Papers by Christina M Torres
American Journal of Biological Anthropology
Objectives: Intentional cranial modification and diet serve as markers of identity. Here, we expl... more Objectives: Intentional cranial modification and diet serve as markers of identity. Here, we explore the intersection between the body and social persona in the San Pedro oases through the complex relationship(s) between these markers and other aspects of society and the individual. Methods: Skeletal remains of 1190 individuals were analyzed for evidence of intentional head shaping and classed as unmodified, tabular, or annular. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses of bone (n = 203) focused on the contribution of C 3 plants, C 4 /CAM plants, beans, and terrestrial animal meat per the Bayesian model, FRUITS. Strontium isotope data from dental enamel was considered for more detailed analyses. Results: Cranial modification was present in 520 individuals (43.7%; N = 1190). Modification was significantly more common among females (χ 2 = 7.403, p = 0.007). There was no significant difference in presence or type between periods. Average values for the four modeled food groupings differ significantly. There is a significant difference in consumption of C 4 /CAM plants by those individuals with modified heads consuming more (26.5 ± 9.9% vs. 23.6 ± 9.4%, Wilcoxon signed-rank test, p < 0.05). In the Middle Period sample, males consume significantly more C 4 /CAM plants (p < 0.05) and females more C 3 plants (p < 0.01). Four of those with outlier C 4 values were analyzed for strontium, yielding values outside the "local" range. Conclusions: As head shaping is permanently imposed in infancy while dietary patterns are the consequence of ongoing choices and constraints in the social and ecological environment, these markers of identity are not parallel. The numerous points of intersection between these markers and other aspects of identity are highlighted.
Theoretical Approaches in Bioarchaeology, 2020
At its core, embodiment theory provides a conduit between the corporeal body and the social world... more At its core, embodiment theory provides a conduit between the corporeal body and the social world with which the body engages; it assumes a process of biological adaptation to social and ecological factors (Krieger, 2001, 2005). According to Meskell, "an embodied body represents, and is, a lived experience where the interplay of natural, social, cultural, and psychical phenomena are brought to fruition through each individual's resolution of external structure, embodied experience, and choice" (Meskell, 2000:13, citing Berthelot, 1991:395-398). Historically, body/culture were seen to have an object/subject divide and were generally conceived of as mutually exclusive to one another. This distinction has been reconceptualized over time and contributions from feminist theory, sociology, philosophy, and anthropology have more recently led to a more fluid conception of body/culture that is now employed in a number of disciplines (Csordas, 1990, 1994). Importantly, the advances made in this ongoing theorization of the body have resulted in a means of employing embodiment theory to assess how an individual, past or present, physically incorporates the world in which they live. Embodiment theory is particularly applicable to bioarchaeology, as bioarchaeologists examine the (skeletonized) body in order to address social questions about the past. The argument that the skeleton is mutable and plastic, able to change and adapt to an individual's environment, is essential to a bioarchaeology of embodiment (Agarwal and Glencross, 2011). More generally, in social bioarchaeology human remains are not thought of as static, unmoving, and passive-simply a vehicle to transport the self. As such, a number of approaches consider the body as more than biology. With embodiment theory, bioarchaeologists are animating the skeleton and illustrating the wealth of knowledge accessible from human bones that goes beyond simple measures of elements such as disease or physical trauma. Using an embodiment framework, human remains can be viewed as experiential, social, and agentive, allowing a wealth of interpretive lenses that were previously inaccessible concerning identity, intimacy, and the experience of the archaeological
American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 2019
To characterize the paleodiet of individuals from Formative Period (1500 B.C. -A.D. 400) Atacama ... more To characterize the paleodiet of individuals from Formative Period (1500 B.C. -A.D. 400) Atacama Desert sites of Ancachi and Quillagua as a means of understanding the dietary and cultural impacts of regional systems of exchange. Thirty-one bone samples recovered from the cemetery of Ancachi (02QU175) and in/around the nearby town of Quillagua, were subject of carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis and multi-source mixture modeling (FRUITS) of paleodiet. These individuals were compared with nearly 200 contemporary individuals from throughout the region to identify differences in dietary behaviors. 80.6% (25/31) of the samples yielded sufficient well-preserved collagen and were included in the multi-source mixture model. The FRUITS model, which compared individuals with a robust database of available foods from the region, identified a wide diversity of diets in the Ancachi/Quillagua area (including both coastal and interior individuals), and, most notably, twenty-one individuals who consumed an average of 11.9±1.8% terrestrial animals, 21.2±2.4% legumes, and 20.0±4.1% marine fauna, a balanced pattern of protein consumption distinct from both the coastal and inland individuals in our larger regional sample.
Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, 2016
The Middle Period of the Atacama oases, North Chile, has been characterized as a time of peace, u... more The Middle Period of the Atacama oases, North Chile, has been characterized as a time of peace, uniform abundance, and widespread access to exotic materials. In the present work, we test this notion through a comparison of Middle Period human isotopic data (δ 13 C co , δ 15 N co , and δ 13 C ap ) representing two distinct ayllus, Solcor and Tchecar, in the San Pedro de Atacama oases. We employ Bayesian mixture modeling of individual-level isotopic data to quantify and compare dietary composition within and between the cemetery populations of these two contemporary locales. Ultimately, our research shows that dietary diversity, which we take as a proxy for differential levels of participation in long-distance exchange or the access to the products thereof, was unequally distributed, and that the supposedly uniform richness of the Middle Period was similarly discontinuous. While average isotopic values for the two ayllus were similar, variance within each differed significantly, as did variance in dietary composition arrived at through modeling. By all measures, the individuals interred in Solcor 3 had more varied diets, particularly in terms of carbohydrate-rich plants, than their contemporaries interred at Tchecar Túmulo Sur, suggesting that more individuals from Solcor 3 had greater participation in/access to long-distance exchange networks. Besides providing novel insights into the lived experience of the Middle Period residents of far northern Chile, this work also demonstrates the power of Bayesian mixture modeling for the reconstruction of individual paleodiet.
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 2016
The transition from the Middle to Late Intermediate Period in the south-central Andes saw major c... more The transition from the Middle to Late Intermediate Period in the south-central Andes saw major changes in the lifeways of peoples across northern Chile; as far-flung networks of exchange and interaction broke down, social stressors and social conflict increased. In the present work, we present isotopic data from a sample (n = 58) of humans drawn from several cemeteries of the Quitor ayllu, in the San Pedro de Atacama oases, and we use Bayesian mixture modeling to explore the effects of these broad social, economic, and political changes on synchronic and diachronic patterns of dietary variation. A series of hypotheses dealing with both temporal changes in diet and differences between the typical diets of females and males are tested. Ultimately, our research suggests that the disarticulation of the large interregional exchange networks of the south-central Andes at the end of the Middle Period significantly impacted the diets and lifestyle of local populations. This work also shows how the use of linear mixture modeling facilitates a more nuanced interpretation of dietary composition than visual inspection or regression analysis of isotopic data.
interactuó con poderes extranjeros y socios locales de intercambio y presenció cambios demográfic... more interactuó con poderes extranjeros y socios locales de intercambio y presenció cambios demográficos substanciales en su área. Una de las múltiples maneras con que ellos respondieron a estos cambios fue a través de la modificación deliberada de la forma del cráneo, con lo cual inscribían las características culturales en el cuerpo mismo. El análisis de 659 cráneos provenientes de siete sitios arqueológicos (300 AC-1500 DC) ocupados durante transformaciones significantes en el ambiente social reveló el uso de la deformación craneana como un símbolo visible para afiliarse con poderes extranjeros y, durante períodos de trastorno, para consolidar la identidad del grupo.
International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 2010
Bioarchaeology and biogeochemistry can elucidate aspects of individual life histories that are of... more Bioarchaeology and biogeochemistry can elucidate aspects of individual life histories that are often lost in the archaeological record. Here, we use stable and radiogenic isotope analyses of enamel, bone and hair to reconstruct paleodiet and paleomobility in an adult male interred along a pre-Columbian route connecting the northern Chilean coast to the inland Loa River Valley. Although this well-preserved burial included mortuary goods typical of coastal cultures, it was discovered in a vast, uninhabited part of northern Chile's hyper-arid Atacama Desert. Variation in carbon and nitrogen isotopes reflects dietary differences, while strontium and oxygen isotopes vary geologically and geographically. We use these data to examine paleodiet and paleomobility and to assess whether this was a coastal traveller seeking provisions from the interior or vice versa. Enamel stable isotope analysis is consistent with the consumption of a mixture of terrestrial and marine resources during the first years of life. Bone stable isotope analyses indicate habitual consumption of marine foodstuffs over the last 10-30 years of this individual's life. Interestingly, stable isotope analysis of hair samples provides more finegrained information on this individual, suggesting movements between the coast and highlands in the months before his death. Radiogenic strontium isotope data are consistent with residence on the coast or in the Atacama Desert, but are lower than strontium isotope values from higher altitudes. These dietary and geological patterns are reconcilable with coastal residency; the isotopic data are consistent with foodstuffs and textiles found with the burial. Therefore, we argue that this individual was regularly moving from the coast to inland areas, crossing the hyper-arid Atacama Desert by following strategic interzonal routes that provided access to particular resources.
