Manejo Comunitário de Quelônios (Família Podocnemididae - Podocnemis unifilis, P.sextuberculata, P.expansa, P.erythrocephala) no Médio Rio Amazonas e Juruá., 2015
Turtles conservation programs have helped in the recovery of populations of Podocnemis genus in t... more Turtles conservation programs have helped in the recovery of populations of Podocnemis genus in the Amazon. In this study was analyzed
the time series of turtles data protection (Podocnemis expansa), tracajás (P.unifilis),
iaçás (P.sextuberculata) and irapucas (P.erythrocephala) in areas protected by the
government and communities in the Amazon and west of Pará. Between
1974 and 2014 were protected 153,798 nests and 14,522,286 hatchlings of
P.expansa, 117,287 nests and 2,299,454 hatchlings of P.unifilis, 531,245 nests
and 5,161,016 hatchlings of P.sextuberculata. Community protection came in
1990, reaching 78% of the areas and producing 60% of hatchlings of P.unifilis
and 44% of P.sextuberculata. The areas of greatest production of P.expansa
remain under government protection (64%). Using the nests production time
series and hatchlings / beach logistic growth curves were estimated and
compared the r and K values between two protection systems (government
and community). Beaches controlled by the Government had greater carrying
capacity in the production of nests (1910.7 ± 1035) and cubs (211513 ±
93,031) of P.expansa and of P.sextuberculata (81160 ± 34924). The communities
were more efficient in nests protection (r = 0.102 ± 0.2315) and cubs (r =
0.282 ± 0.166) of P.unfilis. It was also evaluated the results of the program
“Community Management of Turtles - Project Pé-de-pincha”, created by the
Federal University of Amazonas and community groups, and that has helped,
through participatory management and protection of P.unifilis, P. sextuberculata,
P.expansa and P.erythrocephala in 118 communities and 15 municipalities of
Amazonas and Pará. From 1999 to 2014, the program returned to nature 3,208,849 hacthlings turtles. Only in the middle Amazonas were transferred
and protected 57,855 nests of P.unifilis, 1,003 of P.expansa, 8,933 of
P.sextuberculata and 15,267 of P.erythrocephala, being released 852,166 hatchlings
of P.uniflis (78%), 92,410 of P.sextuberculata (9%), 52,752 of P.expansa (5%)
and 88,474 of P.erytrhocephala (8%) originating from these nests. Data were
analyzed from 15,237 nests of P.unfilis, 3,548 of P.sextuberculata, 247 of P.expansa
and 695 of P.erythrocephala to evaluate the characteristics of the nests, egg
number and morphology of eggs and chicks. The nests of P.unifilis, 50.1%
were transferred from beaches with fine sand to medium grain size with depth
of 17.2±2.7 cm, width of 12.2±2.1 cm and 22.3 ± 4.7 eggs weighing 24.5 ±
2.8 g. Nests transferred from clay (49.9%) had depth of 13.2 ± 2.1 cm and a
width of 13.6 ± 2.9 cm and 23.3 ± 5.4 eggs weighing 23.7 ± 2, 6g. In the
Middle Amazonas, P.unifilis spawn on average 21.4 ± 5.9 eggs (max = 60 eggs;
min = 2 eggs), and in the sand were found the bigger and heavier eggs (length
= 42.8 mm; width = 27.8mm, weight = 22.9 to 23.3 g). In lowland areas, the
nests had higher number of eggs (25 to 29.3 eggs). Nests of P.sextuberculata
showed 15.7 ± 1.4 eggs, weighing 20.8 ± 5.6 g. Nests of P.erythrocephala had
7.9 ± 0.9 eggs and the P.expansa, 85.0 ± 12.7 eggs. The incubation time in the
sand was for P.unifilis = 57.9 ± 2.7 days; P.sextuberculata = 59.2 ± 3.3 days;
P.expansa = 57.7 ± 5.7 days; P.erythrocephala = 65 ± 2.6 days. In the clay, the
eggs were incubated for P.unifilis 63.9 ± 2.3 days. The hatching rate of tracajás
nests in the sand was 85.6 ± 18.2%, 83.6 ± 57.9% of iaçás, 67.1 ± 22.1% of
turtle and 86 ± 26.1% of irapucas . The hatchlings, at birth, were placed in
nurseries, and released two months later. The larger and heavier hatchlings of
P.unifilis and P.sextuberculata born in Oriximiná, Barreirinha and Nhamundá.
