We documented the relations among fractures, bedding, geological structures and the development o... more We documented the relations among fractures, bedding, geological structures and the development of epigenic gypsumcaves in the Bologna sector of the Northern Apennines, Italy. Different methods such as surface and subsurface surveys, aerial photo interpretation, structural analyses and hydrogeological observations were integrated to unravel different types of structurally-controlled epigenic gypsum karst speleogenesis. Data collected highlight a close relationship between the main directions of caves development and structural trends in the Northern Apennines (NW-SE and NE-SW). The results show that large offset faults (N10 m), bedding interfaces and anticline axes control the development of underground drainage basins and compartmentalize flow among adjacent areas. Furthermore, collapse hall morphology is mostly controlled by high-angle joints, bedding, and splay joints associated with bedding plane parallel faults, while the main structural weaknesses focus the surface flow, leading to a concentrated pattern of underground drainage and the formation of dominant conduits.
Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) and 3D photogrammetry techniques were used in a relatively
small... more Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) and 3D photogrammetry techniques were used in a relatively small (100-m-long) cave developed in Messinian gypsum in Emilia-Romagna (N. Italy). The surveys were carried out to compare the results obtained by both methods in mapping small-to medium-sized morphologies. These measurements allowed reconstructing the evolution stages of the paragenetic (anti-gravitative) morphologies (ceiling channels and pendants) that carved the roof of the cave, and their relationship with local geomorphology, infilling sediments, speleothems, and structural elements. Field measurements were integrated with morphometrical analyses of the digital models that then allowed a much greater number of observations to be made. The results are a clear example of how the combination of TLS and 3D-photogrammetric data can be used to study and measure mm- to dm-scale morphologies in geomorphological studies, including caves, helping to unravel the speleogenetic and, consequently, the hydrological evolution of these environments
Limestone massifs with a high density of dolines form important karst aquifers in most of the Alp... more Limestone massifs with a high density of dolines form important karst aquifers in most of the Alps, often with groundwater circulating through deep karst conduits and water coming out of closely spaced springs with flow rates of over some cubic meters per second. Although several hydrogeological studies and tracing experiments were carried out in many of these carbonate mountains in the past, the hydrogeology of most of these karst aquifers is still poorly known. Geological, hydrodynamic and hydrochemical investigations have been carried out in one of the most representative of these areas (Cansiglio-Monte Cavallo, NE Italy) since spring 2015, in order to enhance the knowledge on this important type of aquifer system. Additionally, a cave-to-spring multitracer test was carried out in late spring 2016 by using three different fluorescent tracers. This hydrogeological study allowed: 1) gathering new detailed information on the geological and tectonic structure of such alpine karst plateau; 2) defining discharge rates of the three main springs (Gorgazzo, Santissima, and Molinetto) by constructing rating curves; 3) understanding the discharging behavior of the system with respect to different recharge conditions; 4) better defining the recharge areas of the three springs. The three nearby springs (the spring front stretches over 5 km), that drain the investigated karst aquifer system, show different behaviors with respect to changing discharge conditions, demonstrating this aquifer to be divided in partially independent drainage systems under low-flow conditions, when their chemistry is clearly differentiated. Under high-flow conditions, waters discharging at all springs show more similar geochemical characteristics. The combination of geochemistry, hydrodynamic monitoring and dye tracing tests has shown that the three springs have different recharge areas. The study points out that even closely spaced karst springs, that apparently drain the same karst mountain, can have different behaviors, and thus distinctive reactions toward polluting events, a characteristic to be taken into account for their management.
Piedmont (N-Italy) is one of Italy's regions where Messinian gypsum outcrops most extensively. So... more Piedmont (N-Italy) is one of Italy's regions where Messinian gypsum outcrops most extensively. Some gypsum caves have been explored in the past, but no detailed speleogenetic studies have been carried out. The discovery of unexpected large underground voids in a gypsum quarry near Moncalvo has demonstrated the presence of intrastratal karst systems with an origin at least partly linked to rising groundwater flow. A detailed look at one of the gypsum caves near Alba (Monticello cave) has revealed this labyrinth to be another classical example of intrastratal gypsum karst, clearly formed by the rising of undersaturated groundwater through a confined Messinian gypsum bed. This chapter deals with the typical hypogene morphologies in these caves and also reports some new results on the geochemistry of the waters of the Moncalvo area.
Karst in Sicily develops in both Messinian gypsum and Mesozoic or Tertiary limestone rocks. Caves... more Karst in Sicily develops in both Messinian gypsum and Mesozoic or Tertiary limestone rocks. Caves are also found in the basalts of Mount Etna. Except for some rare cases, until recently most caves developed in limestone were considered to be of epigenetic origin. The discovery of gypsum in some of these caves, and especially detailed morphological studies, have allowed defining a hypogenic origin for a dozen of caves up to now. In some of these, the hypogenic evidences are very clear, while others remain in doubt because of the widespread presence of well-developed condensation-corrosion morphologies not necessarily related to hydrothermal fluids. This paper reports the present knowledge of hypogenic caves in the Island of Sicily.
In Sardinia, no active hypogenic caves have yet been discovered or described. Although there are ... more In Sardinia, no active hypogenic caves have yet been discovered or described. Although there are a few thermal springs, mostly correlated to Quaternary volcanic activity, none of these thermal waters have interacted with carbonate rocks. Nevertheless, in the SW of the Island many metal ore deposits hosted in Cambrian limestones have been exploited over the last two centuries, allowing the discovery of so-called mine caves, some of which are clearly of hypogenic origin. These caves formed by thermal waters in a phreatic setting and are now located far above the water table and are no longer active, apart from some recent dripstone formation. The mine tunnels in Mount San Giovanni, near Iglesias and Gonnesa towns, have cut most of these caves: among them the well-known Santa Barbara cave, covered with barite crystals, Santa Barbara 2 cave, with its unique oxidation vents, and Crovassa Ricchi in Argento. Other hypogenic caves have been discovered in the mines of Campo Pisano and Monteponi (Iglesias), Mount Onixeddu (Gonnesa), and especially Masua (Iglesias). A very special case of hypogenic cave is the Corona 'e Sa Craba quartzite system, known for its barite crystals and rich in many mineral species. This chapter summarizes these known inactive hydrothermal and sulfuric acid caves.
