Conflict Archaeology by David G Passmore
Canadian Military History, 2024
This article presents the first attempt to conduct a geographical analysis of every air-to-ground... more This article presents the first attempt to conduct a geographical analysis of every air-to-ground attack conducted by a tactical fighter-bomber wing over the period 1 May–31 August 1944 in support of Operation Overlord. Ninety-five per cent of the 606 attacks made by 143 Wing Typhoons on single or multiple targets can be resolved to a map reference or place name, and their chronology and distribution reveal new insights into the Wing’s operational history. Commemorative and heritage perspectives are also highlighted for attacks on targets in woodland settings where archaeological survey of bomb craters can be linked to specific raids.
Open Access: https://scholars.wlu.ca/cmh/vol33/iss1/5/
Antiquity, 2023
Although conflict archaeology is now well established,
the archaeological remains of many specifi... more Although conflict archaeology is now well established,
the archaeological remains of many specific
military confrontations are still to be explored. This
article reports the results of fieldwork to document
the site of the Battle of the Bulge (16 December
1944–25 January 1945). The authors use dronemounted
1m-resolution LiDAR and very high-resolution
simultaneous localisation and mapping
(SLAM) methods to reveal more than 940 features
within the forested Ardennes landscape, many of
which were subsequently visited and confirmed. As
well as highlighting the potential of the LiDARSLAM
method, deployed here (both in this geographic
region and in conflict archaeology) for the
first time, the survey results emphasise the need for
a debate on managing the heritage of a key modern
conflict landscape in Europe.
Journal of Conflict Archaeology, 2023
During the final days of World War II, the Red Army’s Berlin Operation culminated in the capture ... more During the final days of World War II, the Red Army’s Berlin Operation culminated in the capture of the Reich’s capital and the unconditional surrender of the Wehrmacht. Between 16 and 19 April 1945, the most intense fighting of the operation ensued in what is now called the Battle of the Seelow Heights. Due to the vast quantities of men and matériel involved in the fighting, an extensive militarised landscape has developed within the forests of East Brandenburg that has largely evaded archaeological scrutiny. A combination of airborne laser scanning data, archival research, and GIS-analysis reveals a highly diverse archaeological assemblage, including trenches, firing positions, dugouts, logistics facilities, along with other types of war- and conflict-related infrastructure. This unprecedented degree of preservation distinguishes the Seelow battlefield from other WWII contexts in Europe and provides a unique opportunity to investigate the combat activities and supply infrastructures of two combatting forces.
International Journal of Historical Archaeology (2020), 2020
Over 1600 extant WW2 impact craters in the Forêt Domaniale de la Londe-Rouvray, Lower Seine valle... more Over 1600 extant WW2 impact craters in the Forêt Domaniale de la Londe-Rouvray, Lower Seine valley, Normandy, France have been mapped and analysed using LiDAR, historic aerial photographs, archive documents and field survey. Crater densities average 0.26/ha2 with values up to 31/ha2 in clusters around road and railway infrastructure. Some 576 craters can be dated using aerial photographs to intervals between May-August 1944 and are interpreted as bomb craters associated with Allied tactical air strikes on the Seine bridge at Orival (attacked during May in preparation for the D-Day landings) and German troop and vehicle concentrations towards the later stages of the Normandy Campaign.
Key Words: Bomb craters, WW2, archaeology, Normandy, LiDAR
Link to pdf: https://rdcu.be/b1FCi
Contemporary Military Geosciences in South Africa, 2019
The archaeological record of battlefield sites tends to focus on material evidence, which commonl... more The archaeological record of battlefield sites tends to focus on material evidence, which commonly does not remain in situ. However, battlefield sites are set within wider landscape contexts and as such these sites represent cultural or heritage landscapes that can also include non-material evidence for battles or their later memorialisation. Battlefield sites in South Africa from the Second Anglo-Boer War (1899–1902) contain a range of memorialisation evidence, and this has acted as a focus for non-material engagements at these sites, including that of heritage tourism. This study explores the battlefield and memorialisation sites of Colenso and Spioen Kop in order to consider relationships between material and non-material archaeological evidence from these sites, and to consider issues of heritage and memorialisation. Based on grave and memorial markers at these sites, the study discusses issues of memory, remembrance, power and identity, and the implications of these issues for battlefield and heritage conservation.