In Lake Piraruacá / Terra Santa, where the project started were protected
3.465 nests (20.7 ± 1.7 eggs / nest -Min = 2; Max = 48 eggs) of P.unifilis,
incubated for 60.2 ± 3, 3 days (hatching rate = 75.2 ± 9.9%), producing 51,368
hatchling with 18.1 ± 2.2 g. To analyze the structure of the population of
P.unifilis was made monitoring by capture-mark-recapture method (CMR), and
201 captured animals (straight shell length, CCR = 30.3 ± 6.9 cm; weight =
3773.2 ± 1691,6g). The population was estimated between 1,168 and 1,736
adults (16% male: 84% female), of which 862 sexually active females. 16 females were recaptured and marked indicating fidelity to the posture location. From
2007-2012 were marked 6.997 hatchlings with transponders (microchips) and
9,000 with cuts carapace scales. The growth curve was estimated to CRC =
47,44x / species (4447 + x). The first recapture of a marked cub occurred
seven years after the birth and release (female, 5,272 g and 36 cm CRC). Six
P.unifilis were screened using radio with satelite (Sir Track / Argos), 67% sought
lakes with lowland rice (Oryza sp.) and 33% were in flooded areas during the
flood. To evaluate the effects of transfer of P.unifilis nests, P.sextuberculata and
P.expansa in hatching success, sex ratio and motor performance of the puppies
in Lake Piraruacá were compared characteristics of nests, hatching rates and
incubation periods of natural and transferred nests in 1999, 2010, 2011 and
2012. Between 2011 and 2012, were compared natural and transferred nests
with record temperatures of nests and sexing of chicks being used 32
dataloggers (Hobos® tidbit v2® Onset®) in natural nests and 5 dataloggers
with 4 channels (Hobos® U12 Outdoor Onset®) of transferred nests.The
hatchlingss were submitted to three locomotor ability tests and speed: Upset
(righting response), swimming performance and running (crawling speed).
Hatching rates were higher in tracajá transferred nests, P.unifilis, (65.4 ± 14.8%,
P <0.05) than in natural nests (52.3±12.9%). For P.sextuberculata, natural nests
presented a higher proportion of young males (0.80 ± 0.2) than the transferred
(0.37 ± 0.2). The larger, heavier and older were the P.unifilis female the havier
was the total mass of eggs produced and a greater hatching rate and the lower
proportion of male offspring produced per nest (CRC: P <0.007, R2 = 35
2%; weight: P <0.04, R2 = 22%). P.unifilis puppies transferred nests were
higher (CCR = 38.3 ± 2.5 mm; p <0.0001; height = 17.9 mm ± 2.0; P <0.0001)
heavier (12 9 ± 2.2 g; P <0.0001) and quicker turn to (4.9 ± 6.0 sec; P <0.0001)
and swimming (8.9 ± 5.6 sec; P < 0.0001) than bhatchlings of natural nests. Nests
transferred tended to have higher hatching rates, lower incubation period, a
higher proportion of females and cubs faster in the locomotor skills tests.
Were also analyzed the results of turtle nesting sites protection program
(Podocnemis expansa) developed with the support of rubber tappers communities
since 1977 in Resex Middle Jurua and RDS Uacari. Between 1977-2014 were
protected 13,897 nests and 1,400,917 hatchlings of P.expansa and 392,821hatchlings of P.unifilis. Between 2004-2011 were captured and marked 2728
P.sextuberculata (CRC = 17.7 ± 3.0 cm; weight = 674,7 ± 378.9 g, sex ratio:
54,4M: 45,6F), 146 P.unifilis (CRC = 24.8 ± 8.7 cm; weight = 2,507.0 ± 2,522.9
g; sex ratio: 47.7M: 53.3F) and 135 P.expansa (CRC = 31.1 ± 15.5 cm; weight
= 5,878.6 ± 9,710.3 g; sex ratio: 89.1F: 10.1m). The relationship between CC
and weight (P <0.0001; R2 = 0.89) of P.sextuberculata was estimated by logistic
curve: Y = 2,382 / (1 + 196 (-0.2404.X)); and the growth curve ageXweight
was the best growth curve estimated by Von Bertalanffy (P <0.001; R² =
0.82): Y = 2382 / (1-.9762 (-0,0561.X)). It was possible to estimate the
abundance of the population of P.sextuberculata Resex in the Middle Jurua
between 138.764 and 143.455 animals. The average expectation of
P.sextuberculata life was estimated to be 6.3 ± 3.9 years (Maximum = 16-22
years) and 10.0 ± 16,5 years for P.expansa. It was estimated that 42.9% of
P.sextuberculata migrate to other areas, leaving their home area. The intrinsic
growth rate of the population (r) varied from 0.41 to 0.83, which indicates
that the population of P.expansa from Resex in middle Juruá and in the RDS
Uacari is growing (r> 0). Between 2004 and 2007 a study was conducted to
evaluate the growth of tracajás (Podocnemis unifilis) and estimate survival rate in
the first 24 months of life in the cities of Barreirinha and Parintins, in the
Middle Amazon. 58,303 puppies were marked with cuts carapace scales and
1,114 with microchips (transponders). The survival rate for tracajás cubs
(P.unifilis) managed, kept for two months in nurseries before being released,
was higher than the estimated rates for puppies not managed, a positive
indicator for the use of this technique in areas where populations of this
species are reduced.