Santa Cesarea Terme in Salento is the only area in which hypogenic caves have been recognized in ... more Santa Cesarea Terme in Salento is the only area in which hypogenic caves have been recognized in the Apulia region. In this spa area, the rising of sulfidic thermal waters that mix with both recent fresh infiltration waters and coastal salt water has formed four active sulfuric acid speleogenesis (SAS) caves. These caves are characterized by the typical set of sulfuric acid meso-and micromorphologies, and also by the presence of both gypsum and native sulfur. In all caves, biofilms are visible in the sulfidic thermal waters and on the cave walls.
Gypsum beds host the majority of the caves in the northeastern flank of the Apennines, in the Emi... more Gypsum beds host the majority of the caves in the northeastern flank of the Apennines, in the Emilia Romagna region (Italy). More than six hundred of these caves have been surveyed, including the longest known epigenic gypsum cave systems in the world (Spipola-Acquafredda, ~11 km). Although this area has been intensively studied from a geological point of view, the age of the caves has never been investigated in detail. The rapid dissolution of gypsum and uplift history of the area have led to the long-held view that speleogenesis commenced only during the last 130 000 years. Epigenic caves only form when the surface drainage system efficiently conveys water into the underground. In the study area, this was achieved after the dismantling of most of the impervious sediments covering the gypsum and the development of protovalleys and sinkholes. The time necessary for these processes can by constrained by understanding when caves were first formed. The minimum age of karst voids can be indirectly estimated by dating the infilling sediments. U–Th dating of carbonate speleothems growing in gypsum caves has been applied to 20 samples from 14 different caves from the Spipola-Acquafredda, Monte Tondo-Re Tiberio, Stella-Rio Basino, Monte Mauro, and Castelnuovo systems. The results show that: (i) caves have been forming since at least ~600 kyr ago; (ii) the peak of speleogenesis was reached during relatively cold climate stages, when rivers formed terraces at the surface and aggradation caused paragenesis in the stable cave levels; (iii) ~200 000 years were necessary for the dismantling of most of the sediments covering the karstifiable gypsum and the development of a surface mature drainage network. Besides providing a significant contribution to the understanding of evaporite karst evolution in the Apennines, this study refines our knowledge on the timescale of geomorphological processes in a region affected by rapid uplifting.
Chemical and physical proxy data from a precisely dated early last glacial (~113e110 ka, MIS5d) S... more Chemical and physical proxy data from a precisely dated early last glacial (~113e110 ka, MIS5d) Sardinian stalagmite reveal a sub-millennial-scale, cool-dry climate event centered at 112.0 þ0.52 /-0.59 ka, followed by a rapid return to warm-wet conditions at 111.76 þ0.43 /-0.45 ka. Comparison with regional speleothem records and the palaeotemperature proxy record from the NGRIP ice core (Greenland) suggests that this event corresponds to Greenland Interstadial (GI) 25b and 25a, an intra-interstadial climate oscillation within GI-25, according to the recent Greenland stratigraphic framework. The speleothem age is in reasonable agreement (within 0.8 kyr) with that of the corresponding event in Greenland based on the GICC05modelext ice chronology but is older by about 3.7 kyr than the Greenland age based on the AICC2012 chronology.
A Messinian succession containing gypsum beds crops out in northern Italy, mainly in Piedmont and... more A Messinian succession containing gypsum beds crops out in northern Italy, mainly in Piedmont and along the northern flank of the Apennine mountains in Emilia-Romagna. These gypsum bodies have been extensively quarried at the surface, in outcrops, and through underground quarries. In Emilia-Romagna these gypsum outcrops can be rather extensive, several km long and up to 1 km wide, while in Piedmont they are mostly covered by silty-marly deposits of Upper Messinian and Pliocene age and show only sparse and small outcrops. The underground quarrying of these evaporite bodies in Piedmont has allowed studying in detail their hydrogeology, and the ways in which water flows through these karst rocks. In contrast, in Emilia-Romagna the hydrogeology of these aquifers has been studied with traditional spring water monitoring and speleological methods. On the basis of the results it has been possible to define three conceptual models regarding the water circulation in these evaporites, similar to the models existing for carbonate aquifers. The models represent aquifers with decreasing vulnerability to pollution, from the more vulnerable system with dominant conduit drainage, characterizing most of the known gypsum aquifers, to those with interconnected conduit drainage and with dispersive circulation. karst hydrogeology, evaporites, flow models, gypsum caves, vulnerability to pollution
Fifty-seven control points of waters (sinking streams, rivers in caves, and resurgences) hosted i... more Fifty-seven control points of waters (sinking streams, rivers in caves, and resurgences) hosted in gypsumkarst areas in Emilia Romagna region (N-Italy) were sampled in the framework of a Project LIFE+08NAT/IT/000369 “Gypsum” in the period 2010–2014. The microbiology and chemistry of these waters have been analyzed to evaluate the impact of human activities or natural factors, in the gypsum karst systems. Waters have been analyzed for major chemistry (Ca,Mg,Na, K, SO4, HCO3, Cl,NO3) and some minor constituents (F, Br,NH4 and PO4),measuring pH, electric conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS) and temperature (T) in situ. The same samples have been analyzed with traditional microbiology techniques focused on total microbial count and on fecal microbiota, as index of human and/or animal contamination, and molecular biology techniques (sequencing of 16S rRNA segment and PCR-DGGE), focused on the characterization ofmicrobial populations in the different sampling sites and determination of their variations and/or changes during the five years of the project. As expected, waters tend to be increasingly mineralized from sinking streams to resurgences, with only local and temporarily high contents in nitrates and ammonium, often related to the presence of bat colonies. PCR-DGGE revealed ecological changes, in terms of microbial populations present in the bulk water samples, in different sampling sites within the same cave. Although the impact of fecalmicroorganisms only rarely exceeded 2 log UFC/ml, the results evidenced fluctuations of these microorganisms mainly correlated to the season and to the biological activity of bats.
NATO Science for Peace and Security Series C: Environmental Security, 2009
Across the northwestern Tabular Middle Atlas of Morocco there are many examples of landscapes, ro... more Across the northwestern Tabular Middle Atlas of Morocco there are many examples of landscapes, rocks and fossils providing key evidence of a particular moment or period in Earth history. Such Earth heritage sites are important for educating the general public in environmental matters. They also serve as tools for demonstrating sustainable development and for illustrating methods of site conservation, as well as remembering that rocks, minerals, fossils, soil, landforms form an integral part of the natural world. The significance of certain sites for aesthetic or tourism reasons is such sites involves close consultation with all communities in the vicinity of each geo-site and is not only aimed at tourism and education, but also at sustainable improvement of infrastructures of the people of this area. Geological heritage sites, properly managed, can generate employment and new economic activities, especially in regions in need of new or additional sources of income.
