Journal article by Adrian Bergmann
Accord: An International Review of Peace Initiatives, 2024
Experience over the last 20 years suggests that dialogue, negotiation and mediation with criminal... more Experience over the last 20 years suggests that dialogue, negotiation and mediation with criminal organisations can reduce crime and violence. But peacemaking with criminal organisations is fraught with challenges. the scale and nature of criminal violence generates intense trauma among its victims and widespread abhorrence of its perpetrators, and thus a reluctance to acknowledge any scope for engagement. a mixed track record has demonstrated that enabling negotiations requires legal frameworks that provide protection for mediators, assurance for the individuals and criminal organisations involved, and an agreed approach to justice. it also requires concerted political and social efforts to build consensus on the approach, promote reconciliation between criminal actors and communities, rehumanise members of these organisations as a step towards reintegrating them, and the delivery of government services that respond to the needs of affected populations.
Critical Criminology, 2022
Gangs impact everyday life and politics across much of the world, yet the literature on gang dise... more Gangs impact everyday life and politics across much of the world, yet the literature on gang disengagement—the process whereby people move on from the gang life—is mostly limited to the United States and Europe. In El Salvador, following 30 years of gang wars and a 20-year war on gangs, gang members face severe restrictions from both their gangs and wider society to disengage. Ultimately, this undermines the prospects not only for gang members to remake their lives, but for sustaining reductions in armed violence and addressing a broader set of pressing social issues. Theoretically, I propose a nested, multi-level analysis of gang disengagement, attentive to the interactions between individual, gang-organizational, and social conditions that enable and constrain processes of gang disengagement. Empirically, I employ this framework to scrutinize the evolution of gangs and gang disengagement in El Salvador, and the political solutions necessary for large-scale disengagement moving forward.
Latin American Law Review, Aug 2021
The rise of the citizen security paradigm has complemented, rather than curtailed, authoritarian ... more The rise of the citizen security paradigm has complemented, rather than curtailed, authoritarian legacies in Latin America and the Caribbean. Notably, criminal justice and law enforcement policies continue to feed a wave of mass incarceration, evidenced in a dataset on incarceration in 21 countries for 1995-2020. El Salvador stands out as a unique case study, with the second-highest incarceration rate in the world. We analyze four key mechanisms driving mass incarceration in the country-increasing discretionary arrests, diluting due process guarantees, escalating criminalization, and harshening of sentences-, and unpack its uses and effects. Mass incarceration has criminalized transgressive identities and the poor, strengthened gangs organizationally, made gangs' criminal activity more complex, and turned them into significant actors in Salvadoran political life. These effects are hallmarks of El Salvador's notoriously failed "mano dura" strategy and pose major obstacles for desistance from crime and violence, as well as reentry after incarceration.
A lo largo del siglo XXI, El Salvador se ha visto inmerso en una crisis de violencia armada, cuya... more A lo largo del siglo XXI, El Salvador se ha visto inmerso en una crisis de violencia armada, cuya principal explicación es el grado excepcionalmente alto de organización de la violencia armada por parte de tres pandillas, la policía y la fuerza armada. Rastreo los procesos de organización y escalada de violencia armada en el país, e interrogo el potencial de movilizar estas organizaciones para contener la violencia armada, como ha quedado evidenciado en dos ocasiones en la última década, cuando las pandillas se dispusieron a parar sus guerras y reducir los homicidios a la mitad. Analizo las condiciones organizativas que hacen posible esa contención, así como las condiciones políticas necesarias para vincular una reducción de violencia a corto plazo con una visión política y con un marco de políticas públicas de transformación social a largo plazo.
Throughout the twenty-first century, El Salvador has been immersed in a crisis of armed violence,... more Throughout the twenty-first century, El Salvador has been immersed in a crisis of armed violence, largely explained by an exceptionally high degree of organization of armed violence by three gangs, the police, and the armed forces. I trace the processes of organization and escalation of armed violence in the country, and address the potential for harnessing these organizations to constrain armed violence, as evidenced twice in the past decade, when gangs reined in the wars between them and reduced homicides by half. I analyze the organizational conditions that make this possible and the political conditions necessary to bridge short-term violence reduction and a long-term political vision and policy framework for social transformation.