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Papers by Paulo Andrade
observed in 58 capybaras randomly distributed in the following treatments: 1 - confinement (1 animal/20 m2) and pelletized diet; 2 –
confinement and grass (Pennisetum purpureum); 3 - semi confinement (1 animal/70 m2 ) and pelletized diet; and 4 – semi confinement
grass plus diet meal. There were not differences of weight gain (DWG), between confinement and semi confinement. Confined capybaras
present smaller intake (312.29 g/day), better feed: gain ratio (F: G), (5,1:1) and higher mortality (20.41%) than the semi confined
capybaras, which presented less corporal fat (14.75 %). Animals only fed with grass had smaller DWG (18.80 g) and worse F: G (22.2:1)
and 25% of mortality. There were not differences of DWG and F: G for the different initial ages of confinement and diet. Animas of
70 of age presented higher DM intake (339.7 g/day) and higher mortality (30.3 %).
observed in 58 capybaras randomly distributed in the following treatments: 1 - confinement (1 animal/20 m2) and pelletized diet; 2 –
confinement and grass (Pennisetum purpureum); 3 - semi confinement (1 animal/70 m2 ) and pelletized diet; and 4 – semi confinement
grass plus diet meal. There were not differences of weight gain (DWG), between confinement and semi confinement. Confined capybaras
present smaller intake (312.29 g/day), better feed: gain ratio (F: G), (5,1:1) and higher mortality (20.41%) than the semi confined
capybaras, which presented less corporal fat (14.75 %). Animals only fed with grass had smaller DWG (18.80 g) and worse F: G (22.2:1)
and 25% of mortality. There were not differences of DWG and F: G for the different initial ages of confinement and diet. Animas of
70 of age presented higher DM intake (339.7 g/day) and higher mortality (30.3 %).
Tapauá, RDS Madeira e RDS Igapó Açu, foram percorridos cerca de 723 km de rios e lagos,
com registro de 1005 jacarés das espécies C.crocodilus (63,5%), M.niger (36,1%), P.trigonatus
(0,3%) e P.palpebrosus (0,1%). No diagnóstico de quelônios foram identificadas 13
espécies:P.expansa, P.unifilis, P.sextuberculata, P.dumerilianus, C.fimbriatus, P.raniceps,
P.nasuta, P.gibbus, R.punctularia, K.scorpiodes, P.platycephala, C.carbonaria e C.denticulata.
O consumo de quelônios para subsistência e para a comercialização (48%) ainda é comum nas
UC sendo as espécies preferidas tracajá, tartaruga, cabeçudo e iaçá. Dos animais
comercializados, cerca de 30-88,9% são vendidos nas próprias comunidades, 18-55,6% vão para
as cidades mais próximas e 13 % para regatão. O preço médio varia de R$15,00/iaçá a
R$163,00/tartaruga.Foram capturados, medidos e marcados 123 quelônios.
as “Pé-de-pincha” Project was, from its beginning, a process of creation
and collective execution. It arose from the ideal of simple men from the countryside, from
bordering the várzea lakes, where they sought to protect resources
natural for generations to come. It had as its flag
a chelonian, the tracajá (Podocnemis unifilis) but, in fact, worried
in defending and conserving Nature against invaders who were making a
predatory exploitation. This project appeared in the midst of the movements
environmentalists who emerged in the Amazon at the end of the 20th century, when
volunteer environmental agents were organized in Tefé, the Group
Environmentalist Natureza Viva, in Parintins, and the ordinances begin to be created
community conservation lakes and fisheries agreements. It comes up with the
beginning of the participatory management of natural resources in support of
monitoring and control work of environmental agencies.