Knight, J. and Passmore, D.G. (2019). Perspectives on battlefield archaeology and heritage of the Second Anglo-Boer War. In: Smit, H. and Bezuidenhout, J. (eds), Contemporary Military Geosciences in South Africa. Sun Press, Stellenbosch, 1-23.
Fields of Conflict 2018 (Conference Proceedings), 2018
This paper adapts US military concepts of ‘Battlespace’ and especially the ‘Levels of War’ (strat... more This paper adapts US military concepts of ‘Battlespace’ and especially the ‘Levels of War’ (strategy, operations and tactics) to WW2 landscapes revealed by LiDAR-derived digital elevation models in forests of the Lower Seine valley near Rouen, France. Here, as in many forested areas of northwest Europe, the increasingly widespread availability of LiDAR data is presenting conflict archaeologists and heritage managers with the challenge of evaluating a vastly enhanced dataset of extant WW2 features. Many of these landscapes witnessed multiple actions over a range of timescales and involving one, or a combination of ground combat, artillery strikes and aerial bombing. In such cases the preservation of abundant impact craters can present a challenge for archaeological interpretation and assessment of heritage significance.
Journal of Conflict Archaeology, 2017
This paper reviews the signature characteristics of extant WW2 German army munitions storage land... more This paper reviews the signature characteristics of extant WW2 German army munitions storage landscapes in forested areas of northwest Europe with particular reference to sites in northwest France and the Netherlands. Archaeological survey, aerial photographs and documentary archives show the geography of munitions sites exhibit a regulated pattern of bunker disposition and spacing that is adapted to local road configurations and terrain. Non-hardened bunkers form the predominant feature in munitions depots and conform to a five/six-fold typology defined by non-invasive survey and excavated examples from the Netherlands. The typology reflects an evolution of storage protocols towards all-round protection from the effects of weather and blast, but also reveals variation in size, structural characteristics and function that poses questions for further study. It is anticipated that these results will be of diagnostic value in future WW2 conflict archaeological survey of German military support structures in formerly occupied territories.
Keywords: WW2, conflict archaeology, munitions storage, bunker, typology
Archaeological survey of well-preserved Second World War German supply depots and bomb craters fr... more Archaeological survey of well-preserved Second World War German supply depots and bomb craters from Allied air raids in the Forêt domaniale des Andaines, Normandy, has prompted an evaluation of the effectiveness of Allied intelligence gathering and tactical bombing of the German logistics network in advance of, and during the Normandy Campaign of June-August 1944. In conjunction with analysis of primary German and Allied archive sources, published historical accounts and aerial photographs we demonstrate that Allied intelligence knew of the importance of the forest as a major fuel depot and attacked it with at least 46 missions over the period 13 June – 14 August. However, landscape evidence demonstrates that only one of three fuel depot sites in the forest was successfully identified and partially destroyed by bombing. Allied intelligence efforts also failed to gather sufficient evidence to target one of the largest Seventh Army munitions depots in Normandy. Supply depots in the forest thus remained operational until late in the campaign and will have supported the German Mortain counter-offensive of 7-14 August. The limited success of Allied bombing in the Forêt domaniale des Andaines testifies to the difficulties in striking well-dispersed and camouflaged woodland facilities and supports the argument that the success of air power against German logistics efforts lay primarily in the degradation of the regional communications infrastructure and the Wehrmacht’s vehicle fleet rather than the destruction of supply dumps.
Stichelbaut, B. and Cowley, D. (eds) Conflict landscapes and archaeology from above. Ashgate, 2016
This paper explores the utility of aerial photographs for investigating landscapes of WWII confli... more This paper explores the utility of aerial photographs for investigating landscapes of WWII conflict associated with the Normandy Campaign and the bombing of German military sites in northwest France during 1943 and 1944, and also the lesser known history of landscape rehabilitation and remediation in the immediate post-war recovery period. The primary resource used here are vertical aerial photographs at scales between c.1:1,500 and 1:26,000, taken between 1945 and 1960 and accessible from the online archive hosted by the Institut Géographique National (IGN). Our analysis focuses on rural areas impacted by one or more Allied air raids, either because they witnessed major Allied ground offensives or were the sites of German military installations. Areas of open agricultural land have rarely preserved any visible evidence of bomb damage, but here the photographic record enables analysis of the intensity and character of bombing and the immediate post-war remediation of farmland. Allied air raids also targeted supply depots and V-weapon facilities concealed in regional forests, and here it is demonstrated that forest clearance associated with fires and late- and post-war munitions disposal activities have combined to render formerly camouflaged military sites, bomb craters and remediation landscapes as readily visible on aerial images.
