Centre for History of the University of Lisbon

The studies regarding the History of Carthage have been made, for the most part, from the point of view of its relation to Rome. In the last few years, new approaches that focus the Punic world in its own identity have grown more frequent, paying particular attention to the archaeological remains. Such has contributed to new interpretations regarding the city and its processes of colonizing the Mediterranean. This sea, which touches a vast area of the European and African Continents, has a central part in Antiquity, as do its insular territories, points of crossing routes and growth of settlements. In the context of this dissertation, which intends to observe the transition period between the Roman and Carthaginian Thalassocracies, Sicily has a great importance. Aside from being the stage of the First Punic War, this island has been, since early chronologies, occupied by numerous and diverse populations, witnessing several attempts of domination and colonization. The island will be observed since the arrival of its first inhabitants until the beginning of the war, to understand its central position and as hinge area. Besides the colonization of the Mediterranean, the role of the military sphere will also be observed. Particular relevance will be given to to the world of mercenaries under Carthaginian service, in an attempt to understand their origins and ways of use, as well as their capacity when facing the Roman army. The possibility of the existence of an army of citizen-soldiers in Carthage and its respective evolution will be discussed. The study of the Roman navy will also be addressed (specifically its birth, evolution and capacity throughout the First Punic War). All these points, which are a sum of concepts surrounding the problematics of the sea in Antiquity, will culminate in the observation of the issue of empires and the use of the maritime space as their support, by attempting to explore perspectives less observed by traditional historiography and providing a consistent and coherent study on the subjects of war and diplomacy, politics and economy, and above all, of the way in which Rome and Carthage relate among themselves and with the Mediterranean sea.

This dissertation intends to observe how the Roman Republic organises itself as a maritime power following the Punic Wars, analysing it as a thalassocracy in sequence of the evolution of a strategic naval thought as a conductive line of the Mediterranean city-states. We will observe the evolution of the naval investment from the reformations of Gaius Marius in 107 BCE until the death of Gaius Julius Caesar Octauianus in 14 CE. An observation of the naval command processes is intended, as well as a study of the evolution, construction and typology of vessels and respective functions, analysing the armada and the commercial vessels both in maritime and river contexts. The analysis of the supporting infrastructural network to the navy, namely harbours and shipsheds, will also be included. These problematics will be observed through an interdisciplinary perspective, creating a thorough study of these keywords that allows for the observation of the construction of the Roman influence area from the maritime and river space.

The Roman navy was bound to the Mediterranean basin for centuries, adapting itself against the challenges presented by other civilisations disputing this geographical area. Julius Caesar, as other commanders before him, is likely to have dealt with Roman fleets throughout his early career; however, the naval knowledge he may have acquired in his youth would not suffice for subsequent campaigns. The transition from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic would have presented a series of difficulties, first in the Iberian Peninsula and then in Brittany. This study intends to present a first approach to these struggles, and the Roman navy's capacity for adaptation.

Ancient  sources  frequently  mention  body  painting  as  a  practice  in  Great  Britain.  This  custom,  which  is  mentioned  in  continuity  from  the  days  of  Julius  Caesar to  the  Anglo-Saxon  era,  has  not  yet  been  confirmed  by  archaeological  and  iconographic  evidence,  but  there  are  enough  indicators  to  promote  continued  research.  Textual  and  archaeological  analysis  shows  there  may  have  been  an  evolution  in  the  practice  between the Iron Age and the Early Middle Ages, when new religious and cultural spheres would have led to eventual extinction. Although presented by Caesar as a military practice, corporeal painting may have extended to other spheres  of  ancient  societies,  including  aesthetic  purposes  and  religious rites.