Nella presente ricerca, eseguita nell'ambito di una tesi di dottorato dell'Università Mohammed V-... more Nella presente ricerca, eseguita nell'ambito di una tesi di dottorato dell'Università Mohammed V-Agdal di Rabat (D.ssa Amina Malaki), sono stati rilevati, studiati e catalogati in maniera sistematica quarantadue siti di interesse geologico e geomorfologico di particolare significato scientifico, didattico e turistico-culturale presenti all'interno o nell'intorno degli itinerari turistici del Medio Atlante di Ifrane-Azrou (Marocco). La scelta dei geositi e dei geomorfositi come obiettivo della ricerca è determinata non solo dalla carenza di ricerche specifiche sull'argomento ma anche dall'esistenza nel Marocco di caratteri e di fenomeni geologici e geomorfologici che lasciano presupporre la presenza di un consistente numero di tali beni naturali e culturali nello stesso tempo, i quali meritano di essere meglio conosciuti, tutelati e valorizzati. Le informazioni acquisite, relative a ciascun itinerario, sono state riassunte in una Carta geotematica tesa a consentire una sintesi efficace dei risultati conseguiti ed a fornire un quadro d'insieme della consistenza e della distribuzione territoriale di tali beni che costituiscono il patrimonio geologico del Medio Atlante ancora oggi poco conosciuto e sostanzialmente trascurato. La Carta contiene proposte per il rafforzamento degli itinerari turistici tradizionali legati ai beni culturali (es. città imperiali) con l'integrazione dei beni geografico-fisici (Geositi e Geomorfositi) e del paesaggio geologico.
Many morphological elements in Cuba's landscape (e.g. marine terraces, tidal notches) demonstrate... more Many morphological elements in Cuba's landscape (e.g. marine terraces, tidal notches) demonstrate that coastal uplift has taken place, but the rate at which this occurs is not known. Carbonate phreatic overgrowths on speleothems have been found in a cave in Central North Cuba, ~1 km from the present coastline at 16 m asl. They form exceptional and unique mushroom-shaped speleothems and balconies decorating the walls of the rooms. These phreatic overgrowths on speleothems (POS) formed at the oscillating air–water interface in sea-level controlled anchialine lakes. U/Th dating of these overgrowths suggests ages that are compatible with the Marine Isotope Stage 5e (i.e. 130–115 ka). These POS have fixed this sea-level high-stand and demonstrate that this part of Cuba has been subjected to a much lower uplift rate than previously reported, that is, less than 0.1 mm/year since the last interglacial.
Riassunto L'acqua, la risorsa più importante sulla Terra, è un bene prezioso per ogni forma di vi... more Riassunto L'acqua, la risorsa più importante sulla Terra, è un bene prezioso per ogni forma di vita. La disponibilità di acqua, la gestione e in particolare la sua salvaguardia rappresentano un fondamentale obiettivo sia per la popolazione, in aumento, che per la scienza. L'antropizzazione del territorio ha incrementato il problema dell'inquinamento, così, oggigiorno, risulta essenziale comprendere come i fattori antropici possono in-fluenzare i fragili sistemi carsici e di conseguenza anche le nicchie ecologiche. L'obiettivo di questo capitolo è quello di indagare varie aree gessose della Romagna orientale soggette a carsismo dal punto di vista chimico-fisico per capire se tali sistemi carsici presentano o meno evidenti manifestazioni di inquinamento antropico. Parole chiave: Acque, inquinamento, Gesso Messiniano. Abstract Water is a very important resource in the world. Its availability and its pureness represent a fundamental issue. Today, pollution is a huge problem, especially because of the growing population. For this reason it results necessary to understand how human activities can influence natural systems, such as caves. The aim of this chapter is to examine several gypsum outcrops in Eastern Romagna (Northern Italy), where cave systems are located, from a geochemical point of view, and understand if they are contaminated and influenced by human activities.
The area around Ragusa in Sicily is well known for the exploration of petroleum deposits hosted i... more The area around Ragusa in Sicily is well known for the exploration of petroleum deposits hosted in Mesozoic carbonate rocks. These reservoirs are overlain by less permeable rocks, whereas the surface geology is characterized by outcrops of Oligo-Miocene carbonate units hosting important aquifers. Some of the karst springs of the area are used as drinking water supplies, and therefore these vulnerable aquifers should be monitored and protected adequately. In the early afternoon (14:00) of 27 May until the late evening (19:30) of 28 May 2011, during the construction of an exploitation borehole (Tresauro 2), more than 1000 m 3 of drilling fluids were lost in an unknown karst void. Two days later, from 06:30 on 30 May, water flowing from Paradiso Spring, lying some 13.7 km SW of the borehole and 378 m lower, normally used as a domestic water supply, was so intensely coloured that it was unfit for drinking. Bulk chemical analyses carried out on the water have shown a composition that is very similar to that of the drilling fluids lost at the Tresauro borehole, confirming a hydrological connection. Estimations indicate that the first signs of the drilling fluids took about 59 h to flow from their injection point to the spring, corresponding to a mean velocity of $230 m/h. That Paradiso Spring is recharged by a well-developed underground drainage system is also confirmed by the marked flow rate changes measured at the spring, ranging from a base flow of around 10–15 l/s to flood peaks of 2–3 m 3 /s. Reflecting the source and nature of the initial contamination, the pollution lasted for just a few days, and the water returned to acceptable drinking-water standards relatively quickly. However, pollution related to heavy-mineral fines continues to be registered during flooding of the spring, when the aqueducts are normally shut down because of the high turbidity values. This pollution event offers an instructive example of how hydrocarbon exploitation in intensely karstified areas, where natural springs provide domestic water supplies, should be controlled effectively to prevent such disasters occurring. This pollution incident is also a useful example of how such ''accidental " tracer tests can identify rapid karstic flow-paths over long distances.
