Law

E drejta e asksesit në drejtësi, si një aspekt i procesit të rregullt ligjor, parashikohet nga neni 42/2 i Kushtetutës "Kushdo, për mbrojtjen e të drejtave, të lirive dhe të interesave të tij kushtetues dhe ligjorë, ose në rastin e akuzave të ngritura kundër tij, ka të drejtën e një gjykimi të drejtë dhe publik brenda një afati të arsyeshëm nga një gjykatë e pavarur dhe e paanshme e caktuar me ligj" 1. Kjo e drejtë e individit nuk përfshin vetëm të drejtën për të filluar një proces, por edhe të drejtën për të pasur nga ana e gjykatës, një zgjidhje përfundimtare për mosmarrëveshjen objekt gjykimi, pasi aksesi në gjykatë duhet të jetë substantiv dhe jo thjesht formal. Neni 42 i Kushtetutës, sanksionon në vetvete jo vetëm të drejtën e individit për t'iu drejtuar gjykatës, por edhe detyrimin e shtetit që t'ia garantojë atij këtë akses 2. Procesi civil është ajo procedurë që zhvillohet përpara gjykatës, sipas rregullave të përcaktuara nga Kodi i Procedurës Civile, me qëllim realizimin e të drejtës, apo zgjidhjen e konfliktit midis palëve, në kuadër të të drejtës private. Objekt i të provuarit në procesin civil janë faktet juridike që qëndrojnë në themel të pretendimeve të palëve 3. Paditësi afirmon se ka një të drejtë të garantuar nga ligji (si dhe faktin krijues të së drejtës) dhe se i padituri ka mbajtur një sjellje të tillë që bie ndesh me këtë të drejtë (faktin cënues), që përbëjnë shkakun ligjor të padisë, ndaj për këtë shkak kërkon nga gjykata marrjen e një vendimi të caktuar kundër të paditurit (kërkimi, i cili përbën objektin e padisë). I padituri mund të mbrohet me anë të prapësimit, duke kundërshtuar pretendimet e paditësit, brenda objektit të padisë, duke pretenduar fakte të reja krijuese, shuese, ndryshuese apo penguese. Secila nga palët ka detyrimin për të provuar këto fakte, me anë të mjeteve provuese të parashikuara shprehimisht nga Kodi i Procedurës Civile 4. 1 Parashikim i ngjashëm në nenin 6 të Konventës Europiane për të Drejtat e Njeriut. 2 Vendim i Gjykatës Kushtetuese nr. 64/2017. 3 Neni 5 i Kodit të Procedurës Civile. 4 Nenet 11, 12 të Kodit të Procedurës Civile.

I. Problematikat e lëvizjes së fëmijës jashtë shtetit 1.1 Zhvendosja e fëmijës jashtë vendit (Jurisprudenca vendase dhe e huaj). Me vendimin për zgjidhjen e martesës vendoset edhe për mënyrën e ushtrimit të përgjegjësisë prindërore. Gjykata vendos lënien për rritje dhe edukim të fëmijës njërit prej bashkëshortëve, duke pasur parasysh interesin më të lartë të fëmijës. Zgjidhja e martesës nuk prek të drejtat dhe detyrimet që kanë prindërit ndaj fëmijëve të tyre. Bashkëshorti tjetër ka të drejtë të takohet me të dhe të konsultohet për zgjedhjet më të rëndësishme që lidhen me jetën e tij. 1

This contribution analyses the promises and challenges of using bottom-up produced sensors data to manage public-health risks in the (smart) city. The article criticizes traditional ways of governing public-health risks with the aim to inspect the contribution that a sensor-based risk governance may bring to the fore. The failures of the top-down model serve to illustrate that the smart transformation of the city’s living environments may stimulate a better public-health risk governance and a new city’s utopia. The central question this contribution addresses is: How could the potential of a city’s network of sensors and of data infrastructures contribute to smartly realizing healthier cities, free from environmental risk? The central aim of the article is to reflect on the opportunity to combine top-down and bottom-up sensing approaches. In view of this aim, the complementary potential of top and bottom sensing is inspected. Citizen sensing practices are discussed as manifestation of the new public sphere and a taxonomy for a sensor-based risk governance is developed. The challenges hidden behind this arguably inclusive transition are dismantled.

This contribution analyses how citizen sensing initiatives can contribute to or, contrarily, hinder the governance of certain or uncertain public health risks. It draws on the example of the Schiphol Airport case, where citizens developed a bottom-up system for tracking and reporting noise after the Dutch Minister of Transport, Public Works and Water Management responded to their complaints about expanding the airport with the statement that 'Noise cannot be measured'. Despite the State's position of no adverse effects on the inhabitants' well-being, local residents started reporting ailments ostensibly linked to the increase in noise pollution. The central questions this contribution addresses are: how did lay people living near Schiphol use citizen sensing to respond to the risk represented by the increase in noise? How did this bottom-up initiated monitoring intertwine with the traditional top-down governance of the risk? The interplay between four theoretical concepts related to the case (citizen sensing, risk governance, lay people and social accountability) serves as a lens of observation for analysing the case. The ultimate goal is to assess whether 'pure' citizen sensing, only recognized by the institutional system at a later stage, can succeed in fostering social accountability of institutional actors to citizens exposed to a specific public health risk.

