigation for Southeast Asian American Youth." In J. McKenzie (Ed.), Globalization as a Context for Youth Development. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, no. 164, 99-115. Accessed March 26, 2021. Such global connectedness shows that hip-hop is a global learning experience. The youth of color consider hip-hop a psychological multicultural space that can facilitate political engagement, challenge stereotypes, and repel racial hierarchies. Around the globe, the modern youth use hip-hop to create a sense of identity agency, resist or critique the societies’ static identity choices and expand the possibilities of their identity. In many cases, the youth borrow from other societies where hip-hop has proved a successful medium to pioneer change. Through hip-hop, they criticize racialized identities in society and schools. For instance, aboriginal Australians use hip-hop as a platform to modernize and politicize identity. The youth in Pacific Islander and Maori use hip-hop as an identity marker while those from Mongolia use it to distinguish themselves from the older, socialist era adults. Chinese youth use hip-hop to display their individual, hybridized identities while at the same time resisting a national culture, which suppresses individualism. Jacqueline, Nguyen M., and Ferguson M. Gail. "A Global Cypher: The Role of Hip Hop in Cultural Identity Construction and Navigation for Southeast Asian American Youth." In J. McKenzie (Ed.), Globalization as a Context for Youth Development. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, no. 164, 99-115. Accessed March 26, 2021. Therefore, the global learning experience of hip-hop is evident in the way various groups of youth use and identify with the subculture. As an art, many people view hip-hop as instrumental in motivating, changing, and rehabilitating attitudes in young people. Many people also recognize the potential of hip-hop in shifting and modeling the perceptions of the young generation. For young people, hip-hop is the habitus and culture whereby they are located that they can discover the intricate issues, which affect their lives. Through hip-hop, the youth have a platform to challenge injustices. Mainly, that is because hip-hop is rooted firmly in the temporal and local. To a greater extent, hip-hop has proved to be an important tool the youth use to navigate local histories and spaces while at the same time constructing individual identities and styles. It allows the youth to create music and expression connecting them with personality development, language, and style. Eleanor, Brown J., and Nicklin Laura Louise. "Spitting Rhymes and Changing Minds: Global Youth Work through Hip-hop." International Journal of Development Education and Global Learning 11, no. 2 (2019): 159-74. Accessed March 26, 2021. doi:10.18546/ijdegl.11.2.03. Because of this, we can view hip-hop as a global learning experience. As a medium, hip-hop aims to engage disaffected people in the urban context and help them create meaning in the world. This is the case since the hip-hop genre is not only created by but also for the urban working-class youth. Initially, hip-hop artists created the genre and became storytellers who disturbed society’s status quo. Mainly, they shared uncomfortable facts and representation of the actual livelihoods of ethnically marginalized people within the American society. This included oppression, political stigmatization, and neglect of the black youth as unimportant members of the society. Despite hip-hop being rooted in a rather race-specific context, its impact on youth culture has transcended race. Its influence is obvious in a varied range of cultures around the globe. The youth from various cultures are not only accessing but also challenging the practices and elements within these groups like living conditions, street behavior, and substance abuse. Eleanor, Brown J., and Nicklin Laura Louise. "Spitting Rhymes and Changing Minds: Global Youth Work through Hip-hop." International Journal of Development Education and Global Learning 11, no. 2 (2019): 159-74. Accessed March 26, 2021. doi:10.18546/ijdegl.11.2.03. The borrowing and sharing of hip-hop styles and elements across cultures show that hip-hop has a global learning experience. Is the commercialization of hip-hop a positive or negative phenomenon? The commercialization of hip-hop expands the definition of its culture past its primary elements to include fashion, styles, attitude, language, and popular expression. Artists combine various elements using limitless factors to create community and culture. Through this process, the commercialization of hip-hop creates new cultures and communities over time and across cultures and geographic regions. Non-US hip-hop artists combine US hip-hop culture with their specific cultural norms and everyday lives. These artists combine cues from