During the 2011 speleological expedition to the Puerto Princesa Underground River (Palawan, Phili... more During the 2011 speleological expedition to the Puerto Princesa Underground River (Palawan, Philippines) a drapery characterized by several close-to-horizontal ribs has been noticed. Even without sampling and analyzing its internal growth layers, a detailed morphological study allowed to present a possible genetic model. The presented model helps to explain its evolution, which is mainly controlled by variation in water flow as a consequence of the Palawan climate. When validated by further analyses, the same genetic mechanism could define also the evolution of the very common but still unexplained complex flowstones, which exhibit several close-to-horizontal steps, widenings and narrowings along their growth axis.
Over the past 15 years several expeditions by French, American and especially Italian cavers have... more Over the past 15 years several expeditions by French, American and especially Italian cavers have unveiled over 50 caves in the Cordillera de la Sal (Atacama Desert, Northern Chile). Many of these caves contain a variety of speleothems and minerals, some of which have rarely been observed within karst systems. Most of the secondary deposits in these caves are composed of halite, but also other halide, carbonate, sulphate, nitrate, phosphate, and silicate minerals have been found. Among the sixteen cave mineral species recognized, atacamite, darapskite, blödite, leonite, anhydrite, and especially antarcticite are worth mentioning. In one of the samples an unknown Ca-Sr-bearing chloride mineral has also been discovered, but it has not been possible to carry out detailed mineralogical analyses. These often-rare minerals have formed in this region due to the very extreme hyperarid and salt-rich environment. This research reports the mineralogical results and proposes the genetical mechanisms leading to the formation of antarcticite, powdery anhydrite, and the paragenesis of the halite-darapskite-blödite. This study also shows that Atacama caves may be excellent analogues to study weathering processes and subsurface secondary minerals in hyperarid and hypersaline environments on Mars. 2017. Secondary minerals from salt caves in the Atacama Desert (Chile): a hyperarid and hypersaline environment with potential analogies to the Martian subsurface.
We documented the relations among fractures, bedding, geological structures and the development o... more We documented the relations among fractures, bedding, geological structures and the development of epigenic gypsumcaves in the Bologna sector of the Northern Apennines, Italy. Different methods such as surface and subsurface surveys, aerial photo interpretation, structural analyses and hydrogeological observations were integrated to unravel different types of structurally-controlled epigenic gypsum karst speleogenesis. Data collected highlight a close relationship between the main directions of caves development and structural trends in the Northern Apennines (NW-SE and NE-SW). The results show that large offset faults (N10 m), bedding interfaces and anticline axes control the development of underground drainage basins and compartmentalize flow among adjacent areas. Furthermore, collapse hall morphology is mostly controlled by high-angle joints, bedding, and splay joints associated with bedding plane parallel faults, while the main structural weaknesses focus the surface flow, leading to a concentrated pattern of underground drainage and the formation of dominant conduits.
Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) and 3D photogrammetry techniques were used in a relatively
small... more Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) and 3D photogrammetry techniques were used in a relatively small (100-m-long) cave developed in Messinian gypsum in Emilia-Romagna (N. Italy). The surveys were carried out to compare the results obtained by both methods in mapping small-to medium-sized morphologies. These measurements allowed reconstructing the evolution stages of the paragenetic (anti-gravitative) morphologies (ceiling channels and pendants) that carved the roof of the cave, and their relationship with local geomorphology, infilling sediments, speleothems, and structural elements. Field measurements were integrated with morphometrical analyses of the digital models that then allowed a much greater number of observations to be made. The results are a clear example of how the combination of TLS and 3D-photogrammetric data can be used to study and measure mm- to dm-scale morphologies in geomorphological studies, including caves, helping to unravel the speleogenetic and, consequently, the hydrological evolution of these environments
Limestone massifs with a high density of dolines form important karst aquifers in most of the Alp... more Limestone massifs with a high density of dolines form important karst aquifers in most of the Alps, often with groundwater circulating through deep karst conduits and water coming out of closely spaced springs with flow rates of over some cubic meters per second. Although several hydrogeological studies and tracing experiments were carried out in many of these carbonate mountains in the past, the hydrogeology of most of these karst aquifers is still poorly known. Geological, hydrodynamic and hydrochemical investigations have been carried out in one of the most representative of these areas (Cansiglio-Monte Cavallo, NE Italy) since spring 2015, in order to enhance the knowledge on this important type of aquifer system. Additionally, a cave-to-spring multitracer test was carried out in late spring 2016 by using three different fluorescent tracers. This hydrogeological study allowed: 1) gathering new detailed information on the geological and tectonic structure of such alpine karst plateau; 2) defining discharge rates of the three main springs (Gorgazzo, Santissima, and Molinetto) by constructing rating curves; 3) understanding the discharging behavior of the system with respect to different recharge conditions; 4) better defining the recharge areas of the three springs. The three nearby springs (the spring front stretches over 5 km), that drain the investigated karst aquifer system, show different behaviors with respect to changing discharge conditions, demonstrating this aquifer to be divided in partially independent drainage systems under low-flow conditions, when their chemistry is clearly differentiated. Under high-flow conditions, waters discharging at all springs show more similar geochemical characteristics. The combination of geochemistry, hydrodynamic monitoring and dye tracing tests has shown that the three springs have different recharge areas. The study points out that even closely spaced karst springs, that apparently drain the same karst mountain, can have different behaviors, and thus distinctive reactions toward polluting events, a characteristic to be taken into account for their management.
Piedmont (N-Italy) is one of Italy's regions where Messinian gypsum outcrops most extensively. So... more Piedmont (N-Italy) is one of Italy's regions where Messinian gypsum outcrops most extensively. Some gypsum caves have been explored in the past, but no detailed speleogenetic studies have been carried out. The discovery of unexpected large underground voids in a gypsum quarry near Moncalvo has demonstrated the presence of intrastratal karst systems with an origin at least partly linked to rising groundwater flow. A detailed look at one of the gypsum caves near Alba (Monticello cave) has revealed this labyrinth to be another classical example of intrastratal gypsum karst, clearly formed by the rising of undersaturated groundwater through a confined Messinian gypsum bed. This chapter deals with the typical hypogene morphologies in these caves and also reports some new results on the geochemistry of the waters of the Moncalvo area.
Karst in Sicily develops in both Messinian gypsum and Mesozoic or Tertiary limestone rocks. Caves... more Karst in Sicily develops in both Messinian gypsum and Mesozoic or Tertiary limestone rocks. Caves are also found in the basalts of Mount Etna. Except for some rare cases, until recently most caves developed in limestone were considered to be of epigenetic origin. The discovery of gypsum in some of these caves, and especially detailed morphological studies, have allowed defining a hypogenic origin for a dozen of caves up to now. In some of these, the hypogenic evidences are very clear, while others remain in doubt because of the widespread presence of well-developed condensation-corrosion morphologies not necessarily related to hydrothermal fluids. This paper reports the present knowledge of hypogenic caves in the Island of Sicily.
