A previously unknown reference to the Russian ethnologist, biologist, and traveler Nikolai N. Mik... more A previously unknown reference to the Russian ethnologist, biologist, and traveler Nikolai N. Miklucho-Maclay (1846-1888) was discovered in correspondence between Charles Darwin (1809-1882) and Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919). This reference has remained unknown to science, even to Miklucho-Maclay's biographers, probably because Darwin used the Russian nickname "Mikluska" when alluding to this young scientist. Here, we briefly outline the story behind the short discussion between Darwin and his German counterpart Haeckel, and highlight its importance for the history of science. Miklucho-Maclay's discovery of a putative swim bladder anlage in sharks, published in 1867, was discussed in four letters between the great biologists. Whereas, Haeckel showed enthusiasm for the finding because it supported (his view on) evolutionary theory, Darwin was less interested, which highlights the conceptual differences between the two authorities. We discuss the scientific treatment of Miklucho-Maclay's observation in the literature and discuss the homology, origin, and destiny of gas organs—swim bladders and lungs—in vertebrate evolution, from an ontogenetic point of view. We show that the conclusions reached by Miklucho-Maclay and Haeckel were rather exaggerated, although they gave rise to fundamental insights, and we illustrate how tree-thinking may lead to differences in the conceptualization of evolutionary change.
Vladimir Vernadsky’s concept of living matter is central to his biogeochemistry, the science he f... more Vladimir Vernadsky’s concept of living matter is central to his biogeochemistry, the science he founded.
In Deutschland bemühte sich der Jenaer Zoologe Ernst Haeckel, die Forschungen über die Abstammung... more In Deutschland bemühte sich der Jenaer Zoologe Ernst Haeckel, die Forschungen über die Abstammung des Menschen im darwinschen Sinne voranzutreiben und diese in sein Ideengebäude zu integrieren.
is one of the forerunners of experimental biology, genetics, and developmental physiology. Haecke... more is one of the forerunners of experimental biology, genetics, and developmental physiology. Haecker introduced the term Ph€ anogenetik (phenogenetics) in 1918 in Entwicklungsgeschichtliche Eigenschaftsanalyse (Evolutionary Analysis of Characters), in which he described the earliest stages in the development of the phenotype. 1 His major objective in this publication was to integrate the 2 most important concepts of Mendelian genetics-phenotype and genotype-within a well-articulated theory. Haecker realized that a proper analysis of how the genotype gives rise to the phenotype requires the integration of knowledge of morphology, physiology, and experimental embryology.
Here we report on a recently discovered student script of a lecture on paleontology given by Erns... more Here we report on a recently discovered student script of a lecture on paleontology given by Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919). The script dates to the summer semester of 1866, comprises 63 pages, and provides an overview of fossil invertebrate and mainly fossil vertebrate taxonomy and anatomy. It can be assumed that Russian student Nikolai Nikolajevitch Miklucho-Maclay (1846-1888), who later became a famous ethnologist, did not follow up on the lecture, but took the content directly from the lecture and from the blackboard in his notes. Hence, the drawings by Miklucho allow direct insight into Haeckel's visualization of paleontology in the 1860s. We place the transcript in the historical context of understanding paleontology in the second half of the 19 th century and address the break between zoology and embryology on the one hand and paleontology on the other, which is typical for Germany, partly persisting to this date. For that, we illustrate Haeckel's integration of paleontology as part of a holistic triad, with fossil research gradually taking a back seat to zoology and embryology over the decades.
In the early 1960s, American philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn contributed to a "crisis of ratio... more In the early 1960s, American philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn contributed to a "crisis of rationality" with his hypothesis that science develops by means of paradigm shifts. He challenged the positivist concept of cumulative and continuous scientific progress. According to Kuhn, the relation between two succeeding scientific traditions 'separated by a scientific revolution' is characterized by conceptual incommensurability that constrains the interpretation of science as a cumulative, steadily progressing enterprise. Thomas Kuhn's philosophy was heavily criticized by German-American biologist Ernst Mayr as unapplicable to the history of biology. Mayr, one of the most outstanding evolutionary biologists of the 20th century and a "co-architect" of the socalled Modern Synthesis (contemporary Darwinism), published extensively on the history and philosophy of biology as he thought that theoretical biology cannot progress without proper philosophy of science. Being convinced of the progressive development of Darwinism, Mayr pointed out that Kuhn's concept of scientific revolutions does not reflect conceptual changes in evolutionary biology. Here we summarize Mayr's critiques of Kuhn and, based on our own research, take Mayr's side in the controversy between two great thinkers.