Books by Adrian Bergmann
Monitor del uso de la Fuerza Letal en América Latina: un estudio comparativo de Brasil, Colombia, El Salvador, México y Venezuela, 2019
El presente documento da a conocer los resultados de una investigación sobre uso y abuso de la fu... more El presente documento da a conocer los resultados de una investigación sobre uso y abuso de la fuerza letal en 5 países de América Latina: Brasil, Colombia, El Salvador, México y Venezuela. Para su realización, los autores discutieron, definieron y desarrollaron un conjunto de indicadores para medir el uso y abuso de la fuerza letal. El objetivo fue construir una metodología común para el monitoreo del uso y abuso de la fuerza letal en la región, que podría, por otra parte, extenderse a otras regiones del mundo. Este documento constituye un primer esfuerzo regional para poder comparar distintos países e instituciones.
El presente texto se divide en 4 secciones. La primera, metodológica, muestra las definiciones y la forma de calcular los indicadores. La siguiente contiene un capítulo para cada uno de los países estudiados: Brasil, Colombia, El Salvador, México y Venezuela. En cada uno de los capítulos nacionales se incluye información específica sobre la construcción de los indicadores en ese país y los resultados. Asimismo, se ofrecen informaciones sobre la regulación y el contexto particular de uso de la fuerza, además de recomendaciones específicas para el país. En la tercera sección se presenta un capítulo con un análisis regional comparativo entre todos los países. La sección final incluye una serie de recomendaciones generales.
This book identifies the history, conventions, and uses of security discourses, and argues that s... more This book identifies the history, conventions, and uses of security discourses, and argues that such language and media frames distort information and mislead the public, misidentify the focus of concern, and omit narratives able to recognize the causes and solutions to humanitarian crises.
What has been identified as a crisis at the border is better understood as an on-going crisis of violence, building over decades, that has forced migrants from their homes in the countries of the Northern Triangle. Authors Robin Andersen and Adrian Bergmann look back to U.S. military policies in the region and connect this legacy to the cross-border development of transnational gangs, government corruption, and on-going violence that often targets
environmental and legal defenders. They argue that the discourses of demonization and securitization only help perpetuate brutality in both Central America and the United States, especially in the desert borderlands of the southwest. They offer ways in which stories of migrants can be reframed within the language of justice, empathy, and humanitarianism.
A compelling examination of language, media, and politics, this book is both highly contemporary and widely applicable, perfect for students and scholars of global media, political communications, and their many intersections.
Violencia en tiempos de paz: conflictividad y criminalización en El Salvador interroga las violen... more Violencia en tiempos de paz: conflictividad y criminalización en El Salvador interroga las violencias en este país cuando, se supone, se encuentra en paz. Tres capítulos se centran en la época de preguerra y otros cuatro en la posguerra, desde una revuelta popular en San Miguel en 1930 hasta la quema de un microbús con las y los pasajeros adentro en Mejicanos en 2010. Así, Violencia en tiempos de paz ofrece estudios sobre la percepción y el tratamiento de menores en conflicto con la ley, de mujeres que han abortado, de homicidas, y miembros de pandillas. Las investigaciones contenidas aquí provienen de diversas disciplinas y, en su conjunto, arrojan luz sobre cómo los imaginarios cambiantes en torno a la violencia y la paz impactan la manera en que se trata con los conflictos sociales en El Salvador de ayer y hoy. En particular, repara en el rol del Estado en la gestión de la conflictividad social y cómo, a menudo, recurre a la criminalización ante problemáticas sumamente complejas.