In Sardinia, no active hypogenic caves have yet been discovered or described. Although there are ... more In Sardinia, no active hypogenic caves have yet been discovered or described. Although there are a few thermal springs, mostly correlated to Quaternary volcanic activity, none of these thermal waters have interacted with carbonate rocks. Nevertheless, in the SW of the Island many metal ore deposits hosted in Cambrian limestones have been exploited over the last two centuries, allowing the discovery of so-called mine caves, some of which are clearly of hypogenic origin. These caves formed by thermal waters in a phreatic setting and are now located far above the water table and are no longer active, apart from some recent dripstone formation. The mine tunnels in Mount San Giovanni, near Iglesias and Gonnesa towns, have cut most of these caves: among them the well-known Santa Barbara cave, covered with barite crystals, Santa Barbara 2 cave, with its unique oxidation vents, and Crovassa Ricchi in Argento. Other hypogenic caves have been discovered in the mines of Campo Pisano and Monteponi (Iglesias), Mount Onixeddu (Gonnesa), and especially Masua (Iglesias). A very special case of hypogenic cave is the Corona 'e Sa Craba quartzite system, known for its barite crystals and rich in many mineral species. This chapter summarizes these known inactive hydrothermal and sulfuric acid caves.
Santa Cesarea Terme in Salento is the only area in which hypogenic caves have been recognized in ... more Santa Cesarea Terme in Salento is the only area in which hypogenic caves have been recognized in the Apulia region. In this spa area, the rising of sulfidic thermal waters that mix with both recent fresh infiltration waters and coastal salt water has formed four active sulfuric acid speleogenesis (SAS) caves. These caves are characterized by the typical set of sulfuric acid meso-and micromorphologies, and also by the presence of both gypsum and native sulfur. In all caves, biofilms are visible in the sulfidic thermal waters and on the cave walls.
Gypsum beds host the majority of the caves in the northeastern flank of the Apennines, in the Emi... more Gypsum beds host the majority of the caves in the northeastern flank of the Apennines, in the Emilia Romagna region (Italy). More than six hundred of these caves have been surveyed, including the longest known epigenic gypsum cave systems in the world (Spipola-Acquafredda, ~11 km). Although this area has been intensively studied from a geological point of view, the age of the caves has never been investigated in detail. The rapid dissolution of gypsum and uplift history of the area have led to the long-held view that speleogenesis commenced only during the last 130 000 years. Epigenic caves only form when the surface drainage system efficiently conveys water into the underground. In the study area, this was achieved after the dismantling of most of the impervious sediments covering the gypsum and the development of protovalleys and sinkholes. The time necessary for these processes can by constrained by understanding when caves were first formed. The minimum age of karst voids can be indirectly estimated by dating the infilling sediments. U–Th dating of carbonate speleothems growing in gypsum caves has been applied to 20 samples from 14 different caves from the Spipola-Acquafredda, Monte Tondo-Re Tiberio, Stella-Rio Basino, Monte Mauro, and Castelnuovo systems. The results show that: (i) caves have been forming since at least ~600 kyr ago; (ii) the peak of speleogenesis was reached during relatively cold climate stages, when rivers formed terraces at the surface and aggradation caused paragenesis in the stable cave levels; (iii) ~200 000 years were necessary for the dismantling of most of the sediments covering the karstifiable gypsum and the development of a surface mature drainage network. Besides providing a significant contribution to the understanding of evaporite karst evolution in the Apennines, this study refines our knowledge on the timescale of geomorphological processes in a region affected by rapid uplifting.
Chemical and physical proxy data from a precisely dated early last glacial (~113e110 ka, MIS5d) S... more Chemical and physical proxy data from a precisely dated early last glacial (~113e110 ka, MIS5d) Sardinian stalagmite reveal a sub-millennial-scale, cool-dry climate event centered at 112.0 þ0.52 /-0.59 ka, followed by a rapid return to warm-wet conditions at 111.76 þ0.43 /-0.45 ka. Comparison with regional speleothem records and the palaeotemperature proxy record from the NGRIP ice core (Greenland) suggests that this event corresponds to Greenland Interstadial (GI) 25b and 25a, an intra-interstadial climate oscillation within GI-25, according to the recent Greenland stratigraphic framework. The speleothem age is in reasonable agreement (within 0.8 kyr) with that of the corresponding event in Greenland based on the GICC05modelext ice chronology but is older by about 3.7 kyr than the Greenland age based on the AICC2012 chronology.
A Messinian succession containing gypsum beds crops out in northern Italy, mainly in Piedmont and... more A Messinian succession containing gypsum beds crops out in northern Italy, mainly in Piedmont and along the northern flank of the Apennine mountains in Emilia-Romagna. These gypsum bodies have been extensively quarried at the surface, in outcrops, and through underground quarries. In Emilia-Romagna these gypsum outcrops can be rather extensive, several km long and up to 1 km wide, while in Piedmont they are mostly covered by silty-marly deposits of Upper Messinian and Pliocene age and show only sparse and small outcrops. The underground quarrying of these evaporite bodies in Piedmont has allowed studying in detail their hydrogeology, and the ways in which water flows through these karst rocks. In contrast, in Emilia-Romagna the hydrogeology of these aquifers has been studied with traditional spring water monitoring and speleological methods. On the basis of the results it has been possible to define three conceptual models regarding the water circulation in these evaporites, similar to the models existing for carbonate aquifers. The models represent aquifers with decreasing vulnerability to pollution, from the more vulnerable system with dominant conduit drainage, characterizing most of the known gypsum aquifers, to those with interconnected conduit drainage and with dispersive circulation. karst hydrogeology, evaporites, flow models, gypsum caves, vulnerability to pollution
Fifty-seven control points of waters (sinking streams, rivers in caves, and resurgences) hosted i... more Fifty-seven control points of waters (sinking streams, rivers in caves, and resurgences) hosted in gypsumkarst areas in Emilia Romagna region (N-Italy) were sampled in the framework of a Project LIFE+08NAT/IT/000369 “Gypsum” in the period 2010–2014. The microbiology and chemistry of these waters have been analyzed to evaluate the impact of human activities or natural factors, in the gypsum karst systems. Waters have been analyzed for major chemistry (Ca,Mg,Na, K, SO4, HCO3, Cl,NO3) and some minor constituents (F, Br,NH4 and PO4),measuring pH, electric conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS) and temperature (T) in situ. The same samples have been analyzed with traditional microbiology techniques focused on total microbial count and on fecal microbiota, as index of human and/or animal contamination, and molecular biology techniques (sequencing of 16S rRNA segment and PCR-DGGE), focused on the characterization ofmicrobial populations in the different sampling sites and determination of their variations and/or changes during the five years of the project. As expected, waters tend to be increasingly mineralized from sinking streams to resurgences, with only local and temporarily high contents in nitrates and ammonium, often related to the presence of bat colonies. PCR-DGGE revealed ecological changes, in terms of microbial populations present in the bulk water samples, in different sampling sites within the same cave. Although the impact of fecalmicroorganisms only rarely exceeded 2 log UFC/ml, the results evidenced fluctuations of these microorganisms mainly correlated to the season and to the biological activity of bats.
