Food Processing

Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) fruit is among numerous fruits that has a high moisture content and is therefore desirable for human consumption. In order to ensure its availability all through the year, processing into juice and other valuable processes are being carried out in order to reduce the rate of spoilage and watermelon juice losses. The high moisture content in fruits makes them highly susceptible to spoilage. Watermelon juice and extract of serendipity berry (Dioscoreophyllum cumminsii) were blended together in the following ratios: sample A (100 ml+10 ml), sample B (100 ml+20 ml), sample C (100 ml+30 ml), sample D (100 ml+40 ml), and sample E (100 ml+50 ml) respectively, while pure watermelon juice served as a control sample. Microbial and sensory analyses of the samples were evaluated over twelve weeks of storage. Over the period of storage, the results showed that microbial load of the control sample ranged between 1.1x10 5-9.7.6x10 7 cfu/ml, while treated samples ranged between 0.2 x10 5-1.4x10 5 cfu/ml, with some of the treated samples having negligible growth <10 cfu/ml. Results from the study confirmed that pure watermelon juice was highly susceptible to a microbial attack due to the absence of a preservative, and large volume of microbial loads was recorded, while the treated samples that included serendipity berry extract, which functioned both as a sweetener and a preservative, had fewer microbial loads over same period of storage. The sensory evaluation result showed that sample C (100 ml watermelon juice + 30 ml of serendipity berry extract) was rated the best in terms of taste, aroma and general acceptability, while sample D (100 ml watermelon juice + 40 ml of serendipity berry extract) was rated highest for colour.

Biscuit is a nutritive snack eaten by everyone and often produced from unpalatable batter transformed into appetizing product through oven heat. Wheat, the major raw material used, is deficient in essential amino acid, lysine, while groundnuts lack methionine found in wheat. Blended wheat flour and partially defatted-groundnut paste was used for production in order to replace lost nutrients. Partially defatted-groundnut paste was used to substitute wheat flour at the ratios: A

Abari (a maize-based pudding) was prepared from five selected formulations of maize-bambara groundnut composite flours generated using central rotatable design of Response Surface Method. A control was also prepared from 100% maize flour. Standard methods were used to determine the functional properties of the various flours as well as the proximate compositions and sensory attributes of abari made from them. Inclusion of bambara groundnut flour caused a significant difference in the swelling index (1.65-2.69 g/g) of the various 3 flours but bulk density (0.76-0.92 g/cm), oil absorption capacity (0.66-0.88 g/g) and water absorption capacity (1.44-1.59 g/g) were not significantly affected. Protein and ash contents of abari significantly increased with inclusion of bambara groundnut flour. The value of the protein content ranges from 6.21-31.69%. Supplementation of maize with bambara groundnut for abari production generally resulted in improved sensory qualities. Based on the findings, the application of bambara groundnut in the fortification of maizebased African traditional foods can help improve the nutritional status of the African populace without causing adversely impaired rheological and cooking qualities of the products.

Bitter yam (Dioscorea dumetorum) is an underutilized tuber crop that is rich in starch and may be potentially used as a starch source by the industry. In this study, the composition and physicochemical properties of flour and starch from white and yellow bitter yams were studied. Bitter yam showed significant variations in their proximate composition, but mineral contents were very similar. The amylose content (approx. 15%) of white bitter yam starch was slightly lower than the yellow variety (approx. 17%). Bitter yam starch granules were very small (average 5 μm) and polygonal in shape. Starch extracts displayed the A-type crystallinity pattern with varying relative crystallinity: 22.1-28.0%. The peak gelatinisation temperature (approx. 83°C) and pasting temperature (approx. 87°C) were fairly high and similar for both starches. Starch peak viscosity of the white bitter yam was significantly higher than the yellow variety, which could be associated with its slightly lower amylose content. Bitter yam starch may find application in the industry where fairly high temperatures (> 80°C) are frequently encountered.