This book tells a little of that history of struggle of the riverside people,
environmental agents and volunteer university students in search of a
ideal for the conservation of turtles. It counts as a simple idea, which
emerged in the heads and hearts of a small group of people in the
floodplains of the Holy Land managed to serve as a model and spread to 118
communities, reaching 2.7% of the Brazilian Amazon today.
All methodological procedures for the conservation of turtles
and for environmental education are addressed in a simple and didactic way with
the purpose of serving as a guide for community members, technicians and teachers of
countryside schools that also want to embrace this cause. also
we address our main scientific advances, presenting the results of monitoring and recovery of these populations of turtles
over 13 years of work. Seeking to analyze the structure and dynamics
these populations, their food, reproductive success and survival,
genetic variability and, possible effects, in the face of future threats to
global warming.
This book brings, above all, a little of the journey, history and
the determination of people who knew how to come together, create, build and carry out
a project made by many hands!
of creation and management of turtles in the western Amazon, carried out
in Manaus, in 2004, by Ufam, Ibama and the State Secretariat of
Sustainable Development (SDS). With the support of
ProVárzea / Ibama, the purpose of editing this work is to serve as a
educational and consultation material for producers, technicians in the sector
primary and undergraduate students, or technical courses, that
want to get compiled information about creation techniques and
management of this important fauna resource in the floodplain areas, which
are the turtles, the result of studies carried out with
cheloniocultores do Amazonas, in the last ten years.
multiplicity of problems, both turtle populations (Podonemis expansa)
and tracajás (Podonemis unifilis) populations have been drastically
reduced. Due to the dependence of these resources, some riverside
communities of the Middle Amazon, with the support of environmental
community associations, took the initiative to protect the nesting areas
through participatory local management projects
the time series of turtles data protection (Podocnemis expansa), tracajás (P.unifilis),
iaçás (P.sextuberculata) and irapucas (P.erythrocephala) in areas protected by the
government and communities in the Amazon and west of Pará. Between
1974 and 2014 were protected 153,798 nests and 14,522,286 hatchlings of
P.expansa, 117,287 nests and 2,299,454 hatchlings of P.unifilis, 531,245 nests
and 5,161,016 hatchlings of P.sextuberculata. Community protection came in
1990, reaching 78% of the areas and producing 60% of hatchlings of P.unifilis
and 44% of P.sextuberculata. The areas of greatest production of P.expansa
remain under government protection (64%). Using the nests production time
series and hatchlings / beach logistic growth curves were estimated and
compared the r and K values between two protection systems (government
and community). Beaches controlled by the Government had greater carrying
capacity in the production of nests (1910.7 ± 1035) and cubs (211513 ±
93,031) of P.expansa and of P.sextuberculata (81160 ± 34924). The communities
were more efficient in nests protection (r = 0.102 ± 0.2315) and cubs (r =
0.282 ± 0.166) of P.unfilis. It was also evaluated the results of the program
“Community Management of Turtles - Project Pé-de-pincha”, created by the
Federal University of Amazonas and community groups, and that has helped,
through participatory management and protection of P.unifilis, P. sextuberculata,
P.expansa and P.erythrocephala in 118 communities and 15 municipalities of
Amazonas and Pará. From 1999 to 2014, the program returned to nature 3,208,849 hacthlings turtles. Only in the middle Amazonas were transferred
and protected 57,855 nests of P.unifilis, 1,003 of P.expansa, 8,933 of
P.sextuberculata and 15,267 of P.erythrocephala, being released 852,166 hatchlings
of P.uniflis (78%), 92,410 of P.sextuberculata (9%), 52,752 of P.expansa (5%)
and 88,474 of P.erytrhocephala (8%) originating from these nests. Data were
analyzed from 15,237 nests of P.unfilis, 3,548 of P.sextuberculata, 247 of P.expansa