NATO Science for Peace and Security Series C: Environmental Security, 2009
Across the northwestern Tabular Middle Atlas of Morocco there are many examples of landscapes, ro... more Across the northwestern Tabular Middle Atlas of Morocco there are many examples of landscapes, rocks and fossils providing key evidence of a particular moment or period in Earth history. Such Earth heritage sites are important for educating the general public in environmental matters. They also serve as tools for demonstrating sustainable development and for illustrating methods of site conservation, as well as remembering that rocks, minerals, fossils, soil, landforms form an integral part of the natural world. The significance of certain sites for aesthetic or tourism reasons is such sites involves close consultation with all communities in the vicinity of each geo-site and is not only aimed at tourism and education, but also at sustainable improvement of infrastructures of the people of this area. Geological heritage sites, properly managed, can generate employment and new economic activities, especially in regions in need of new or additional sources of income.
Nella presente ricerca, eseguita nell'ambito di una tesi di dottorato dell'Università Mohammed V-... more Nella presente ricerca, eseguita nell'ambito di una tesi di dottorato dell'Università Mohammed V-Agdal di Rabat (D.ssa Amina Malaki), sono stati rilevati, studiati e catalogati in maniera sistematica quarantadue siti di interesse geologico e geomorfologico di particolare significato scientifico, didattico e turistico-culturale presenti all'interno o nell'intorno degli itinerari turistici del Medio Atlante di Ifrane-Azrou (Marocco). La scelta dei geositi e dei geomorfositi come obiettivo della ricerca è determinata non solo dalla carenza di ricerche specifiche sull'argomento ma anche dall'esistenza nel Marocco di caratteri e di fenomeni geologici e geomorfologici che lasciano presupporre la presenza di un consistente numero di tali beni naturali e culturali nello stesso tempo, i quali meritano di essere meglio conosciuti, tutelati e valorizzati. Le informazioni acquisite, relative a ciascun itinerario, sono state riassunte in una Carta geotematica tesa a consentire una sintesi efficace dei risultati conseguiti ed a fornire un quadro d'insieme della consistenza e della distribuzione territoriale di tali beni che costituiscono il patrimonio geologico del Medio Atlante ancora oggi poco conosciuto e sostanzialmente trascurato. La Carta contiene proposte per il rafforzamento degli itinerari turistici tradizionali legati ai beni culturali (es. città imperiali) con l'integrazione dei beni geografico-fisici (Geositi e Geomorfositi) e del paesaggio geologico.
Many morphological elements in Cuba's landscape (e.g. marine terraces, tidal notches) demonstrate... more Many morphological elements in Cuba's landscape (e.g. marine terraces, tidal notches) demonstrate that coastal uplift has taken place, but the rate at which this occurs is not known. Carbonate phreatic overgrowths on speleothems have been found in a cave in Central North Cuba, ~1 km from the present coastline at 16 m asl. They form exceptional and unique mushroom-shaped speleothems and balconies decorating the walls of the rooms. These phreatic overgrowths on speleothems (POS) formed at the oscillating air–water interface in sea-level controlled anchialine lakes. U/Th dating of these overgrowths suggests ages that are compatible with the Marine Isotope Stage 5e (i.e. 130–115 ka). These POS have fixed this sea-level high-stand and demonstrate that this part of Cuba has been subjected to a much lower uplift rate than previously reported, that is, less than 0.1 mm/year since the last interglacial.
Riassunto L'acqua, la risorsa più importante sulla Terra, è un bene prezioso per ogni forma di vi... more Riassunto L'acqua, la risorsa più importante sulla Terra, è un bene prezioso per ogni forma di vita. La disponibilità di acqua, la gestione e in particolare la sua salvaguardia rappresentano un fondamentale obiettivo sia per la popolazione, in aumento, che per la scienza. L'antropizzazione del territorio ha incrementato il problema dell'inquinamento, così, oggigiorno, risulta essenziale comprendere come i fattori antropici possono in-fluenzare i fragili sistemi carsici e di conseguenza anche le nicchie ecologiche. L'obiettivo di questo capitolo è quello di indagare varie aree gessose della Romagna orientale soggette a carsismo dal punto di vista chimico-fisico per capire se tali sistemi carsici presentano o meno evidenti manifestazioni di inquinamento antropico. Parole chiave: Acque, inquinamento, Gesso Messiniano. Abstract Water is a very important resource in the world. Its availability and its pureness represent a fundamental issue. Today, pollution is a huge problem, especially because of the growing population. For this reason it results necessary to understand how human activities can influence natural systems, such as caves. The aim of this chapter is to examine several gypsum outcrops in Eastern Romagna (Northern Italy), where cave systems are located, from a geochemical point of view, and understand if they are contaminated and influenced by human activities.