Keywords: aerial photographs, WWII, northwest France, bomb craters, remediation
Journal of Field Archaeology, 2016
Well-preserved bomb craters in the forests of central Normandy, NW France, constitute archaeologi... more Well-preserved bomb craters in the forests of central Normandy, NW France, constitute archaeological legacies of combat inland from the D-Day beachheads that greatly extend the inventory of Second World War conflict landscapes in northwest Europe. Field survey and analysis of German and Allied documents demonstrates that bombscapes in the Forêt domaniale des Andaines and Forêt domaniale d’Ecouves reflect US Ninth Army Air Force attacks on a German fuel depot and radar installation, respectively, during June-August, 1944. One hundred and thirty-six craters are mapped, described and linked to specific air raids, bomb types and, for one raid on the 13th June, six specific participating aircraft and aircrews. These landscapes echo the impact of widespread tactical bombing against targets close to civilian population centres, and in some cases employing civilian and PoW labour. They are therefore well-placed to contribute to wider heritage narratives around the non-combatant experience of aerial warfare in WW2.
Key words
Bomb craters, WW2, Normandy, forests, conflict archaeology
International Journal of Historical Archaeology, 2015
Archaeological survey in the Forêt domaniale des Andaines has recorded nearly 900 discrete earthw... more Archaeological survey in the Forêt domaniale des Andaines has recorded nearly 900 discrete earthwork bunkers, building foundations, trenches, and other features associated with WW2 German fuel, munitions and logistics depots. Documentary evidence establishes these depots were administered from Bagnoles-de-l’Orne and were a key component of the Seventh Army logistics network before and during the Normandy Campaign of June-August 1944. Post-war survival of features has been remarkably good in this forested setting and it is argued that this likely constitutes one of the best-preserved and most extensive examples of a non-hardened WW2 archaeological landscape yet documented in Western Europe.
Keywords: Conflict archaeology • Normandy • France • Logistics • Forests
Antiquity 88:1275-1290, Dec 1, 2014
Concrete fortifications have long served as battle-scarred memorials of the Second World War. The... more Concrete fortifications have long served as battle-scarred memorials of the Second World War. The forests of north-west Europe meanwhile have concealed a preserved landscape of earthwork field fortifications, military support structures and bomb- and shell-craters that promise to enhance our understanding of the conflict landscapes of the 1944 Normandy Campaign and the subsequent battles in the Ardennes and Hürtgenwald forests. Recent survey has revealed that the archaeology surviving in wooded landscapes can significantly enhance our understanding of ground combat in areas covered by forest. In particular this evidence sheds new light on the logistical support of field armies and the impact of Allied bombing on German installations.
Journal of Conflict Archaeology, 8(3): 165-191., Sep 1, 2013
Earthworks associated with WWII German military supply depots are shown to be well preserved on t... more Earthworks associated with WWII German military supply depots are shown to be well preserved on the modern forest floors of the Forêt domaniale des Andaines in central Normandy, North-west France, and are located within the record of the Seventh Army logistics network developed prior to the D-Day landings in June 1944. Features are typically located alongside forest roads and tracks and collectively amount to a military archaeological landscape that extends for nearly 10 km. Pilot survey of 50 discrete features demonstrates that at least three different storage facilities are evident, with variations in the size and morphology of bunkers that are consistent with the requirements of different types of munitions, fuel, foodstuffs, and vehicles. Numerous bomb craters also record Allied attempts to destroy the facilities. It is concluded that by the standards of WWII archaeology in the North-west European theatre, the Forêt domaniale des Andaines has permitted an exceptional state of preservation for non-hardened military facilities and combat-related damage.
(In press) In: Grab, S. and Knight, J. (eds), Landforms and Landscapes of South Africa, Springer-Verlag.)