Here we report on a recently discovered student script of a lecture on paleontology given by Erns... more Here we report on a recently discovered student script of a lecture on paleontology given by Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919). The script dates to the summer semester of 1866, comprises 63 pages, and provides an overview of fossil invertebrate and mainly fossil vertebrate taxonomy and anatomy. It can be assumed that Russian student Nikolai Nikolajevitch Miklucho-Maclay (1846-1888), who later became a famous ethnologist, did not follow up on the lecture, but took the content directly from the lecture and from the blackboard in his notes. Hence, the drawings by Miklucho allow direct insight into Haeckel's visualization of paleontology in the 1860s. We place the transcript in the historical context of understanding paleontology in the second half of the 19 th century and address the break between zoology and embryology on the one hand and paleontology on the other, which is typical for Germany, partly persisting to this date. For that, we illustrate Haeckel's integration of paleontology as part of a holistic triad, with fossil research gradually taking a back seat to zoology and embryology over the decades.
This paper offers the first ever published discussion of the ethical treatise Harmonie: Versuch e... more This paper offers the first ever published discussion of the ethical treatise Harmonie: Versuch einer monistischen Ethik [Harmony: an attempt at a monistic ethics] by Heinrich Schmidt (1874Schmidt ( -1935)), one of the leading figures in the circle of Ernst Haeckel. Published near the end of Schmidt's life (1931), it constituted a kind of summation of decades of intense involvement in the "project" of German monism that found its epicentre in Jena, and in Haeckel's attempts at founding it on Darwinian and Goethian lines. After a brief description of Schmidt's life and works, we summarize the main lines of Haeckel's evolutionary thought and their expression in his sparse ethical writings. A detailed description of Harmonie follows, in which we seek to demonstrate Schmidt's close adherence to Haeckel's monist foundations, as well as indicate where he expanded his own thinking in directions beyond Haeckel's. Lastly, we suggest that Harmonie, perhaps contrary to Schmidt's wishes after 1933, nevertheless offers textual evidence of the deep incompatibility of Schmidt's understanding of ethics to the sociopolitical ideology of National Socialism. This is consistent with the historical record of how Haeckel's monism, together with those like Schmidt who worked tirelessly to promote it, was negatively regarded by the NSDAP.
Communications in Computer and Information Science, 2019
The present study explores the methods of geodata visualization extracted from the metadata of sc... more The present study explores the methods of geodata visualization extracted from the metadata of scientific publications for use in scientific research using the scientific heritage of Georgy Gause. It is based on the results of case studies to assess the possibilities of digital information resources, metadata extraction from digital resources, and using methods for their quantitative processing. We have studied methods of extracting metadata from digital information systems that do not have export tools. Our concentration is on methods and technologies of geodata extraction, and their subsequent visualization are considered. They are considered and applied methods of a dynamic clustering of geodata markers. Based on geodata visualization, we interpreter the results. The possibility of using extracted metadata in scientific visualization systems that support standard formats is evaluated.
Notes and Records: the Royal Society journal of the history of science, 2017
This paper examines the dynamics of the honorary membership of Russian scientists at the Royal So... more This paper examines the dynamics of the honorary membership of Russian scientists at the Royal Society over a 350-year period. Using several outstanding Russian scientists as examples (Dmitrii Mendeleev, Il'ya Metschnikoff, Ivan Pavlov and Nikolai Vavilov), we will demonstrate how a combination of cultural and political factors influenced the dynamics of memberships. Furthermore, we explain how their memberships of the Royal Society influenced their scientific careers.
Evolutionary Biology – New Perspectives on Its Development, 2021
The "German Darwin" Ernst Haeckel was very influential not only in Germany but in non-German-spea... more The "German Darwin" Ernst Haeckel was very influential not only in Germany but in non-German-speaking countries as well. He was a key figure during the "first Darwinian revolution," a period when the foundation for the modern evolutionary theory was laid. Haeckel defended and developed the Darwinian theory with unparalleled passion and energy. He created a conceptual framework within which the majority of Darwinians worldwide worked over decades. Contemporary evolutionary theory is unthinkable without notions coined by Haeckel such as "phylogeny," "ontogeny," "phylogenetic tree," or "ecology." Moreover, his theories were encouraged and admired by Darwin himself. It was Haeckel who crucially contributed to the visualization of the Darwinian theory and who tried to convert Darwinism into a universal worldview. Yet it remains controversial to what extent Haeckel's view of evolutionary mechanisms corresponded to those in Darwin's own theory. In this chapter, we will examine this issue and demonstrate that although Haeckel championed natural selection throughout his whole career, his neo-Lamarckian concept of variation made his grasp of natural selection different from that of Darwin. As paradoxical as it may sound from the modern viewpoint, Haeckel made these neo-Lamarckian adjustments in order to render the Darwinian theoretical system more straightforward.