Soybean beverage, most common nutritious local beverage in Nigeria and in the world, is a high protein beverage used as a dairy milk substitute with the limited utilization due to natural or ambient conditions that serve as growth medium for microorganisms. Hence, it has a short shelf life. This study examines the shelf life of soybean beverage preserved with the ginger spice (dried at 70 ˚C, 80 ˚C, 90 ˚C and 100 ˚C, and 2 g and 4 g of fresh/wet ginger respectively) over 7-week period. The samples were (A: plain soybean beverage; B: 200 ml soybean beverage + 2 g of ginger dried at 100 ˚C; C: 200 ml soybean beverage + 2 g ginger dried at 90 ˚C; D: 200 ml soybean beverage + 2 g ginger dried at 80 ˚C; E: 200 ml soybean beverage + 2 g ginger dried at 70 ˚C; F: 200 ml soybean beverage + 2 g fresh ginger; and G: 200 ml soybean beverage + 4 g fresh ginger respectively). The proximate, pH, microbial and sensory analyses of samples ranged as follows: 87.35%-90.83% for the moisture content; 0.58%-0.65% ash content; 4.65%-4.96% protein; 0.10%-0.26% fibre content; 2.06%-2.98% crude fat and 1.68%-4.17% carbohydrate, and pH values ranged from 6.2-6.5. Microbiological analysis over storage period showed that the control sample ranged from 0.4×10 6-8.3×10 6 cfu/ml, and treated samples from 0.4×10 6 to 2.4×10 6 cfu/ml. Low values of the samples treated with dry ginger spice were preserved better than others, probably due to preservative and anti-microbial properties of the spice. Sensory evaluation, carried out by twenty-eight persons, showed that the sample E: (200 ml soymilk+ 2 g ginger dried at 70 ˚C) was most preferred (with respect to taste, aroma and overall acceptability), while there was a significant difference in the appearance of the samples.

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In the present study, the physicochemical and sensory properties of ogi (a cereal-based starchy fermented gruel) produced from two local rice varieties, Abakaliki and Tapa, were determined. Ogi from white maize served as the control. There was a gradual increase in temperature from approximately 28 to 30°C during fermentation. White maize exhibited the highest acidity level throughout the fermentation period. Tapa and Abakaliki rice ogi samples (i.e., TRO and ARO, respectively) were higher in yields and amylose contents than white maize ogi (WMO). WMO had significantly (P < 0.05) lower moisture content (54.14%) than ARO (62.18%) and TRO (68.02%). The highest and lowest sedimentation rates recorded for WMO and TRO, respectively, were attributed to difference in moisture contents and granule bulk densities. WMO showed higher solubility indices (3.54 to 4.66%) at all the temperatures (60 to 100°C) tested. TRO and ARO had higher final and setback viscosities, as well as pasting temperatures than WMO, but were lower in breakdown viscosity. Ogi samples from rice recorded significantly (P < 0.05) higher L * values and distinct color characteristics with reference to a sample from maize, and this was suspected to have partially influenced their higher preference by the panelists during sensory evaluation. Rice is not just suitable for ogi production but looks promising to enjoy even more consumer acceptability than maize in this respect. However, there are notable peculiarities, such as major roles attributable to amylose contents.

Kunun-aya is a traditional fermented non-alcoholic tiger-nut beverage widely consumed in the Northern parts of Nigeria especially during dry season. Kunun-aya was prepared from tiger-nut, coconut, date and spices such as cinnamon, cloves, coriander, ginger, rosemary and black pepper were added separately. The samples were stored at 4°C for 5 days and the effects of added spices on physicochemical, microbial and sensory properties of the samples were evaluated. The results of the pH (4.25–5.95) and titratable acidity (2.95–12.17) showed that all the samples were acidic throughout the storage period. Brix values ranged from 0.05–2.85% during the storage period. The moisture, protein, ash, fat, fibre and carbohydrate contents of kunun-aya ranged from 85.35–95.22%, 1.53–4.06%, 0.14–0.64%, 0.31–0.85%, 0.23–1.84% and 0.69–10.85%, respectively prior to storage and ranged from 79.50–98.24%, 0.27–2.56%, 0.04–2.25%, 0.24–0.42%, 0.09–3.74% and 1.05–17.34%, respectively after storage. The bacte...