Book Chapters by Adrian Bergmann
Media, Central American Refugees, and the U.S. Border Crisis: Security Discourses, Immigrant Demonization, and the Perpetuation of Violence, 2019
In the summer of 2014, an increase in the number of unaccompanied children migrating to the Unite... more In the summer of 2014, an increase in the number of unaccompanied children migrating to the United States unleashed a media backlash against immigration from Central America and Mexico, despite illegal immigration to the country being at a historically low level. At the same time, the hype served to shed light on the humanitarian crisis fed by chronic violence that had been building up in El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras. Indeed, in 2017, El Salvador and Honduras were among the countries with the highest rates of asylum-seekers in the world. Instead of considering the influx of refugees as a humanitarian crisis and addressing the root causes of out-migration from the Northern Triangle, the U.S. government response emphasized a strategy of “aggressive deterrence” of immigrants, engaging Central American governments to take security measures to stop migrants at their own borders. This transnational policy response has fed into a repressive approach toward migrants, increased gang conflict, and moved further away from potential resolutions to violence. Aggressive deterrence does not address underlying causes of conflict, and is contributing to aggravate the dynamics of armed violence in the region, rather than attending to humanitarian needs for international protection.
The Routledge Companion To Media and Humanitarian Action, 2017
Central America and Mexico are awash with firearms and an array of state and non-state armed acto... more Central America and Mexico are awash with firearms and an array of state and non-state armed actors, including local and transnational organized crime, gangs, death squads, police, and military. For years, they have been locked in a dynamic of armed confrontation that is fueling an urgent crisis of forced displacement within and across borders. As humanitarian actors struggle to come to terms with these contemporary scenarios of armed conflict, and to develop effective strategies for addressing them, the predominant response to the flow of refugees may be exacerbating the logic of war that is driving hundreds of thousands from their homes.
El Salvador serves as a case study to show how an entrenched, militarized approach to gangs has shaped the transnational relationship with the United States, and how the politics of security have turned into a major obstacle to peace by peaceful means in the region. Throughout, a major theme is how the media shape perceptions of security and humanitarian issues, and how these, again, shape policy responses to both.
Violencia en tiempos de paz: conflictividad y criminalización en El Salvador, 2015
Violencia en tiempos de paz: conflictividad y criminalización en El Salvador, 2015
In Oljetønner & kaffebønner: Kampen om naturressursene, edited by Latin-Amerikagruppene i Norge, 2008
Papers by Adrian Bergmann
Revista de Estudios Sociales, 2020
Throughout the twenty-first century, El Salvador has been immersed in a crisis of armed violence,... more Throughout the twenty-first century, El Salvador has been immersed in a crisis of armed violence, largely explained by an exceptionally high degree of organization of armed violence by three gangs, the police, and the armed forces. I trace the processes of organization and escalation of armed violence in the country, and address the potential for harnessing these organizations to constrain armed violence, as evidenced twice in the past decade, when gangs reined in the wars between them and reduced homicides by half. I analyze the organizational conditions that make this possible and the political conditions necessary to bridge short-term violence reduction and a long-term political vision and policy framework for social transformation.
Routledge eBooks, Sep 14, 2017
Central America and Mexico are awash with firearms and an array of state and non-state armed acto... more Central America and Mexico are awash with firearms and an array of state and non-state armed actors, including local and transnational organized crime, gangs, death squads, police, and military. For years, they have been locked in a dynamic of armed confrontation that is fueling an urgent crisis of forced displacement within and across borders. As humanitarian actors struggle to come to terms with these contemporary scenarios of armed conflict, and to develop effective strategies for addressing them, the predominant response to the flow of refugees may be exacerbating the logic of war that is driving hundreds of thousands from their homes. El Salvador serves as a case study to show how an entrenched, militarized approach to gangs has shaped the transnational relationship with the United States, and how the politics of security have turned into a major obstacle to peace by peaceful means in the region. Throughout, a major theme is how the media shape perceptions of security and humanitarian issues, and how these, again, shape policy responses to both.
This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, ... more This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy, completeness, or currency of the data included in this work and does not assume responsibility for any errors, omissions, or discrepancies in the information, or liability with respect to the use of or failure to use the information, methods, processes, or conclusions set forth. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Nothing herein shall constitute or be construed or considered to be a limitation upon or waiver of the privileges and immunities of The World Bank, all of which are specifically reserved.