Vestnik of Saint Petersburg University. Philosophy and Conflict Studies, 2020
Theodor Ziehen was a prominent German psychiatrist and psychologist and a marginal philosopher of... more Theodor Ziehen was a prominent German psychiatrist and psychologist and a marginal philosopher of the first half of the 20th century who developed an exotic subjective-idealistic theory based on quasi-empirical psychological arguments. Although Ziehen was seen by contemporaries (most prominently by Vladimir Lenin) as a representative of the same philosophical current (empirio-criticism) as Mach and Avenarius, he never achieved their prominence in the history of philosophy. At the same time, Ziehen’s philosophy became influential in German biology, first of all, due to his direct and very strong impact on Bernhard Rensch. Rensch, in his turn, was the most significant figure on the international scene of what is known as the Modern Evolutionary Synthesis in biology. Rensch was not the only biologist influenced by Ziehen’s ideas. Ziehen had some communication with the “German Darwin” Ernst Haeckel and played a prominent role in the concept of the founder of biological systematics Willi...
Theory in biosciences = Theorie in den Biowissenschaften, Jan 20, 2016
This paper provides a detailed look at how creationism originated in the United States and then e... more This paper provides a detailed look at how creationism originated in the United States and then explores how this evangelical trend was exported to Russia by American missionaries following the fall of the USSR. The comparison between these two countries is particularly interesting since the rivalry between the US and the USSR during the race to space caused both countries to revamp their science education. Yet, while political interests led both governments to focus on science education, creationist activities were simultaneously focused on diminishing the coverage of evolution in science classrooms. Now, decades following Sputnik's trip to space, the urgency to strengthen scientific learning has waned, while creationists are still equally focused on removing scientific naturalism in favor of supernatural explanations for the origin of species. This paper thus offers an in-depth look at which groups are currently responsible for promoting creationist activities in the US and in...
This paper offers the first ever published discussion of the ethical treatise Harmonie: Versuch e... more This paper offers the first ever published discussion of the ethical treatise Harmonie: Versuch einer monistischen Ethik [Harmony: an attempt at a monistic ethics] by Heinrich Schmidt (1874Schmidt ( -1935)), one of the leading figures in the circle of Ernst Haeckel. Published near the end of Schmidt's life (1931), it constituted a kind of summation of decades of intense involvement in the "project" of German monism that found its epicentre in Jena, and in Haeckel's attempts at founding it on Darwinian and Goethian lines. After a brief description of Schmidt's life and works, we summarize the main lines of Haeckel's evolutionary thought and their expression in his sparse ethical writings. A detailed description of Harmonie follows, in which we seek to demonstrate Schmidt's close adherence to Haeckel's monist foundations, as well as indicate where he expanded his own thinking in directions beyond Haeckel's. Lastly, we suggest that Harmonie, perhaps contrary to Schmidt's wishes after 1933, nevertheless offers textual evidence of the deep incompatibility of Schmidt's understanding of ethics to the sociopolitical ideology of National Socialism. This is consistent with the historical record of how Haeckel's monism, together with those like Schmidt who worked tirelessly to promote it, was negatively regarded by the NSDAP.
Following the 'rediscovery' of Mendel's work around 1900 the study of genetics grew rapidly and m... more Following the 'rediscovery' of Mendel's work around 1900 the study of genetics grew rapidly and multiple new inheritance theories quickly emerged such as Hugo de Vries' "Mutation Theory" (1901) and the "Boveri-Sutton Chromosome Theory" (1902). Mendel's work also caught the attention of the German geneticist Valentin Haecker, yet he was generally dissatisfied the simplicity of Mendelian genetics as he believed that inheritance and the expression of various characteristics appeared to be much more complex than the proposed "on-off hypotheses". Haecker's primary objection was that Mendelian-based theories still failed to bridge the gap between hereditary units and phenotypic traits. Haecker thus set out to bridge this gap in his research program, which he called Phänogenetik ("phenogenetics"). He outlined his work in a special study "Entwicklungsgeschichtliche Eigenschaftsanalyse (Phänogenetik)" in 1918. 2018 thus marks the 100th anniversary of Haecker's seminal publication, which was devoted to the analysis of the phenotype and highlighted the true complexity of heredity. This article takes a specific look at Haecker and his work, while also illustrating how this often forgotten scientist influenced the field of genetics and other scientists.