Water yam starch was isolated and subjected to chemical modification by acetylation, oxidation and acid thinning. Chemical composition, functional properties and pasting characteristics of native and modified starches were determined using standard methods. Chemical modification reduced the fat, protein, reducing sugar and amylose content. Amylose content ranged between 9.42 and 12.53% for native and modified starches. Acetylation and oxidation reduced the ash content while acid thinning increased the ash content. There were increases in resistant starch content and oil absorption capacity while the water absorption capacity and bulk density were reduced due to modification. Acetylation and oxidation improved gelation while acid thinning reduced gelation. Swelling power and solubility were pH and temperature dependent. Oxidation improved clarity but acid thinning reduced it. The result of pasting characteristics showed that overall, commercial cassava flour was the best; while for the native and modified water yam starches, acid thinned was the best. Sensory evaluation revealed that yoghurt produced from acetylated starch was the best. While water yam generally had good starch qualities, acid-thinned water yam had the best overall result which could be adopted for industrial uses.

This study was carried out to investigate the possibility of adding nanopowdered eggshell (NPES) into yogurt to improve the functionality of yogurt and the effects of adding NPES on the physicochemical, microbial, and sensory properties of the products during storage. The pH and mean lactic acid bacteria counts of NPES-added (0.15-0.45%, wt/vol) yogurt ranged from 4.31 to 4.66 and from 6.56 × 10 8 to 8.56 × 10 8 cfu/mL, respectively, whereas these values ranged from 4.13 to 4.44 and 8.46 × 10 8 to 1.39 × 10 9 , respectively, for the control samples during storage at 5°C for 16 d, which indicates a prolonged shelf-life with NPESsupplemented yogurt. Color analysis showed that the lightness (L*) and position between red and green (a*) values were not significantly influenced by the addition of NPES. However, the position between yellow and blue (b*) value significantly increased with the addition of the concentration (0.45%, wt/vol) of NPES at d 16 of storage. Sensory evaluation revealed that NPESadded yogurts showed a notably less sourness score and a higher astringency score than the control. An earthy flavor was higher in 0.45% NPES-supplemented yogurt compared with the control. Based on the results obtained from the current study, the concentration (0.15 to 0.30%, wt/vol) of NPES can be used to formulate NPES-supplemented yogurt without any significant adverse effects on the physicochemical, microbial, and sensory properties.

Biscuit is a nutritive snack produced from unpalatable batter transformed into appetizing product by oven heat. Wheat flour, the major raw material for biscuit production, is deficient in lysine, an essential amino acid. Baobab leaf is rich nutritionally and high in antioxidant properties. Baobab leaf flower was blended with wheat flour to produce biscuits rich in nutrients. Wheat and Baobab flours were respectively blended thus: A (100:0); B (98:2); C (96:4); D (94:6); E (92:8); F (90:10), and mixed with other ingredients for production at 175-180oC for 15-20 minutes, cooled and packaged. The functional properties of the flour, proximate composition, colour, microbial and sensory evaluation were determined using standard methods. Result showed baobab leaf flour to be highly functional, while the Protein, Moisture-Content, Ash, Crude-Fat, Crude-Fibre and Carbohydrate respectively ranged thus: (10.50-12.11%), (2.51-3.28%), (1.38-2.96%), (10.31-12.27%), (1.07-2.16%), and (67.99-73.46%). Addition of baobab leaf flour at 10% level slightly affected the biscuit colour, but the microbial load of the samples with baobab leaf flour was low probably due to the antiviral and antibacterial properties of the leaf. The sensory panelists accepted the samples with baobab leaf flour. Incorporating baobab leaf flour into biscuits production improved nutritional content, quality and prevent malnutrition among consumers.

Juice was made from carrot and pineapple and was blended with soymilk in the ratio 35%:35%:30% respectively and treated with powdered extract of A. danielli in varying proportions (1g, 2g and 3g). The treated samples were stored for twelve weeks with the control (sample without A. danielli extract) and analyses carried out. Ascorbic acid, total soluble solids and total sugar of the samples were analysed. The results showed that 5.0-7.50% of ascorbic acid, 0.95-1.86% of total soluble solids and 0.05-0.04% of total sugars, were lost in the treated samples, while the amount of ascorbic acid, total soluble solids and total sugars lost in the control samples was 17.50%, 7.12% and 0.90% respectively over the same period. Thus, the inclusion of powdered extract of A. danielli was able to reduce the loss of nutrients thereby preserving the chemical properties investigated in this research.