Current Anthropology, 2015
Northern Chile's Atacama Desert is one of the most unforgiving landscapes on the planet; however,... more Northern Chile's Atacama Desert is one of the most unforgiving landscapes on the planet; however, a variety of complex risk-mitigation strategies facilitated long-term human occupation of the region. Using a burgeoning corpus of human, floral, and faunal stable carbon and nitrogen isotope data, the present work examines patterns of mobility, exchange, and social interaction in northern Chile's Formative Period (1500 BC-AD 400). While the geographic barriers and harsh climatic conditions of the Atacama Desert, in concert with substantial logistic considerations, established constraints on human diet at the site and local levels, regional dietary variation speaks to frequent and possibly even regular interzonal movements of people and/or foodstuffs. Through isotopic analysis of the remains of 86 individuals, we examine regional patterns of dietary variation in light of recently advanced hypotheses concerning the nature of mobility, exchange, and social interaction in Formative Period northern Chile. These data indicate both systematic regional exchange in foods and other goods and the central role of sites in the Calama oases in facilitating this exchange and movement.
Latin American Antiquity, 2013
The San Pedro de Atacama oases have been permanently occupied since ca. 2500 B.P. and over this t... more The San Pedro de Atacama oases have been permanently occupied since ca. 2500 B.P. and over this time developed a rich culture that was intertwined with social developments in the south-central Andes. However, despite decades of archaeological research, the region still lacks a strong chronological framework based on absolute dates. Here we present 53 new AMS 14C dates from osteological remains from San Pedro de Atacama, in order to contribute to an understanding of the Atacameño cultural sequence. These dates suggest that some cemeteries were occupied for long periods, frequently transcending cultural phases, and that in fact a number of cemeteries within the same ayllu were in use concurrently. We also show that, not surprisingly, population displacement through time primarily follows oscillations in the sources of water. The new information presented here suggests that future work in the region should emphasize detailed analyses that consider intra-ayllu variability, given that di...
American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 2013
The Middle Period (AD 400-1000) in northern Chile's Atacama oases is characterized by an increase... more The Middle Period (AD 400-1000) in northern Chile's Atacama oases is characterized by an increase in social complexity and regional interaction, much of which was organized around the power and impact of the Tiwanaku polity. Despite the strong cultural influence of Tiwanaku and numerous other groups evident in interactions with Atacameños, the role of immigration into the oases during this period is unclear. While archaeological and bioarchaeological research in the region has shown no evidence that clearly indicates large groups of foreign immigrants, the contemporary increase in interregional exchange networks connecting the oases to other parts of the Andes suggests residential mobility and the possibility that movement of people both into and out of the oases accompanied these foreign Additional Supporting Information may be found in the online version of this article.
American Anthropologist, 2010
American Anthropologist, 2008
Using a contextualized bioarchaeological framework, in this article, I examine the complex relati... more Using a contextualized bioarchaeological framework, in this article, I examine the complex relationship between the Tiwanaku polity of the Bolivian altiplano (C.E. 550-1000) and the inhabitants of the San Pedro de Atacama oases of northern Chile, in Tiwanaku's far periphery. I focus on how influences from Tiwanaku might have affected the presentation of Atacameño group identity in the mortuary context. I compare skeletal and mortuary data from 300 individuals buried during the peak of Tiwanaku influence in the Atacama to assess mortuary context, trauma, and body modifications. Results suggest a complex response to Tiwanaku influence. Data from the grave and mortuary assemblage reveal traditional Atacameño tombs with occasional foreign objects. Evidence of increased traumatic injury suggests that this relationship was not without some conflict. Finally, the maintenance of bodily expressions of local identity indicates a society that used their bodies to mark Atacameño identity.
Latin American Antiquity, 2021
Camelid pastoralism, agriculture, sedentism, surplus production, increasing cultural complexity, ... more Camelid pastoralism, agriculture, sedentism, surplus production, increasing cultural complexity, and interregional interaction during northern Chile's Late Formative period (AD 100–400) are seen in the flow of goods and people over expanses of desert. Consolidating evidence of material culture from these interactions with a bioarchaeological dimension allows us to provide details about individual lives and patterns in the Late Formative more generally. Here, we integrate a variety of skeletal, chemical, and archaeological data to explore the life and death of a small child (Calate-3N.7). By taking a multiscalar approach, we present a narrative that considers not only the varied materiality that accompanies this child but also what the child's life experience was and how this reflects and shapes our understanding of the Late Formative period in northern Chile. This evidence hints at the profound mobility of their youth. The complex mortuary context reflects numerous interacti...