and 695 of P.erythrocephala to evaluate the characteristics of the nests, egg
number and morphology of eggs and chicks. The nests of P.unifilis, 50.1%
were transferred from beaches with fine sand to medium grain size with depth
of 17.2±2.7 cm, width of 12.2±2.1 cm and 22.3 ± 4.7 eggs weighing 24.5 ±
2.8 g. Nests transferred from clay (49.9%) had depth of 13.2 ± 2.1 cm and a
width of 13.6 ± 2.9 cm and 23.3 ± 5.4 eggs weighing 23.7 ± 2, 6g. In the
Middle Amazonas, P.unifilis spawn on average 21.4 ± 5.9 eggs (max = 60 eggs;
min = 2 eggs), and in the sand were found the bigger and heavier eggs (length
= 42.8 mm; width = 27.8mm, weight = 22.9 to 23.3 g). In lowland areas, the
nests had higher number of eggs (25 to 29.3 eggs). Nests of P.sextuberculata
showed 15.7 ± 1.4 eggs, weighing 20.8 ± 5.6 g. Nests of P.erythrocephala had
7.9 ± 0.9 eggs and the P.expansa, 85.0 ± 12.7 eggs. The incubation time in the
sand was for P.unifilis = 57.9 ± 2.7 days; P.sextuberculata = 59.2 ± 3.3 days;
P.expansa = 57.7 ± 5.7 days; P.erythrocephala = 65 ± 2.6 days. In the clay, the
eggs were incubated for P.unifilis 63.9 ± 2.3 days. The hatching rate of tracajás
nests in the sand was 85.6 ± 18.2%, 83.6 ± 57.9% of iaçás, 67.1 ± 22.1% of
turtle and 86 ± 26.1% of irapucas . The hatchlings, at birth, were placed in
nurseries, and released two months later. The larger and heavier hatchlings of
P.unifilis and P.sextuberculata born in Oriximiná, Barreirinha and Nhamundá.
In Lake Piraruacá / Terra Santa, where the project started were protected
3.465 nests (20.7 ± 1.7 eggs / nest -Min = 2; Max = 48 eggs) of P.unifilis,
incubated for 60.2 ± 3, 3 days (hatching rate = 75.2 ± 9.9%), producing 51,368
hatchling with 18.1 ± 2.2 g. To analyze the structure of the population of
P.unifilis was made monitoring by capture-mark-recapture method (CMR), and
201 captured animals (straight shell length, CCR = 30.3 ± 6.9 cm; weight =
3773.2 ± 1691,6g). The population was estimated between 1,168 and 1,736
adults (16% male: 84% female), of which 862 sexually active females. 16 females were recaptured and marked indicating fidelity to the posture location. From
2007-2012 were marked 6.997 hatchlings with transponders (microchips) and
9,000 with cuts carapace scales. The growth curve was estimated to CRC =
47,44x / species (4447 + x). The first recapture of a marked cub occurred
seven years after the birth and release (female, 5,272 g and 36 cm CRC). Six
P.unifilis were screened using radio with satelite (Sir Track / Argos), 67% sought
lakes with lowland rice (Oryza sp.) and 33% were in flooded areas during the
flood. To evaluate the effects of transfer of P.unifilis nests, P.sextuberculata and
P.expansa in hatching success, sex ratio and motor performance of the puppies
in Lake Piraruacá were compared characteristics of nests, hatching rates and
incubation periods of natural and transferred nests in 1999, 2010, 2011 and
2012. Between 2011 and 2012, were compared natural and transferred nests
with record temperatures of nests and sexing of chicks being used 32
dataloggers (Hobos® tidbit v2® Onset®) in natural nests and 5 dataloggers
with 4 channels (Hobos® U12 Outdoor Onset®) of transferred nests.The
hatchlingss were submitted to three locomotor ability tests and speed: Upset
(righting response), swimming performance and running (crawling speed).
Hatching rates were higher in tracajá transferred nests, P.unifilis, (65.4 ± 14.8%,
P <0.05) than in natural nests (52.3±12.9%). For P.sextuberculata, natural nests
presented a higher proportion of young males (0.80 ± 0.2) than the transferred
(0.37 ± 0.2). The larger, heavier and older were the P.unifilis female the havier
was the total mass of eggs produced and a greater hatching rate and the lower
proportion of male offspring produced per nest (CRC: P <0.007, R2 = 35
2%; weight: P <0.04, R2 = 22%). P.unifilis puppies transferred nests were
higher (CCR = 38.3 ± 2.5 mm; p <0.0001; height = 17.9 mm ± 2.0; P <0.0001)
heavier (12 9 ± 2.2 g; P <0.0001) and quicker turn to (4.9 ± 6.0 sec; P <0.0001)
and swimming (8.9 ± 5.6 sec; P < 0.0001) than bhatchlings of natural nests. Nests
transferred tended to have higher hatching rates, lower incubation period, a
higher proportion of females and cubs faster in the locomotor skills tests.