Colour is one of the important sensory properties that determine the acceptability of food products. Therefore, this work determines the colour in white and yellow trifoliate yam flours in relation to harvesting periods and pre-processing methods. Freshly harvested trifoliate yam tubers were prepared into flour using four pretreatment (untreated, soaking at ambient temperature, soaking at 60 o C and parboiling at 98 o C±2) methods. The flour colour was analyzed and the whiteness index was determined. L⃰ (brightness) value ranged from 68.90 in parboiled yellow trifoliate yam harvested at 8 months to 96.57 in the raw white trifoliate flour harvested at 9 months. Parboiled trifoliate yams from the two cultivars harvested at 11 months were darker in colour than other flour. Parboiled yellow trifoliate yam flours were significantly (p>0.05) different from other samples in colour. The intensity of colour of the parboiled yellow trifoliate yam flour was more pronounced than others. However, the colour of the flour became deeper with prolonged harvesting periods and prominent in parboiled samples at 11 months.

In this study, the potential of indigenous egg as functional ingredient in cake and chin chin was investigated. The proximate, colour and sensory characteristics of the pastries evaluated using standard methods. Indigenous eggs showed higher protein content (14.83%) than the exotic (13.61%) eggs. The same trend was observed for their fat contents. Ash and fibre contents of wheat flour and the eggs were generally low. The protein contents of cake (15.53%) and chin chin (10.75%) produced using indigenous chicken eggs were significantly (p .05) higher than samples produced using exotic eggs (Cake: 14.12%; Chin chin: 9.47%). In general, as exotic chicken eggs were replaced with indigenous eggs, the crust colour became lighter as measured by their L values. Overall acceptability of the cake samples were very similar for cakes produced from exotic (7.52) and indigenous chicken eggs (7.46) indicating that these two samples of cakes were moderately acceptable. Values obtained for sensory characteristics showed that indigenous eggs may only be suitable for making cakes with comparable quality to those made from exotic eggs. Future studies should make use of food additives to improve the taste of the chin-chin made using indigenous eggs.

Snacks made of maize are popular in Nigeria, but deficient in two essential amino acids (Tryptophan and lysine) and niacin. In this study, the quality attributes of maize snacks fortified with groundnut paste (10-40%) of boiled and roasted groundnut were studied. The functional properties of the flour blends were analysed. Snacks were analysed for proximate, colour and sensory attributes. Results showed significant differences (p<0.05) in the proximate composition of the blends. Protein content increased with the substitution of groundnut paste (13.15 to 24.31%), which could be responsible for the improved nutrition recorded in the snack samples produced. The ash, fat, and fibre contents also increased accordingly, with values ranging from 0.97-3.02%, 14.63-16.69%, and 1.50-1.67% respectively, but the carbohydrate content decreased with increasing substitution of the maize flour with the groundnut paste. The water and oil absorption, as well as the swelling capacities significantly decreased when increased levels of groundnut paste were used. Sensory evaluation revealed that the snacks made with 10 and 20% roasted groundnut paste substitution were better accepted and therefore can be recommended for large scale production.

The quality attributes and consumer acceptability of juice blends made from African Star Apple (Chrysophyllum albidum) and papaya (Carica papaya) were investigated using a panel of about twenty eight (28) people. The chemical and sensory properties of the juices were determined. The fresh juice made from African Star Apple fruits had 23 0 B (soluble solids) and pH 3.40 while that made from papaya fruits had 11.5 0 B (soluble solids) and pH of 4.50. Physico-chemical properties such as pH, total titratable acidity (TTA), vitamin C, colour, viscosity were determined for each blend. All the physical and chemical properties with the exception of ascorbic acid were within acceptable range. The low value of ascorbic acid could be attributed to factors such as light, oxygen, heat, pH which ascorbic acid is sensitive to. The sensory evaluation by twenty-eight assessors indicated that treatment with 40% African Star Apple juice blended with 60% papaya juice and that of 30% African Star Apple juice blended with 70% papaya were most preferred. There were significant differences in the colour, flavour and general acceptability but not significant for taste. Pure African Star Apple juice was the least preferred.