Internet of Things, Internet of Everything and Internet of People are concepts suggesting that objects, devices and people will be increasingly interconnected through digital infrastructure that will generate a growing gathering of data. Parallel to this is the celebration of the smart city and sharing city as urban policy visions that by relying heavily on new technologies bear the promise of a efficient and thriving cities. Law and policy scholarship has either focused on questions related to privacy, discrimination, security or issues related to the production and use of big data, digital public services. Little or no attention in the literature has been paid to the disruptive impact of technological development on urban governance and city inhabitants' rights of equal access, participation, management and even ownership, in order to understand whether and how technology can also enhance the protection of human rights and social justice in the city. This article advances the proposal of complementing the technological and digital infrastructure with a legal and institutional infrastructure, the Internet of Humans, by construing and injecting in the legal and policy framework of the city the principle of Tech Justice. Building on the literature review on and from the analysis of selected case studies this article stresses the dichotomy existing between the market-based and the society-based applications of technology, the first likely to increase the digital divide and the challenges to human rights in the city, the latter bearing the promise to promote equal access to technology in the city. The main argument advanced by this paper is indeed that Tech Justice is an empirical dimension that can steer the developments of smart city and sharing city policies toward a more just and democratic city.

A multilateral approach to the governance of environmental health risk could be regarded as a possible response to the complexity of current risk problems. Such multilateral governance is deemed advisable in consideration of the need to achieve an adaptive risk management approach and establish a dialogue among the stakeholders involved in or affected by a specific risk. However, whereas the benefits of multilateral risk governance are clear in theory, in practice-and specifically for the environmental health domain-there seems to be a shortage of successful cases where this multilateral approach has been actually applied. In particular, this article targets the necessity to understand 'multilateral' in a broad sense, thus also including the international community and civil society actors, both organized in collectives (e.g. NGOs) and wider civil society (e.g. on-the-ground citizens). The case of the Equatorial Asian haze is investigated to respond to a theoretical question , namely whether and how processes of deviating dynamics can trigger an improvement in risk governance, especially stimulating alternative information production and pushing for the release of key information held by the government. Access to information results in being a necessary step to achieve multilateral risk governance. ARTICLE HISTORY

In this article, we investigate how citizens use data they gather as a rhetorical resource for demanding environmental policy interventions and advancing environmental justice claims. While producing citizen-generated data (CGD) can be regarded as a form of ‘social protest’, citizens and interested institutional actors still have to ‘justify’ the role of lay people in producing data on environmental issues. Such actors adopt a variety of arguments to persuade public authorities to recognize CGD as a legitimate resource for policy making and regulation. So far, scant attention has been devoted to inspecting the different legitimization strategies adopted to push for institutional use of CGD. In order to fill this knowledge gap, we examine which distinctive strategies are adopted by interested actors: existing legitimization arguments are clustered, and strategies are outlined, based on a literature review and exemplary cases. We explore the conceivable effects of these strategies on ...

Present discussions on the implications of the GDPR for medical practice and health research mostly target the passive collection of health data. This article shifts the lens of analysis to the scarcely researched and rather different phenomenon of the active sharing of health data within the framework of Citizen Science projects. Starting from this focus, the article queries whether data processing requirements under the GDPR impacts the advancement of Citizen Science for health research. A number of tensions between the two aims are identified both in abstract terms and 'in practice' by analysing three Citizen Science scenarios and drawing parallels with the experience of 'collective' Clinical Trials. The limited literature on the topic makes this article an exploratory reflection on key tensions, with the aim of opening the way for further research. This discussion is inspired by the need to guarantee that opportunities of Citizen Science will not be unduly curtailed by the advent of the GDPR but also to ensure that Citizen Science is implemented in ways that are consistent with the GDPR.

Domestic wastewater reuse in agriculture is often discussed as a way to tackle water scarcity in Europe. Europe could learn from the examples of other countries that are already successfully implementing wastewater reuse, especially in the Mediterranean. However, the potential of the practice is currently unfulfilled mainly due to social and legal barriers, including public resistance and the lack of a unified legislative framework at the European Union (EU) level. In the wake of the new EU Water Reuse Regulation released in June 2020, we wonder how this legislative intervention can foster public acceptance of non-conventional water reuse practices in agriculture. The original contribution of this piece is to provide a novel discussion of the transformations potentially triggered by the new EU Regulation and to suggest an innovative way forward, based on engaging interested users in water quality monitoring (i.e. water citizen science). We combine theoretical and empirical analysis,...

In June 2019, a landmark court decision (San Antonio Bay Estuarine Waterkeeper, et al. v. Formosa Plastics Corporation, et al., hereafter referred to as the Formosa ruling) was issued in Texas, where a judge found a petrochemical company liable for violating the United States Clean Water Act. The case—initiated by a civic group—was mostly built on citizen-collected evidence involving volunteer observations of plastic pellets, powder and flakes in the water over a considerable time span. The contamination could not be proven through existing data held by competent authorities because the company never filed any record of pollution (Formosa ruling, XI.A, p. 17). 1 In contrast to the majority of environmental pollution cases to date, the monitoring and data collection for this case was conducted by local residents who gathered a wealth of evidence of plastic pollution in water. Through a traditional case law and text analysis of the Formosa ruling, complemented by the analysis of surro...

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