Theory in biosciences = Theorie in den Biowissenschaften, Jan 13, 2016
The 'rediscovery' of Mendel's laws in 1900 was a turning point in modern research of ... more The 'rediscovery' of Mendel's laws in 1900 was a turning point in modern research of heredity/genetics. According to the traditional view, adopted and fostered by many textbooks of genetics, Mendel's principles were presented in the first half of 1900 simultaneously and independently by three biologists (H. de Vries, C. Correns, E. v. Tschermak-Seysenegg). Having thus laid the foundations of further development, the 'rediscovery' continues to attract considerable interest. Since the 1950s, however, serious questions arose concerning both the chronology and specific conceptual achievement of the scientists involved. Not only the independence but also parallelism was analysed in the context of individual research programmes of these three scholars. The youngest of them, Erich v. Tschermak-Seysenegg, was even excluded from the list of 'rediscoverers'. The aim of this paper is to use new archival evidence and approximate the contribution of the physiologi...
Ernst Haeckel formulated his biogenetic law, famously stating that ontogeny recapitulates phyloge... more Ernst Haeckel formulated his biogenetic law, famously stating that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny, in 1872. The Russian evolutionist Alexei Sewertzoff, and the Swiss-born zoologist Adolf Naef were among those who revised Haeckel's law, thus changing the course of evolutionary theory and of developmental biology. Although Sewertzoff and Naef approached the problem in a similar way and formulated similar hypotheses at a purely descriptive level, their theoretical viewpoints were crucially different. While Sewertzoff laid the foundations for a Darwinian evolutionary morphology and is regarded as a forerunner of the modern synthesis, Naef was one of the most important figures in ''idealistic morphology'', which is usually seen as a type of anti-Darwinism. Both Naef and Sewertzoff aimed to revise Haeckel's biogenetic law and came to comparable conclusions at the empirical level. This paper is an attempt to explain how their fundamentally different theoretical backgrounds influenced their views on the relationship between ontogeny and phylogeny.
In this overview, we aim to outline the development of German morphology and comparative anatomy,... more In this overview, we aim to outline the development of German morphology and comparative anatomy, concentrating on the "Jena school" since it played the crucial role in the growth of these disciplines. We highlight the outstanding role of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in this process and exemplify the ways he exercised influence on theoretical and applied biosciences. Goethe crucially influenced all methodological currents of comparative anatomy, and laid foundations for both theoretical and applied research programmes. The latter included the whole range of biosciences and medical sciences including veterinary medicine. Goethe's idea to concentrate at a single location both fundamental biological research and practical medical and veterinary studies was crucial for the success of the Jena school.
Creationism in Russia and in what is commonly called the “Russian-speaking world” exhibits some d... more Creationism in Russia and in what is commonly called the “Russian-speaking world” exhibits some distinctive features. In this chapter, we outline the situation in Russia and two of its neighboring states, Ukraine and Belarus, and specify the role of the Orthodox Church and of Protestant movements in the growth of creationism in this region.
A previously unknown reference to the Russian ethnologist, biologist, and traveler Nikolai N. Mik... more A previously unknown reference to the Russian ethnologist, biologist, and traveler Nikolai N. Miklucho-Maclay (1846-1888) was discovered in correspondence between Charles Darwin (1809-1882) and Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919). This reference has remained unknown to science, even to Miklucho-Maclay's biographers, probably because Darwin used the Russian nickname "Mikluska" when alluding to this young scientist. Here, we briefly outline the story behind the short discussion between Darwin and his German counterpart Haeckel, and highlight its importance for the history of science. Miklucho-Maclay's discovery of a putative swim bladder anlage in sharks, published in 1867, was discussed in four letters between the great biologists. Whereas, Haeckel showed enthusiasm for the finding because it supported (his view on) evolutionary theory, Darwin was less interested, which highlights the conceptual differences between the two authorities. We discuss the scientific treatment of Miklucho-Maclay's observation in the literature and discuss the homology, origin, and destiny of gas organs—swim bladders and lungs—in vertebrate evolution, from an ontogenetic point of view. We show that the conclusions reached by Miklucho-Maclay and Haeckel were rather exaggerated, although they gave rise to fundamental insights, and we illustrate how tree-thinking may lead to differences in the conceptualization of evolutionary change.