African-American hip-hop and then imbue them with creativity and inventiveness to make it uniquely theirs. Through the commercialization of hip-hop, its culture and music, which was long considered an American phenomenon, now exists across the world. In every emerging era, artists filter foreign and American hip-hop styles using their local linguistics, social, and music practices; thus, creating unique musical forms. They import foreign hip-hop, which helps them to construct their ethnic-social identities. Eleanor, Brown J., and Nicklin Laura Louise. "Spitting Rhymes and Changing Minds: Global Youth Work through Hip-hop." International Journal of Development Education and Global Learning 11, no. 2 (2019): 159-74. Accessed March 26, 2021. doi:10.18546/ijdegl.11.2.03. Indeed, commercialization facilitated the crossover into and adaptation of hip-hop within diverse subcultures; hence, a positive phenomenon. Hip-hop has become a highly commercialized business with billions in sales in the United States. However, such a success is not in the US alone. Its effects permeate the whole world in which it has become a global economic and creative force. The commercialization of hip-hip has expanded the genre to represent other communities, not just the black community. Without a doubt, hip-hop’s globalization and commercialization have allowed producers and consumers to expand the genre past the black community. Today, hip-hop represents all people that promote or partake in the hip-hop culture whether female or male, poor or rich, foreign or American, white or black, and so on. Commercialization led to its prominence and expansion to wider audiences, both ethnically and globally. Lucien, Flores J. "Hip-Hop is for everybody: Examining the Roots and Growth of Hip-Hop." Inquiries Journal. May 01, 2012. Accessed March 26, 2021. http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1686/hip-hop-is-for-everybody-examining-the-roots-and-growth-of-hip-hop. That is how major labels attained more control of hip-hop’s creative process. Therefore, the commercialization of hip-hop is a positive phenomenon. In the current commercial marketplace, hip-hop has expanded to represent several products and companies. Major record labels, corporations, and businesses now use hip-hop to make a profit. It has become a common medium to advertise causes, businesses, and corporations. Even hip-hop fashion itself is very popular and spreading to include steady consumers of diverse racial and ethnic identities. Because of commercialization, hip-hop has expanded from representing the black community’s voice to representing numerous fashion lines, products, brands, companies, and more. Today, hip-hop is globally recognized as a leading commercial force. In several countries, companies use hip-hop outlaw stance to promote their brands, products, and businesses. Lucien, Flores J. "Hip-Hop is for everybody: Examining the Roots and Growth of Hip-Hop." Inquiries Journal. May 01, 2012. Accessed March 26, 2021. http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1686/hip-hop-is-for-everybody-examining-the-roots-and-growth-of-hip-hop. Through this process, hip-hop continues to permeate all societies while in the process creating a strong fan base. Therefore, it is a positive phenomenon. Meanwhile, one may view that the heavy commercialization of hip-hop led to the ultimate loss of its original meanings; it does allow expansion of the genre to include a broader fan base. Indeed, one can find hip-hop in places it never existed years ago, from video games and public service announcements to political campaigns and television commercials. People from diverse cultures and backgrounds can use the genre and subculture to express their problems with marginalization, police oppression, the government, and other several societal issues. The commercialization of hip-hop enabled its spread. As such, it offers a platform and outlet for many social groups and underrepresented people in other regions. It has opened gateways to access a new and emerging group of producers and consumers that spread the whole world. It is elements (graffiti, breakdance, deejay, and rap) are now available to a new commercial and global world. Ibid. For those reasons, the commercialization of hip-hop is a positive phenomenon. Is hip-hop, as an art form, separate from the industry of hip-hop? Hip hop is all about image. The image plays an important role in contemporary hip-hop culture. By looking at the hip-hop industry and subculture, it is evident that they are two uniquely separate things. Often, many young artists look for ways to sell their records and generate income. Once they have attained enough money or realize that the hip-hop industry was using them, they then refocus their efforts to making the culture a constructive form for their community. Jonathan, Riesch. "Hip Hop