Journal of Conflict Archaeology, 4(1-2); 87-107., Jan 1, 2008
This paper presents the results of a reconnaissance survey of battlefield archaeological features... more This paper presents the results of a reconnaissance survey of battlefield archaeological features that are associated with the early stages of the German Ardennes offensive in December 1944, and which have been well-preserved in the post-war forests in the St. Vith-Schöenberg area of eastern Belgium. Field survey of the location, planform dimensions, (unexcavated) surface relief and orientation of forest-floor earthworks over a total area of ca. 1.4 km 2 has recorded 116 discrete and well preserved features that have been provisionally assigned to a threefold typology encompassing large emplacements, rectilinear entrenchments and circular and sub-circular entrenchments/shell craters. The form and disposition of these remains are considered in the context of field fortification doctrine, documented accounts of combat in the area and the terrain and landscape setting. It is to be hoped that the work will stimulate a wider awareness of the value of recording and managing the region's WW2 battlefield heritage in the face of future development pressures, and especially the immediate threat posed by mechanised forestry operations.
Geoarchaeology and environmental change by David G Passmore
Archaeological Prospection, 2002
This paper presents the results of geoarchaeological investigations undertaken on the valley floo... more This paper presents the results of geoarchaeological investigations undertaken on the valley floor of the Milfield Basin in Northumberland, northern England. The area has a regionally and nationally important archaeological record, including a series of major neolithic and Anglian settlements, but has hitherto lacked archaeological assessment and management guidelines appropriate to the wide range of late-glacial and post-glacial environmental settings in the basin. This project has used geomorphological techniques to delimit and classify a total of nine valley floor landform elements in terms of their geomorphology and their known and potential archaeological and palaeoenvironmental associations.Terraced glaciodeltaic and glaciofluvial sand and gravel landforms comprise the oldest landform elements described here and have formed the primary regional focus for prehistoric and early historic settlement and associated subsistence and ritual activity. These landforms have experienced little post-glacial geomorphological activity, but their multiperiod archaeological landscapes lie beneath a shallow soil cover and are vulnerable to land-use activities that disturb terrace soils and underlying sediments. A second group of landform elements are of Holocene age and include localized surface peats, alluvial fans, colluvial deposits and extensive deposits of terraced alluvium. Archaeological landscapes in these environments may lie buried intact and unrecorded beneath protective covers of sediment although locally they may have been subject to erosion and reworking by fluvial and slope processes. Holocene alluviation may account, at least in part, for the paucity of recorded archaeology in these parts of the basin. However, peat and organic-rich sedimentary sequences identified here (including four 14C dated peat sequences) offer an opportunity to elucidate the environmental context and land-use histories of local prehistoric and early historic communities in the basin, and hence also should be regarded as an archaeological resource.Discussion of landform elements and their archaeological associations is followed by a brief outline of evaluation criteria developed with the aim of ensuring effective long-term management of archaeological and palaeoenvironmental resources. It is concluded that geoarchaeological analysis of landform elements may be considered central to development of frameworks intended to underpin future programmes of archaeological research and the development of cultural resource management and evaluation strategies. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Archaeological Prospection, 2006
This paper presents an overview of the Till–Tweed project, an Aggregates Levy Sustainability Fund... more This paper presents an overview of the Till–Tweed project, an Aggregates Levy Sustainability Fund sponsored geoarchaeological assessment of archaeological and palaeoenvironmental records in a major northern UK river basin. Particular attention is paid to one of the key aims of the project; the development of planning guidelines that will enable archaeologists and heritage managers to systematically assess the cultural resource potential of Till–Tweed landscapes. The methodological approach of the project utilizes a suite of geomorphological, palaeoecological and archaeological techniques to identify, define and delimit landform, sediment and archaeological associations over 358 km2 of the Till and lower Tweed Valleys. These associations have been integrated in a geographical information system (GIS) and form the framework for a set of planning and evaluation guidelines that are tailored to a wide range of contrasting