El Salvador's legislative and municipal elections on Sunday, 4 March, 2018, kick off an elect... more El Salvador's legislative and municipal elections on Sunday, 4 March, 2018, kick off an election cycle that will stretch through to next year's presidential ballot. A desperate security situation, threats to Salvadoran migrants in the US, and a growing generation gap in traditional parties could mean a bumpy ride for the country's politics, writes Adrian Bergmann (Central American University).
Oljetønner og kaffebønner: Kampen om naturressursene, 2008
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Journal article by Adrian Bergmann
Books by Adrian Bergmann
El presente texto se divide en 4 secciones. La primera, metodológica, muestra las definiciones y la forma de calcular los indicadores. La siguiente contiene un capítulo para cada uno de los países estudiados: Brasil, Colombia, El Salvador, México y Venezuela. En cada uno de los capítulos nacionales se incluye información específica sobre la construcción de los indicadores en ese país y los resultados. Asimismo, se ofrecen informaciones sobre la regulación y el contexto particular de uso de la fuerza, además de recomendaciones específicas para el país. En la tercera sección se presenta un capítulo con un análisis regional comparativo entre todos los países. La sección final incluye una serie de recomendaciones generales.
What has been identified as a crisis at the border is better understood as an on-going crisis of violence, building over decades, that has forced migrants from their homes in the countries of the Northern Triangle. Authors Robin Andersen and Adrian Bergmann look back to U.S. military policies in the region and connect this legacy to the cross-border development of transnational gangs, government corruption, and on-going violence that often targets
environmental and legal defenders. They argue that the discourses of demonization and securitization only help perpetuate brutality in both Central America and the United States, especially in the desert borderlands of the southwest. They offer ways in which stories of migrants can be reframed within the language of justice, empathy, and humanitarianism.
A compelling examination of language, media, and politics, this book is both highly contemporary and widely applicable, perfect for students and scholars of global media, political communications, and their many intersections.
Book Chapters by Adrian Bergmann
El Salvador serves as a case study to show how an entrenched, militarized approach to gangs has shaped the transnational relationship with the United States, and how the politics of security have turned into a major obstacle to peace by peaceful means in the region. Throughout, a major theme is how the media shape perceptions of security and humanitarian issues, and how these, again, shape policy responses to both.
Papers by Adrian Bergmann
El presente texto se divide en 4 secciones. La primera, metodológica, muestra las definiciones y la forma de calcular los indicadores. La siguiente contiene un capítulo para cada uno de los países estudiados: Brasil, Colombia, El Salvador, México y Venezuela. En cada uno de los capítulos nacionales se incluye información específica sobre la construcción de los indicadores en ese país y los resultados. Asimismo, se ofrecen informaciones sobre la regulación y el contexto particular de uso de la fuerza, además de recomendaciones específicas para el país. En la tercera sección se presenta un capítulo con un análisis regional comparativo entre todos los países. La sección final incluye una serie de recomendaciones generales.
What has been identified as a crisis at the border is better understood as an on-going crisis of violence, building over decades, that has forced migrants from their homes in the countries of the Northern Triangle. Authors Robin Andersen and Adrian Bergmann look back to U.S. military policies in the region and connect this legacy to the cross-border development of transnational gangs, government corruption, and on-going violence that often targets
environmental and legal defenders. They argue that the discourses of demonization and securitization only help perpetuate brutality in both Central America and the United States, especially in the desert borderlands of the southwest. They offer ways in which stories of migrants can be reframed within the language of justice, empathy, and humanitarianism.
A compelling examination of language, media, and politics, this book is both highly contemporary and widely applicable, perfect for students and scholars of global media, political communications, and their many intersections.
El Salvador serves as a case study to show how an entrenched, militarized approach to gangs has shaped the transnational relationship with the United States, and how the politics of security have turned into a major obstacle to peace by peaceful means in the region. Throughout, a major theme is how the media shape perceptions of security and humanitarian issues, and how these, again, shape policy responses to both.