Culture: History and Trajectory." Research Papers, Paper 32. (2005): 1-33. Accessed March 26, 2021. http://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/gs_rp/32. With the commercialization of hip-hop music, hip-hop became an industry. Following this, the industry adopted different cultural elements that came to embody hip-hop cultures such as breakers and bombers. Once hip-hop music and its surrounding sub-culture became commercially viable, it adopted elements such as beat boxing, hip-hop language, styles, fashion, and street entrepreneurship among others. Chris, Robinson A. "The Effects of Commercialization on the Perception of Hip Hop Culture and Black Culture in Mainstream Culture in the United States." Electronic Theses and Dissertations, no. 554 (2011): 1-130. Accessed March 26, 2021. https://digitalcommons.du.edu/etd/554. Therefore, these elements made it different from hip-hop, as an art form. When people recognized that one can generate money with hip-hop, they started to measure the success and quality of hip-hop culture products in terms of profitability. As the music proved a commercial success, the subculture was now open to interpretation and consumption by a broader audience. Once the hip-hop industry expanded, the nature and setting of the subculture changed. More people were willing to purchase the music while artists generated the consumers. In return, consumers were also shaping hip-hop artists. With the principles of demand and supply dictating the development and evolution of the hip-hop industry, several aspects changed. Initially, the origins of hip-hop showed that authenticity was a critical element and played a unique part in the hip-hop culture’s evolution. Within twenty years, hip-hop made inroads into movies, fashion, sports, as well as television. Indeed, authenticity is what separated hip-hop from other music genres. Then again, as more and emerging artists shifted focus to money and profits, authenticity became a problem. Ibid. The evolution of hip-hop from an outsider subculture to a very influential and visible genre in mainstream music created a hip-hop industry that was rather different from hip-hop, as an art form. When the artists began making money, a significant shift in hip-hop culture emerged. Some aspects of hip-hop culture seemed more profitable compared to others. These are the aspects that many artists focused on while they neglected those hip-hop aspects that proved less profitable. Chris, Robinson A. "The Effects of Commercialization on the Perception of Hip Hop Culture and Black Culture in Mainstream Culture in the United States." Electronic Theses and Dissertations, no. 554 (2011): 1-130. Accessed March 26, 2021. https://digitalcommons.du.edu/etd/554. For instance, breakdancing and Graffiti’s popularity was short-lived and the mainstream art community is yet to accept them as forms of true art. Although they were the first to catch public attention, they had the least lasting effect. Alan, Light. "Hip-hop in the 21st Century." Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed March 27, 2021. https://www.britannica.com/art/hip-hop/Hip-hop-in-the-21st-century. Figure 4 is an image of a wall of graffiti near the Empire State building. Figure 4: The Empire State Building towering over a wall of graffiti in New York City. Ibid. Break dancing was never popular and remained mostly an underground culture. At the beginning of the 1990s, the emergence and rise of Gangsta rap offered a different demonstration of how hip-hop music’s commercial success influenced the evolution of hip-hop culture. Following this, gangsta imagery replaced the themes of racial discrimination and poverty that early hip-hop music explored. Gangsta music’s use of profanity and presentation of aggression inspired censorship and harsh criticism from the mainstream music industry. Despite this, the backlash directed at hip-hop became integral in its thriving commercial success. Meanwhile, the mainstream focused on the negative sides of hip-hop culture; it transformed and shaped hip-hop music and the subculture’s ethos. It made gangsta rap more profitable and popular to an extent that the other hip-hop forms were considered inauthentic. While the hip-hop industry evolved and the gangsta image deemed profitable, glorification of drugs, violet lyrics, misogyny, and profanity became the authenticity earmarks in hip-hop music. Chris, Robinson A. "The Effects of Commercialization on the Perception of Hip Hop Culture and Black Culture in Mainstream Culture in the United States." Electronic Theses and Dissertations, no. 554 (2011): 1-130. Accessed March 26, 2021. https://digitalcommons.du.edu/etd/554. Therefore, hip-hop, as a form of art, is different from the industry of hip-hop. The emergency of the hip-hop industry created a new trend in which there was a pull between the culture’s commercial