The area around Ragusa in Sicily is well known for the exploration of petroleum deposits hosted i... more The area around Ragusa in Sicily is well known for the exploration of petroleum deposits hosted in Mesozoic carbonate rocks. These reservoirs are overlain by less permeable rocks, whereas the surface geology is characterized by outcrops of Oligo-Miocene carbonate units hosting important aquifers. Some of the karst springs of the area are used as drinking water supplies, and therefore these vulnerable aquifers should be monitored and protected adequately. In the early afternoon (14:00) of 27 May until the late evening (19:30) of 28 May 2011, during the construction of an exploitation borehole (Tresauro 2), more than 1000 m 3 of drilling fluids were lost in an unknown karst void. Two days later, from 06:30 on 30 May, water flowing from Paradiso Spring, lying some 13.7 km SW of the borehole and 378 m lower, normally used as a domestic water supply, was so intensely coloured that it was unfit for drinking. Bulk chemical analyses carried out on the water have shown a composition that is very similar to that of the drilling fluids lost at the Tresauro borehole, confirming a hydrological connection. Estimations indicate that the first signs of the drilling fluids took about 59 h to flow from their injection point to the spring, corresponding to a mean velocity of $230 m/h. That Paradiso Spring is recharged by a well-developed underground drainage system is also confirmed by the marked flow rate changes measured at the spring, ranging from a base flow of around 10–15 l/s to flood peaks of 2–3 m 3 /s. Reflecting the source and nature of the initial contamination, the pollution lasted for just a few days, and the water returned to acceptable drinking-water standards relatively quickly. However, pollution related to heavy-mineral fines continues to be registered during flooding of the spring, when the aqueducts are normally shut down because of the high turbidity values. This pollution event offers an instructive example of how hydrocarbon exploitation in intensely karstified areas, where natural springs provide domestic water supplies, should be controlled effectively to prevent such disasters occurring. This pollution incident is also a useful example of how such ''accidental " tracer tests can identify rapid karstic flow-paths over long distances.
During the 2011 speleological expedition to the Puerto Princesa Underground River (Palawan, Phili... more During the 2011 speleological expedition to the Puerto Princesa Underground River (Palawan, Philippines) a drapery characterized by several close-to-horizontal ribs has been noticed. Even without sampling and analyzing its internal growth layers, a detailed morphological study allowed to present a possible genetic model. The presented model helps to explain its evolution, which is mainly controlled by variation in water flow as a consequence of the Palawan climate. When validated by further analyses, the same genetic mechanism could define also the evolution of the very common but still unexplained complex flowstones, which exhibit several close-to-horizontal steps, widenings and narrowings along their growth axis.
Over the past 15 years several expeditions by French, American and especially Italian cavers have... more Over the past 15 years several expeditions by French, American and especially Italian cavers have unveiled over 50 caves in the Cordillera de la Sal (Atacama Desert, Northern Chile). Many of these caves contain a variety of speleothems and minerals, some of which have rarely been observed within karst systems. Most of the secondary deposits in these caves are composed of halite, but also other halide, carbonate, sulphate, nitrate, phosphate, and silicate minerals have been found. Among the sixteen cave mineral species recognized, atacamite, darapskite, blödite, leonite, anhydrite, and especially antarcticite are worth mentioning. In one of the samples an unknown Ca-Sr-bearing chloride mineral has also been discovered, but it has not been possible to carry out detailed mineralogical analyses. These often-rare minerals have formed in this region due to the very extreme hyperarid and salt-rich environment. This research reports the mineralogical results and proposes the genetical mechanisms leading to the formation of antarcticite, powdery anhydrite, and the paragenesis of the halite-darapskite-blödite. This study also shows that Atacama caves may be excellent analogues to study weathering processes and subsurface secondary minerals in hyperarid and hypersaline environments on Mars. 2017. Secondary minerals from salt caves in the Atacama Desert (Chile): a hyperarid and hypersaline environment with potential analogies to the Martian subsurface.
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Papers by Jo De Waele
gypsumcaves in the Bologna sector of the Northern Apennines, Italy. Different methods such as surface and subsurface
surveys, aerial photo interpretation, structural analyses and hydrogeological observations were integrated
to unravel different types of structurally-controlled epigenic gypsum karst speleogenesis. Data collected
highlight a close relationship between the main directions of caves development and structural trends in the
Northern Apennines (NW-SE and NE-SW). The results show that large offset faults (N10 m), bedding interfaces
and anticline axes control the development of underground drainage basins and compartmentalize flow
among adjacent areas. Furthermore, collapse hall morphology is mostly controlled by high-angle joints, bedding,
and splay joints associated with bedding plane parallel faults, while the main structural weaknesses focus the
surface flow, leading to a concentrated pattern of underground drainage and the formation of dominant conduits.
small (100-m-long) cave developed in Messinian gypsum in Emilia-Romagna (N. Italy). The
surveys were carried out to compare the results obtained by both methods in mapping small-to
medium-sized morphologies. These measurements allowed reconstructing the evolution stages of
the paragenetic (anti-gravitative) morphologies (ceiling channels and pendants) that carved the roof
of the cave, and their relationship with local geomorphology, infilling sediments, speleothems, and
structural elements. Field measurements were integrated with morphometrical analyses of the
digital models that then allowed a much greater number of observations to be made. The results are
a clear example of how the combination of TLS and 3D-photogrammetric data can be used to study
and measure mm- to dm-scale morphologies in geomorphological studies, including caves, helping
to unravel the speleogenetic and, consequently, the hydrological evolution of these environments
with groundwater circulating through deep karst conduits and water coming out of closely spaced
springs with flow rates of over some cubic meters per second. Although several hydrogeological studies
and tracing experiments were carried out in many of these carbonate mountains in the past, the hydrogeology
of most of these karst aquifers is still poorly known.
Geological, hydrodynamic and hydrochemical investigations have been carried out in one of the most
representative of these areas (Cansiglio-Monte Cavallo, NE Italy) since spring 2015, in order to enhance
the knowledge on this important type of aquifer system. Additionally, a cave-to-spring multitracer test
was carried out in late spring 2016 by using three different fluorescent tracers. This hydrogeological
study allowed: 1) gathering new detailed information on the geological and tectonic structure of such
alpine karst plateau; 2) defining discharge rates of the three main springs (Gorgazzo, Santissima, and
Molinetto) by constructing rating curves; 3) understanding the discharging behavior of the system with
respect to different recharge conditions; 4) better defining the recharge areas of the three springs.