Were also analyzed the results of turtle nesting sites protection program
(Podocnemis expansa) developed with the support of rubber tappers communities
since 1977 in Resex Middle Jurua and RDS Uacari. Between 1977-2014 were
protected 13,897 nests and 1,400,917 hatchlings of P.expansa and 392,821hatchlings of P.unifilis. Between 2004-2011 were captured and marked 2728
P.sextuberculata (CRC = 17.7 ± 3.0 cm; weight = 674,7 ± 378.9 g, sex ratio:
54,4M: 45,6F), 146 P.unifilis (CRC = 24.8 ± 8.7 cm; weight = 2,507.0 ± 2,522.9
g; sex ratio: 47.7M: 53.3F) and 135 P.expansa (CRC = 31.1 ± 15.5 cm; weight
= 5,878.6 ± 9,710.3 g; sex ratio: 89.1F: 10.1m). The relationship between CC
and weight (P <0.0001; R2 = 0.89) of P.sextuberculata was estimated by logistic
curve: Y = 2,382 / (1 + 196 (-0.2404.X)); and the growth curve ageXweight
was the best growth curve estimated by Von Bertalanffy (P <0.001; R² =
0.82): Y = 2382 / (1-.9762 (-0,0561.X)). It was possible to estimate the
abundance of the population of P.sextuberculata Resex in the Middle Jurua
between 138.764 and 143.455 animals. The average expectation of
P.sextuberculata life was estimated to be 6.3 ± 3.9 years (Maximum = 16-22
years) and 10.0 ± 16,5 years for P.expansa. It was estimated that 42.9% of
P.sextuberculata migrate to other areas, leaving their home area. The intrinsic
growth rate of the population (r) varied from 0.41 to 0.83, which indicates
that the population of P.expansa from Resex in middle Juruá and in the RDS
Uacari is growing (r> 0). Between 2004 and 2007 a study was conducted to
evaluate the growth of tracajás (Podocnemis unifilis) and estimate survival rate in
the first 24 months of life in the cities of Barreirinha and Parintins, in the
Middle Amazon. 58,303 puppies were marked with cuts carapace scales and
1,114 with microchips (transponders). The survival rate for tracajás cubs
(P.unifilis) managed, kept for two months in nurseries before being released,
was higher than the estimated rates for puppies not managed, a positive
indicator for the use of this technique in areas where populations of this
species are reduced.
and existing information in the Amazon are still few. This study aimed to identify the
composition of the diet of Podocnemis unifilis, P. sextuberculata and P. expansa in
Juruá, Amazonas. Samples were collected in the vicinity of protected areas by the
Program Pé-de-Pincha in the municipalities of Carauari and Juruá on Amazonas.
Captures were conducted in the rainy season (May-June) and dry (August-
September) in 2010, using gill nets in flooded vegetation and trawl the beaches on
the shore. Of turtles, the stomach contents were collected by stomach pumped. In
these analyzes we used the methods of frequency of occurrence (number of times
that a particular item i occurs in the stomachs with food) and relative volume
(percentage that each item i has in the stomachs with food). The results of both
methods were combined food index (IAi), adjusted for percentage, which provides
the most important food items in the diet. The results were compared from the
Shannon index by t test, discriminant analysis of Manly and Bray-Curtis similarity. To
P unifilis, the most important food items during the fruits were full (41.54%), leaves
(21.93%), stems, trunks and stems (16.77%) and roots (5.93%), and Leaves were
dried (21.93%), stem (13.36%) and algae (14.41%), being a herbivorous species. For
P. sextuberculata, the most important food items during the flood were seeds
(54.74%), leaves (13.65%), unidentified plant material (8.70%), fruits (8.37%) and
roots (4, 47%) and dry undergoes a period of food restriction, and lesser amounts of
leaves (18.61%), being a herbivorous species. For P. expansa, the most important
food items during the fruits were full (44.61%), followed sheet (17.35%), seeds
(15.49%), stems, stalks and bucks (12.10%), and the stalks were dry (39.05%) and
leaves (19.04%), being a herbivorous species. There were no differences in diet
between males and females for the three species and there were differences
between flood and drought for P. unifilis and P. sextuberculata. The three species are
generalists.