Vladimir Vernadsky’s concept of living matter is central to his biogeochemistry, the science he f... more Vladimir Vernadsky’s concept of living matter is central to his biogeochemistry, the science he founded.
In Deutschland bemühte sich der Jenaer Zoologe Ernst Haeckel, die Forschungen über die Abstammung... more In Deutschland bemühte sich der Jenaer Zoologe Ernst Haeckel, die Forschungen über die Abstammung des Menschen im darwinschen Sinne voranzutreiben und diese in sein Ideengebäude zu integrieren.
is one of the forerunners of experimental biology, genetics, and developmental physiology. Haecke... more is one of the forerunners of experimental biology, genetics, and developmental physiology. Haecker introduced the term Ph€ anogenetik (phenogenetics) in 1918 in Entwicklungsgeschichtliche Eigenschaftsanalyse (Evolutionary Analysis of Characters), in which he described the earliest stages in the development of the phenotype. 1 His major objective in this publication was to integrate the 2 most important concepts of Mendelian genetics-phenotype and genotype-within a well-articulated theory. Haecker realized that a proper analysis of how the genotype gives rise to the phenotype requires the integration of knowledge of morphology, physiology, and experimental embryology.
Here we report on a recently discovered student script of a lecture on paleontology given by Erns... more Here we report on a recently discovered student script of a lecture on paleontology given by Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919). The script dates to the summer semester of 1866, comprises 63 pages, and provides an overview of fossil invertebrate and mainly fossil vertebrate taxonomy and anatomy. It can be assumed that Russian student Nikolai Nikolajevitch Miklucho-Maclay (1846-1888), who later became a famous ethnologist, did not follow up on the lecture, but took the content directly from the lecture and from the blackboard in his notes. Hence, the drawings by Miklucho allow direct insight into Haeckel's visualization of paleontology in the 1860s. We place the transcript in the historical context of understanding paleontology in the second half of the 19 th century and address the break between zoology and embryology on the one hand and paleontology on the other, which is typical for Germany, partly persisting to this date. For that, we illustrate Haeckel's integration of paleontology as part of a holistic triad, with fossil research gradually taking a back seat to zoology and embryology over the decades.
In the early 1960s, American philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn contributed to a "crisis of ratio... more In the early 1960s, American philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn contributed to a "crisis of rationality" with his hypothesis that science develops by means of paradigm shifts. He challenged the positivist concept of cumulative and continuous scientific progress. According to Kuhn, the relation between two succeeding scientific traditions 'separated by a scientific revolution' is characterized by conceptual incommensurability that constrains the interpretation of science as a cumulative, steadily progressing enterprise. Thomas Kuhn's philosophy was heavily criticized by German-American biologist Ernst Mayr as unapplicable to the history of biology. Mayr, one of the most outstanding evolutionary biologists of the 20th century and a "co-architect" of the socalled Modern Synthesis (contemporary Darwinism), published extensively on the history and philosophy of biology as he thought that theoretical biology cannot progress without proper philosophy of science. Being convinced of the progressive development of Darwinism, Mayr pointed out that Kuhn's concept of scientific revolutions does not reflect conceptual changes in evolutionary biology. Here we summarize Mayr's critiques of Kuhn and, based on our own research, take Mayr's side in the controversy between two great thinkers.
Here we report on a recently discovered student script of a lecture on paleontology given by Erns... more Here we report on a recently discovered student script of a lecture on paleontology given by Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919). The script dates to the summer semester of 1866, comprises 63 pages, and provides an overview of fossil invertebrate and mainly fossil vertebrate taxonomy and anatomy. It can be assumed that Russian student Nikolai Nikolajevitch Miklucho-Maclay (1846-1888), who later became a famous ethnologist, did not follow up on the lecture, but took the content directly from the lecture and from the blackboard in his notes. Hence, the drawings by Miklucho allow direct insight into Haeckel's visualization of paleontology in the 1860s. We place the transcript in the historical context of understanding paleontology in the second half of the 19 th century and address the break between zoology and embryology on the one hand and paleontology on the other, which is typical for Germany, partly persisting to this date. For that, we illustrate Haeckel's integration of paleontology as part of a holistic triad, with fossil research gradually taking a back seat to zoology and embryology over the decades.