landscape settings.Two case studies illustrate the utility of this approach; the first, the valley floor at Coldstream in the lower Tweed Valley, shows how existing and newly identified archaeological data relate to deposits associated with (i) Late Devensian glaciation and deglaciation of the valley and (ii) fluvial landforms of Holocene age. Alluvial terraces and associated palaeochannel deposits at this site demonstrate how areas that are currently free of any documented archaeological remains should be considered in terms of their potential for such material as well as information of palaeoenvironmental value. The second case study focuses on a major aggregate extraction proposal in the valley of the River Till near Milfield, one of the most sensitive archaeological landscapes in the region. Here, planning guidelines developed by the project have been used to inform a comprehensive set of prospection and recording techniques that have been respected by the developer, and have promoted closer working relationships amongst all parties involved with the development.It is concluded that the integration of these geoarchaeological data in a GIS platform not only brings clear practical benefits to heritage managers and developers, but constitutes a valuable research tool by permitting more sophisticated and systematic analyses of links between the modern landscape, the environmental record and the archaeological dataset. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Quaternary International, 2008
The lower Muge valley, a tributary of the lower Tagus River (Portugal), features an important arc... more The lower Muge valley, a tributary of the lower Tagus River (Portugal), features an important archaeological record of Mesolithic shell midden sites. Archaeological research has long assumed that tidally influenced valley floor environments in the immediate locality of the sites provided a rich food resource, attracting Mesolithic settlement. To date there has been little attempt to use palaeoenvironmental records to reconstruct Holocene floodplain evolution in the Lower Tagus valley. The cultivated freshwater lower Muge floodplain is locally underlain by $11 m of homogeneous fine-grained sediments and peat, comprising buried floodplain environments contemporary with Mesolithic occupation ($6200-4800 cal BC). Pollen and foraminifera analyses demonstrate that fine-grained deposition, forced by sea-level rise, commenced $6200 cal BC in an estuarine setting. The lower Muge floodplain experienced maximum tidal influence $5800-5500 cal BC. Subsequently, sediment supply rates overtook the decreasing rate of sea-level rise and fluvial environments expanded. The pollen record may suggest regional desiccation from $5000 cal BC. Estuarine environments disappeared suddenly $3800 cal BC when freshwater wetlands were established. Although the initiation of Mesolithic settlement is shown to coincide with the beginning of tidal influence, site abandonment does not match with any major environmental change. Sea-level still stand ($2600 cal BC) has been linked to valley floor stabilisation and soil formation. Alder floodplain woodland developed prior to $230 cal BC and was cleared, probably during Roman times, for agriculture. Renewed deposition after $230 cal BC may relate to internal mechanisms or to human impact upon the catchment vegetation. r
Quaternary Science Reviews, 2007
We present a brief synthesis of the Quaternary fluvial record in the Lower Tagus Basin (central P... more We present a brief synthesis of the Quaternary fluvial record in the Lower Tagus Basin (central Portugal), concentrating on factors controlling infill and incision. The Holocene part of the record forms the focus of this paper and guides the questioning of the basic assumptions of the established Quaternary fluvial evolution model, in particular the link between sea-level change and fluvial incision-deposition. We suggest that several incision-aggradation phases may have occurred during glacial periods. Major aggradation events may overlap with cold episodes, while incision appears to concentrate on the warming limb of climate transitions. The complex stratigraphy of the Quaternary record in the Lower Tagus valley is influenced by repeated base-level and climate changes. This paper submits the first chronostratigraphic framework for valley fill deposits in the Lower Tagus area. Sea-level rise forced aggradation and controlled deposition of the fine-grained sedimentary wedge underlying the low-gradient Lower Tagus floodplain. Investigations have focused on the lower Muge tributary, where rapidly aggrading estuarine and fluvial environments were abruptly established ($8150 cal BP) as sea level rose. Base level at the valley mouth controlled the upstream extent of the fine-grained backfill. Tidal environments disappeared abruptly ($5800 cal BP) when the open estuary at the Muge confluence was infilled by the Tagus River. The decrease and final still stand of sea-level rise led to floodplain stabilisation with peat ($6400–5200 cal BP) and soil formation ($5200–2200 cal BP). Localised renewed sedimentation ($2200–200 cal BP) is linked to human activity.