vitality and its endeavoring to become a meaningful platform of social change and youth empowerment. With its rising popularity in the 1990s, businesses and large corporations started to invest in hip-hop music. They actively recruited music artists that could fit the persona of a gangster to sell records. Eventually, the sales reached the peak and major companies attained creative control of the majority of the record sales. Given these, there arose a pull between two major competing factors. Major companies sought for commercial vitality of the industry. However, some listeners and artists started to push back due to the growing concern that the content shift in mainstream hip-hop music and culture was becoming noncritical of social inequality, capitalistic, and patriarchal Ibid.. Such a change made hip-hop, as an art form, different from the industry of hip-hop. The article has shown the extent to which hip-hop is a global learning experience. It has elaborated further that meanwhile, the commercialization of hip-hop is a positive phenomenon; its development and change over the years has created a hip-hop industry that is very different from hip-hop, as an art form. The global learning experience of hip-hop is evident from the way the performing arts have transformed over the years. New technologies, commercialization, and globalization have made hip-hop a global learning experience. Many administrators and educators across the world want hip-hop integrated into their instructional and curricula approaches. Hip-hop is being used productively in new linguistic and social environments. It influences styles of dress, fashion, and behavior, and these effects have extended from urban streets to boardrooms and classrooms. The borrowing and sharing of hip-hop styles and elements across cultures also show that hip-hop is a global learning experience. The commercialization of hip-hop has created a positive phenomenon in which it creates new cultures and communities over time and across cultures and geographic regions. It has allowed hip-hop to represent all people that promote or partake in the hip-hop culture. The evolution of hip-hop from an outsider subculture to a very influential and visible genre in mainstream music created a hip-hop industry that was rather different from hip-hop, as an art form. Bibliography Brown, Eleanor J., and Laura Louise Nicklin. "Spitting Rhymes and Changing Minds: Global Youth Work through Hip-hop." International Journal of Development Education and Global Learning 11, no. 2 (2019): 159-74. Accessed March 26, 2021. doi:10.18546/ijdegl.11.2.03. Center, Kennedy. "Hip-Hop: A Culture of Vision and Voice." Hip-Hop: A Culture of Vision and Voice. Accessed March 28, 2021. https://www.kennedy-center.org/education/resources-for-educators/classroom-resources/media-and-interactives/media/hip-hop/hip-hop-a-culture-of-vision-and-voice/. Evans, Jabari. ““Deeper than Rap”: Cultivating Racial Identity and Critical Voices through Hip-hop Recording Practices in the Music Classroom.” Journal of Media Literacy Education 11, no. 3 (2019): 20-36. Accessed March 27, 2021. doi:10.23860/jmle-2019-11-3-3. Flores, Lucien J. "Hip-Hop Is for Everybody: Examining the Roots and Growth of Hip-Hop." Inquiries Journal. May 01, 2012. Accessed March 26, 2021. http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1686/hip-hop-is-for-everybody-examining-the-roots-and-growth-of-hip-hop. Light, Alan. "Hip-hop in the 21st Century." Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed March 27, 2021. https://www.britannica.com/art/hip-hop/Hip-hop-in-the-21st-century. Motley, Carol M., and Geraldine Rosa Henderson. "The Global Hip-hop Diaspora: Understanding the Culture." Journal of Business Research 61, no. 3 (2008): 243-53. Accessed March 25, 2021. doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2007.06.020. Nguyen, Jacqueline M., and Gail M. Ferguson. "A Global Cypher: The Role of Hip Hop in Cultural Identity Construction and Navigation for Southeast Asian American Youth." In J. McKenzie (Ed.), Globalization as a Context for Youth Development. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, no. 164, 99-115. Accessed March 26, 2021. Riesch, Jonathan. "Hip Hop Culture: History and Trajectory." Research Papers., Paper 32. (2005): 1-33. Accessed March 26, 2021. http://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/gs_rp/32. Robinson, Chris A. "The Effects of Commercialization on the Perception of Hip Hop Culture and Black Culture in Mainstream Culture in the United States." Electronic Theses and Dissertations., no. 554 (2011): 1-130. Accessed March 26, 2021. https://digitalcommons.du.edu/etd/554. Vito, Christopher. "Introduction." The Values of Independent Hip-Hop in the Post-Golden Era, 2019, 1-44. Accessed March 26, 2021. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-02481-9_1. [email protected] 15