Spices are important supplements added to food as flavouring agents and/or a preservative and have been in use all over the world for thousands of years. Various additives have been utilised over the years to spice our food products. Synthetic additives, which have been in use, have come with various side effects, hence the need to shift focus to the use of natural ones. Research into the production and utilization of indigenous food additives on a large scale has not been undertaken in Nigeria. Even its utilization in food products to prevent or reduce food related ailments or diseases have not really been done. This present work investigates the health benefits of the spice's extract on the glycemic load (GL) of the juice to consumers. Standard method was used for extraction of juice from carrot, watermelon and pawpaw. Standard method [8] was equally used for the proximate composition (moisture content, protein, fat, carbohydrate, crude fibre and ash), while soymilk was made from soybeans under laboratory condition. The juices from the vegetable (carrot), fruits (watermelon and pawpaw), and soymilk were blended in equal ratios and thereafter treated with A. danielli extract (1g-3g). Glycemic load (GL) of the samples was determined by multiplying the weighted average of the glycemic indexes (GIs) of the mixed meal by the available carbohydrate and dividing the product by 100. Available carbohydrate was determined by subtracting the fibre content from the total carbohydrate. GL of untreated samples was 10.26, while treated samples recorded low values (6.11-7.20). Standard values were 1-10, low GL; 10.1-20, medium GL; above 20.1 and above, high GL. The outcome of the work could assist in utilising local spices for the full benefit of consumers.

The effect of Aframomum danielli powder on the shelf life of physico-chemical properties of soy-milk based juice was studied. In this paper, attempt was made to investigate the preservative effect of the powder of Aframomum danielli, a local spice, on the physico-chemical properties of blends of soymilk and juices from fruits and vegetable by prolonging its shelf life. This was done by adding 0.5-3.0grams of the spice powder to every 200ml of the blend, while the control samples had no spice. The juice quality was analyzed for sensory attributes and physico-chemical parameters over six month's period of storage at interval of four weeks. Sensory evaluation of the juices was judged for colour, flavour, taste and general acceptability, on a nine-point hedonic scale, varying from "dislike extremely" (score 1) to "like extremely" (score 9), according to the method of [39]. Ten (10) untrained panel members carried out the sensory evaluation. Infrared spectrophotometer was used to identify functional groups in the powder of the spice, Aframomum danielli, responsible for the stability of the juice. Differences were observed in the colour and aroma of treated samples in comparison with the control, though the samples were generally accepted. The percentage losses recorded for the total soluble solids, ascorbic acids and total sugars of treated samples were far lesser than those of control over the same condition and period of storage. Some of the active components of the spice identified are 4-amino-acetophenone, N,N-dimethyl-2-chloroacetoacetamide, 3-beta-acetoxy-5-etienic acid, 6,10-dimethylundeca-5,9,-diene2-one, Phenyl-3-buten and 4-Phenyl butanone. The samples treated with the Aframomum danielli powder were better preserved than the untreated ones (control).

Shea butter is an under-utilized fat that contributes minimally to edible fat and oil supply due to poor sensory quality and low acceptability. Literature is sparse on simple, non-solvent, and adoptable methods of improving the sensory attributes of shea butter. This research was designed to produce improved shea butter and ascertain the effect of simple processing methods on its sensory scores and acceptability. Shea butter was manually extracted by hand-churning the paste from fried, toasted, boiled and parboiled sheanuts. Extracted shea butters were clarified by addition of citric acid, steam deodorized and flavoured by addition of coconut and onion/ginger essences. Sensory evaluations of improved shea butters were determined using panelists on a 9 point hedonic scale. Data were analyzed using ANOVA at p = 0. 05. All the improved shea butter was acceptable, though boiled sheanut butter was prefered. Treatment with citric acid solution clarified and improved the sensory properties of shea butter. Addition of coconut flavour also, significantly improved the sensory attributes. This method of improving the sensory attributes of shea butter is simple and if extended and adopted, could increase its acceptability as an edible fat/oil. It should be noted that other appropriate food flavours could be used.