Quaternary Science Reviews, 2007
We present a brief synthesis of the Quaternary fluvial record in the Lower Tagus Basin (central P... more We present a brief synthesis of the Quaternary fluvial record in the Lower Tagus Basin (central Portugal), concentrating on factors controlling infill and incision. The Holocene part of the record forms the focus of this paper and guides the questioning of the basic assumptions of the established Quaternary fluvial evolution model, in particular the link between sea-level change and fluvial incision-deposition. We suggest that several incision-aggradation phases may have occurred during glacial periods. Major aggradation events may overlap with cold episodes, while incision appears to concentrate on the warming limb of climate transitions. The complex stratigraphy of the Quaternary record in the Lower Tagus valley is influenced by repeated base-level and climate changes. This paper submits the first chronostratigraphic framework for valley fill deposits in the Lower Tagus area. Sea-level rise forced aggradation and controlled deposition of the fine-grained sedimentary wedge underlying the low-gradient Lower Tagus floodplain. Investigations have focused on the lower Muge tributary, where rapidly aggrading estuarine and fluvial environments were abruptly established ($8150 cal BP) as sea level rose. Base level at the valley mouth controlled the upstream extent of the fine-grained backfill. Tidal environments disappeared abruptly ($5800 cal BP) when the open estuary at the Muge confluence was infilled by the Tagus River. The decrease and final still stand of sea-level rise led to floodplain stabilisation with peat ($6400–5200 cal BP) and soil formation ($5200–2200 cal BP). Localised renewed sedimentation ($2200–200 cal BP) is linked to human activity.
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Conflict Archaeology by David G Passmore
Open Access: https://scholars.wlu.ca/cmh/vol33/iss1/5/
the archaeological remains of many specific
military confrontations are still to be explored. This
article reports the results of fieldwork to document
the site of the Battle of the Bulge (16 December
1944–25 January 1945). The authors use dronemounted
1m-resolution LiDAR and very high-resolution
simultaneous localisation and mapping
(SLAM) methods to reveal more than 940 features
within the forested Ardennes landscape, many of
which were subsequently visited and confirmed. As
well as highlighting the potential of the LiDARSLAM
method, deployed here (both in this geographic
region and in conflict archaeology) for the
first time, the survey results emphasise the need for
a debate on managing the heritage of a key modern
conflict landscape in Europe.
Key Words: Bomb craters, WW2, archaeology, Normandy, LiDAR
Link to pdf: https://rdcu.be/b1FCi
Knight, J. and Passmore, D.G. (2019). Perspectives on battlefield archaeology and heritage of the Second Anglo-Boer War. In: Smit, H. and Bezuidenhout, J. (eds), Contemporary Military Geosciences in South Africa. Sun Press, Stellenbosch, 1-23.
Keywords: WW2, conflict archaeology, munitions storage, bunker, typology
Keywords: aerial photographs, WWII, northwest France, bomb craters, remediation
Key words
Bomb craters, WW2, Normandy, forests, conflict archaeology
Keywords: Conflict archaeology • Normandy • France • Logistics • Forests
Geoarchaeology and environmental change by David G Passmore
Open Access: https://scholars.wlu.ca/cmh/vol33/iss1/5/
the archaeological remains of many specific
military confrontations are still to be explored. This
article reports the results of fieldwork to document
the site of the Battle of the Bulge (16 December
1944–25 January 1945). The authors use dronemounted
1m-resolution LiDAR and very high-resolution
simultaneous localisation and mapping
(SLAM) methods to reveal more than 940 features
within the forested Ardennes landscape, many of
which were subsequently visited and confirmed. As
well as highlighting the potential of the LiDARSLAM
method, deployed here (both in this geographic
region and in conflict archaeology) for the
first time, the survey results emphasise the need for
a debate on managing the heritage of a key modern
conflict landscape in Europe.
Key Words: Bomb craters, WW2, archaeology, Normandy, LiDAR
Link to pdf: https://rdcu.be/b1FCi
Knight, J. and Passmore, D.G. (2019). Perspectives on battlefield archaeology and heritage of the Second Anglo-Boer War. In: Smit, H. and Bezuidenhout, J. (eds), Contemporary Military Geosciences in South Africa. Sun Press, Stellenbosch, 1-23.
Keywords: WW2, conflict archaeology, munitions storage, bunker, typology
Keywords: aerial photographs, WWII, northwest France, bomb craters, remediation
Key words
Bomb craters, WW2, Normandy, forests, conflict archaeology
Keywords: Conflict archaeology • Normandy • France • Logistics • Forests
demonstrated that by integrating archaeological field survey with off-site palaeoenvironmental investigations a much fuller picture of human activity and land-use change has emerged than otherwise would have been the case. Studies of this type may be particularly useful in other upland river catchments where archaeological survival is limited or poor