The three nearby springs (the spring front stretches over 5 km), that drain the investigated karst aquifer
system, show different behaviors with respect to changing discharge conditions, demonstrating this aquifer
to be divided in partially independent drainage systems under low-flow conditions, when their chemistry
is clearly differentiated. Under high-flow conditions, waters discharging at all springs show more
similar geochemical characteristics. The combination of geochemistry, hydrodynamic monitoring and
dye tracing tests has shown that the three springs have different recharge areas. The study points out that
even closely spaced karst springs, that apparently drain the same karst mountain, can have different
behaviors, and thus distinctive reactions toward polluting events, a characteristic to be taken into
account for their management.
in Emilia Romagna region (N-Italy) were sampled in the framework of a Project LIFE+08NAT/IT/000369 “Gypsum”
in the period 2010–2014. The microbiology and chemistry of these waters have been analyzed to evaluate the impact
of human activities or natural factors, in the gypsum karst systems. Waters have been analyzed for major
chemistry (Ca,Mg,Na, K, SO4, HCO3, Cl,NO3) and some minor constituents (F, Br,NH4 and PO4),measuring pH, electric
conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS) and temperature (T) in situ. The same samples have been analyzed
with traditional microbiology techniques focused on total microbial count and on fecal microbiota, as index
of human and/or animal contamination, and molecular biology techniques (sequencing of 16S rRNA segment
and PCR-DGGE), focused on the characterization ofmicrobial populations in the different sampling sites and determination
of their variations and/or changes during the five years of the project. As expected, waters tend to be increasingly
mineralized from sinking streams to resurgences, with only local and temporarily high contents in
nitrates and ammonium, often related to the presence of bat colonies. PCR-DGGE revealed ecological changes, in
terms of microbial populations present in the bulk water samples, in different sampling sites within the same
cave. Although the impact of fecalmicroorganisms only rarely exceeded 2 log UFC/ml, the results evidenced fluctuations
of these microorganisms mainly correlated to the season and to the biological activity of bats.
Edited by Douglas Richardson, Noel Castree, Michael F. Goodchild, Audrey Kobayashi, Weidong Liu, and Richard A. Marston.
© 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2017 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118786352.wbieg0968
gypsumcaves in the Bologna sector of the Northern Apennines, Italy. Different methods such as surface and subsurface
surveys, aerial photo interpretation, structural analyses and hydrogeological observations were integrated
to unravel different types of structurally-controlled epigenic gypsum karst speleogenesis. Data collected
highlight a close relationship between the main directions of caves development and structural trends in the
Northern Apennines (NW-SE and NE-SW). The results show that large offset faults (N10 m), bedding interfaces
and anticline axes control the development of underground drainage basins and compartmentalize flow
among adjacent areas. Furthermore, collapse hall morphology is mostly controlled by high-angle joints, bedding,
and splay joints associated with bedding plane parallel faults, while the main structural weaknesses focus the
surface flow, leading to a concentrated pattern of underground drainage and the formation of dominant conduits.
small (100-m-long) cave developed in Messinian gypsum in Emilia-Romagna (N. Italy). The
surveys were carried out to compare the results obtained by both methods in mapping small-to
medium-sized morphologies. These measurements allowed reconstructing the evolution stages of
the paragenetic (anti-gravitative) morphologies (ceiling channels and pendants) that carved the roof
of the cave, and their relationship with local geomorphology, infilling sediments, speleothems, and
structural elements. Field measurements were integrated with morphometrical analyses of the
digital models that then allowed a much greater number of observations to be made. The results are
a clear example of how the combination of TLS and 3D-photogrammetric data can be used to study
and measure mm- to dm-scale morphologies in geomorphological studies, including caves, helping
to unravel the speleogenetic and, consequently, the hydrological evolution of these environments
with groundwater circulating through deep karst conduits and water coming out of closely spaced
springs with flow rates of over some cubic meters per second. Although several hydrogeological studies
and tracing experiments were carried out in many of these carbonate mountains in the past, the hydrogeology
of most of these karst aquifers is still poorly known.
Geological, hydrodynamic and hydrochemical investigations have been carried out in one of the most
representative of these areas (Cansiglio-Monte Cavallo, NE Italy) since spring 2015, in order to enhance
the knowledge on this important type of aquifer system. Additionally, a cave-to-spring multitracer test
was carried out in late spring 2016 by using three different fluorescent tracers. This hydrogeological
study allowed: 1) gathering new detailed information on the geological and tectonic structure of such
alpine karst plateau; 2) defining discharge rates of the three main springs (Gorgazzo, Santissima, and
Molinetto) by constructing rating curves; 3) understanding the discharging behavior of the system with
respect to different recharge conditions; 4) better defining the recharge areas of the three springs.
The three nearby springs (the spring front stretches over 5 km), that drain the investigated karst aquifer
system, show different behaviors with respect to changing discharge conditions, demonstrating this aquifer
to be divided in partially independent drainage systems under low-flow conditions, when their chemistry
is clearly differentiated. Under high-flow conditions, waters discharging at all springs show more
similar geochemical characteristics. The combination of geochemistry, hydrodynamic monitoring and
dye tracing tests has shown that the three springs have different recharge areas. The study points out that
even closely spaced karst springs, that apparently drain the same karst mountain, can have different
behaviors, and thus distinctive reactions toward polluting events, a characteristic to be taken into
account for their management.
in Emilia Romagna region (N-Italy) were sampled in the framework of a Project LIFE+08NAT/IT/000369 “Gypsum”
in the period 2010–2014. The microbiology and chemistry of these waters have been analyzed to evaluate the impact
of human activities or natural factors, in the gypsum karst systems. Waters have been analyzed for major
chemistry (Ca,Mg,Na, K, SO4, HCO3, Cl,NO3) and some minor constituents (F, Br,NH4 and PO4),measuring pH, electric
conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS) and temperature (T) in situ. The same samples have been analyzed
with traditional microbiology techniques focused on total microbial count and on fecal microbiota, as index
of human and/or animal contamination, and molecular biology techniques (sequencing of 16S rRNA segment
and PCR-DGGE), focused on the characterization ofmicrobial populations in the different sampling sites and determination
of their variations and/or changes during the five years of the project. As expected, waters tend to be increasingly
mineralized from sinking streams to resurgences, with only local and temporarily high contents in
nitrates and ammonium, often related to the presence of bat colonies. PCR-DGGE revealed ecological changes, in
terms of microbial populations present in the bulk water samples, in different sampling sites within the same
cave. Although the impact of fecalmicroorganisms only rarely exceeded 2 log UFC/ml, the results evidenced fluctuations
of these microorganisms mainly correlated to the season and to the biological activity of bats.
Edited by Douglas Richardson, Noel Castree, Michael F. Goodchild, Audrey Kobayashi, Weidong Liu, and Richard A. Marston.
© 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2017 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118786352.wbieg0968