This paper offers the first ever published discussion of the ethical treatise Harmonie: Versuch e... more This paper offers the first ever published discussion of the ethical treatise Harmonie: Versuch einer monistischen Ethik [Harmony: an attempt at a monistic ethics] by Heinrich Schmidt (1874Schmidt ( -1935)), one of the leading figures in the circle of Ernst Haeckel. Published near the end of Schmidt's life (1931), it constituted a kind of summation of decades of intense involvement in the "project" of German monism that found its epicentre in Jena, and in Haeckel's attempts at founding it on Darwinian and Goethian lines. After a brief description of Schmidt's life and works, we summarize the main lines of Haeckel's evolutionary thought and their expression in his sparse ethical writings. A detailed description of Harmonie follows, in which we seek to demonstrate Schmidt's close adherence to Haeckel's monist foundations, as well as indicate where he expanded his own thinking in directions beyond Haeckel's. Lastly, we suggest that Harmonie, perhaps contrary to Schmidt's wishes after 1933, nevertheless offers textual evidence of the deep incompatibility of Schmidt's understanding of ethics to the sociopolitical ideology of National Socialism. This is consistent with the historical record of how Haeckel's monism, together with those like Schmidt who worked tirelessly to promote it, was negatively regarded by the NSDAP.
Communications in Computer and Information Science, 2019
The present study explores the methods of geodata visualization extracted from the metadata of sc... more The present study explores the methods of geodata visualization extracted from the metadata of scientific publications for use in scientific research using the scientific heritage of Georgy Gause. It is based on the results of case studies to assess the possibilities of digital information resources, metadata extraction from digital resources, and using methods for their quantitative processing. We have studied methods of extracting metadata from digital information systems that do not have export tools. Our concentration is on methods and technologies of geodata extraction, and their subsequent visualization are considered. They are considered and applied methods of a dynamic clustering of geodata markers. Based on geodata visualization, we interpreter the results. The possibility of using extracted metadata in scientific visualization systems that support standard formats is evaluated.
Notes and Records: the Royal Society journal of the history of science, 2017
This paper examines the dynamics of the honorary membership of Russian scientists at the Royal So... more This paper examines the dynamics of the honorary membership of Russian scientists at the Royal Society over a 350-year period. Using several outstanding Russian scientists as examples (Dmitrii Mendeleev, Il'ya Metschnikoff, Ivan Pavlov and Nikolai Vavilov), we will demonstrate how a combination of cultural and political factors influenced the dynamics of memberships. Furthermore, we explain how their memberships of the Royal Society influenced their scientific careers.
Evolutionary Biology – New Perspectives on Its Development, 2021
The "German Darwin" Ernst Haeckel was very influential not only in Germany but in non-German-spea... more The "German Darwin" Ernst Haeckel was very influential not only in Germany but in non-German-speaking countries as well. He was a key figure during the "first Darwinian revolution," a period when the foundation for the modern evolutionary theory was laid. Haeckel defended and developed the Darwinian theory with unparalleled passion and energy. He created a conceptual framework within which the majority of Darwinians worldwide worked over decades. Contemporary evolutionary theory is unthinkable without notions coined by Haeckel such as "phylogeny," "ontogeny," "phylogenetic tree," or "ecology." Moreover, his theories were encouraged and admired by Darwin himself. It was Haeckel who crucially contributed to the visualization of the Darwinian theory and who tried to convert Darwinism into a universal worldview. Yet it remains controversial to what extent Haeckel's view of evolutionary mechanisms corresponded to those in Darwin's own theory. In this chapter, we will examine this issue and demonstrate that although Haeckel championed natural selection throughout his whole career, his neo-Lamarckian concept of variation made his grasp of natural selection different from that of Darwin. As paradoxical as it may sound from the modern viewpoint, Haeckel made these neo-Lamarckian adjustments in order to render the Darwinian theoretical system more straightforward.
Vestnik of Saint Petersburg University. Philosophy and Conflict Studies, 2020
Theodor Ziehen was a prominent German psychiatrist and psychologist and a marginal philosopher of... more Theodor Ziehen was a prominent German psychiatrist and psychologist and a marginal philosopher of the first half of the 20th century who developed an exotic subjective-idealistic theory based on quasi-empirical psychological arguments. Although Ziehen was seen by contemporaries (most prominently by Vladimir Lenin) as a representative of the same philosophical current (empirio-criticism) as Mach and Avenarius, he never achieved their prominence in the history of philosophy. At the same time, Ziehen’s philosophy became influential in German biology, first of all, due to his direct and very strong impact on Bernhard Rensch. Rensch, in his turn, was the most significant figure on the international scene of what is known as the Modern Evolutionary Synthesis in biology. Rensch was not the only biologist influenced by Ziehen’s ideas. Ziehen had some communication with the “German Darwin” Ernst Haeckel and played a prominent role in the concept of the founder of biological systematics Willi...
Theory in biosciences = Theorie in den Biowissenschaften, Jan 20, 2016
This paper provides a detailed look at how creationism originated in the United States and then e... more This paper provides a detailed look at how creationism originated in the United States and then explores how this evangelical trend was exported to Russia by American missionaries following the fall of the USSR. The comparison between these two countries is particularly interesting since the rivalry between the US and the USSR during the race to space caused both countries to revamp their science education. Yet, while political interests led both governments to focus on science education, creationist activities were simultaneously focused on diminishing the coverage of evolution in science classrooms. Now, decades following Sputnik's trip to space, the urgency to strengthen scientific learning has waned, while creationists are still equally focused on removing scientific naturalism in favor of supernatural explanations for the origin of species. This paper thus offers an in-depth look at which groups are currently responsible for promoting creationist activities in the US and in...
This paper offers the first ever published discussion of the ethical treatise Harmonie: Versuch e... more This paper offers the first ever published discussion of the ethical treatise Harmonie: Versuch einer monistischen Ethik [Harmony: an attempt at a monistic ethics] by Heinrich Schmidt (1874Schmidt ( -1935)), one of the leading figures in the circle of Ernst Haeckel. Published near the end of Schmidt's life (1931), it constituted a kind of summation of decades of intense involvement in the "project" of German monism that found its epicentre in Jena, and in Haeckel's attempts at founding it on Darwinian and Goethian lines. After a brief description of Schmidt's life and works, we summarize the main lines of Haeckel's evolutionary thought and their expression in his sparse ethical writings. A detailed description of Harmonie follows, in which we seek to demonstrate Schmidt's close adherence to Haeckel's monist foundations, as well as indicate where he expanded his own thinking in directions beyond Haeckel's. Lastly, we suggest that Harmonie, perhaps contrary to Schmidt's wishes after 1933, nevertheless offers textual evidence of the deep incompatibility of Schmidt's understanding of ethics to the sociopolitical ideology of National Socialism. This is consistent with the historical record of how Haeckel's monism, together with those like Schmidt who worked tirelessly to promote it, was negatively regarded by the NSDAP.
Following the 'rediscovery' of Mendel's work around 1900 the study of genetics grew rapidly and m... more Following the 'rediscovery' of Mendel's work around 1900 the study of genetics grew rapidly and multiple new inheritance theories quickly emerged such as Hugo de Vries' "Mutation Theory" (1901) and the "Boveri-Sutton Chromosome Theory" (1902). Mendel's work also caught the attention of the German geneticist Valentin Haecker, yet he was generally dissatisfied the simplicity of Mendelian genetics as he believed that inheritance and the expression of various characteristics appeared to be much more complex than the proposed "on-off hypotheses". Haecker's primary objection was that Mendelian-based theories still failed to bridge the gap between hereditary units and phenotypic traits. Haecker thus set out to bridge this gap in his research program, which he called Phänogenetik ("phenogenetics"). He outlined his work in a special study "Entwicklungsgeschichtliche Eigenschaftsanalyse (Phänogenetik)" in 1918. 2018 thus marks the 100th anniversary of Haecker's seminal publication, which was devoted to the analysis of the phenotype and highlighted the true complexity of heredity. This article takes a specific look at Haecker and his work, while also illustrating how this often forgotten scientist influenced the field of genetics and other scientists.
Theory in biosciences = Theorie in den Biowissenschaften, Jan 13, 2016
The 'rediscovery' of Mendel's laws in 1900 was a turning point in modern research of ... more The 'rediscovery' of Mendel's laws in 1900 was a turning point in modern research of heredity/genetics. According to the traditional view, adopted and fostered by many textbooks of genetics, Mendel's principles were presented in the first half of 1900 simultaneously and independently by three biologists (H. de Vries, C. Correns, E. v. Tschermak-Seysenegg). Having thus laid the foundations of further development, the 'rediscovery' continues to attract considerable interest. Since the 1950s, however, serious questions arose concerning both the chronology and specific conceptual achievement of the scientists involved. Not only the independence but also parallelism was analysed in the context of individual research programmes of these three scholars. The youngest of them, Erich v. Tschermak-Seysenegg, was even excluded from the list of 'rediscoverers'. The aim of this paper is to use new archival evidence and approximate the contribution of the physiologi...
Ernst Haeckel formulated his biogenetic law, famously stating that ontogeny recapitulates phyloge... more Ernst Haeckel formulated his biogenetic law, famously stating that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny, in 1872. The Russian evolutionist Alexei Sewertzoff, and the Swiss-born zoologist Adolf Naef were among those who revised Haeckel's law, thus changing the course of evolutionary theory and of developmental biology. Although Sewertzoff and Naef approached the problem in a similar way and formulated similar hypotheses at a purely descriptive level, their theoretical viewpoints were crucially different. While Sewertzoff laid the foundations for a Darwinian evolutionary morphology and is regarded as a forerunner of the modern synthesis, Naef was one of the most important figures in ''idealistic morphology'', which is usually seen as a type of anti-Darwinism. Both Naef and Sewertzoff aimed to revise Haeckel's biogenetic law and came to comparable conclusions at the empirical level. This paper is an attempt to explain how their fundamentally different theoretical backgrounds influenced their views on the relationship between ontogeny and phylogeny.
In this overview, we aim to outline the development of German morphology and comparative anatomy,... more In this overview, we aim to outline the development of German morphology and comparative anatomy, concentrating on the "Jena school" since it played the crucial role in the growth of these disciplines. We highlight the outstanding role of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in this process and exemplify the ways he exercised influence on theoretical and applied biosciences. Goethe crucially influenced all methodological currents of comparative anatomy, and laid foundations for both theoretical and applied research programmes. The latter included the whole range of biosciences and medical sciences including veterinary medicine. Goethe's idea to concentrate at a single location both fundamental biological research and practical medical and veterinary studies was crucial for the success of the Jena school.
Creationism in Russia and in what is commonly called the “Russian-speaking world” exhibits some d... more Creationism in Russia and in what is commonly called the “Russian-speaking world” exhibits some distinctive features. In this chapter, we outline the situation in Russia and two of its neighboring states, Ukraine and Belarus, and specify the role of the Orthodox Church and of Protestant movements in the growth of creationism in this region.
Edouard Kolchinsky is arguably the best-known historian of biology in Russia. For many years, he ... more Edouard Kolchinsky is arguably the best-known historian of biology in Russia. For many years, he was a director of the St. Petersburg branch of the Nikolai Vavilov Institute for the History of Science and Technology (Russian Academy of Sciences). Kolchinsky’s special concentration has always been on the historical and theoretical issues of evolutionary biology. The 800 pages long volume is the result of many years of comparative studies into the growth of evolutionary theory.
This paper offers the first ever published discussion of the ethical treatise Harmonie: Versuch e... more This paper offers the first ever published discussion of the ethical treatise Harmonie: Versuch einer monistischen Ethik [Harmony: an attempt at a monistic ethics] by Heinrich Schmidt (1874-1935), one of the leading figures in the circle of Ernst Haeckel. Published near the end of Schmidt's life (1931), it constituted a kind of summation of decades of intense involvement in the "project" of German monism that found its epicentre in Jena, and in Haeckel's attempts at founding it on Darwinian and Goethian lines. After a brief description of Schmidt's life and works, we summarize the main lines of Hae-ckel's evolutionary thought and their expression in his sparse ethical writings. A detailed description of Harmonie follows, in which we seek to demonstrate Schmidt's close adherence to Haeckel's monist foundations, as well as indicate where he expanded his own thinking in directions beyond Haeckel's. Lastly, we suggest that Harmonie, perhaps contrary to Schmidt's wishes after 1933, nevertheless offers textual evidence of the deep incompatibility of Schmidt's understanding of ethics to the sociopolitical ideology of National Socialism. This is consistent with the historical record of how Haeckel's monism, together with those like Schmidt who worked tirelessly to promote it, was negatively regarded by the NSDAP.
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Papers by Georgy Levit