Estudios Atacamenos, 2017
Author(s): Pimentel G, Gonzalo; Ugarte F, Mariana; Blanco, Jose F; Torres-Rouff, Christina; Pestl... more Author(s): Pimentel G, Gonzalo; Ugarte F, Mariana; Blanco, Jose F; Torres-Rouff, Christina; Pestles, William J
Latin American Antiquity, 2021
Camelid pastoralism, agriculture, sedentism, surplus production, increasing cultural complexity, ... more Camelid pastoralism, agriculture, sedentism, surplus production, increasing cultural complexity, and interregional interaction during northern Chile's Late Formative period (AD 100-400) are seen in the flow of goods and people over expanses of desert. Consolidating evidence of material culture from these interactions with a bioarchaeological dimension allows us to provide details about individual lives and patterns in the Late Formative more generally. Here, we integrate a variety of skeletal, chemical, and archaeological data to explore the life and death of a small child (Calate-3N.7). By taking a multiscalar approach, we present a narrative that considers not only the varied materiality that accompanies this child but also what the child's life experience was and how this reflects and shapes our understanding of the Late Formative period in northern Chile. This evidence hints at the profound mobility of their youth. The complex mortuary context reflects numerous interactions and long-distance relationships. Ultimately, the evidence speaks to deep social relations between two coastal groups, the Atacameños and Tarapaqueños. Considering this suite of data, we can see a child whose life was spent moving through desert routes and perhaps also glimpse the construction of intercultural identity in the Formative period.
PLOS One, 2021
Peer Review History: PLOS recognizes the benefits of transparency in the peer review process; the... more Peer Review History: PLOS recognizes the benefits of transparency in the peer review process; therefore, we enable the publication of all of the content of peer review and author responses alongside final, published articles. The editorial history of this article is available here:
Radiocarbon
ABSTRACTThe San Pedro de Atacama oases, located in northern Chile’s hyperarid Atacama Desert, hav... more ABSTRACTThe San Pedro de Atacama oases, located in northern Chile’s hyperarid Atacama Desert, have been occupied for at least 3000 years. Here, we examine cemetery use in the oases, with emphasis on the Middle Period (ca. AD 400–1000). By modeling of a large corpus (n=243) of radiocarbon dates, over 90% of which are direct AMS assays of human bone collagen, we attempt to establish a temporal framework by which to explore the establishment of formalized social inequality in this period. Modeling of these dates at three locally defined scales (all ayllus, inter-ayllu, and intra-ayllu) permit heretofore unavailable insights into the chronological and spatial dimensions of life and mortuary activity in the oases and allow us to better contextualize patterns of social inequality during the dynamic Middle Period. The results of this modeling indicate two distinct peaks of occupation during the Middle Period in San Pedro and document significant temporal variability in cemetery use pattern...
International Journal of Paleopathology
This broad literature review considers advances in the study of cranial vault modification with a... more This broad literature review considers advances in the study of cranial vault modification with an emphasis on investigations of Andean skeletal remains over the last two decades. I delimit three broad categories of research, building on Verano's synthesis of the state of Andean paleopathology in 1997. These are associations with skeletal pathological conditions, classification and morphology, and social identity. Progress is noted in each of these areas with a particular emphasis on methodological advances in studying morphology as well as the growth of contextualized bioarchaeology and the incorporation of social theory in the consideration of cranial modification as a cultural practice. The article concludes with avenues for future research on head shaping in the Andes specifically and paleopathology more broadly. 1. Cranial modification as pathology? The integration of the cultural practice of cranial vault modification into considerations of paleopathology has a long history, beginning with the volumes mentioned above and extending into modern treatments (e.g., Aufderheide and Rodríguez-Martín, 1998; Ortner, 2003; Ortner and Putschar, 1981; Roberts and Manchester, 1995). Ortner and Putschar, in their landmark volume on pathological conditions in human remains (1981:90), note that it is a form of "chronic, low-grade trauma" and explore it as such, arguing for the importance of differentiating this from pathological processes that can alter bone shape
Estudios atacameños, 2017
El nombre Calate puede provenir de la palabra Calato (o Calata), un término que se usa comúnmente... more El nombre Calate puede provenir de la palabra Calato (o Calata), un término que se usa comúnmente en Perú y Bolivia y que significa desnudo. 6 Marcado justamente por la desnudez de su paisaje que es lo característico del desierto más absoluto de Atacama, aunque esta apariencia es sólo natural porque arqueológicamente Calate nos muestra una alta redundancia de la movilidad transdesértica prehispánica, con evidencias directas de la presencia de grupos de viajeros desde el Arcaico Medio (ca. 7000 AP) en adelante. En el presente artículo, desarrollamos la estrategia arqueológica que hemos estado implementando para aproximarnos a la organización social de la movilidad, sus prácticas constitutivas y el tráfico intercultural prehispánico desplegado en la vialidad internodal. Se aborda específicamente la metodología que nos llevó a investigar el sector de Calate y se entregan los principales resultados
Current Anthropology
Despite our instinctive understanding of the importance of "identity," archaeologists and bioarch... more Despite our instinctive understanding of the importance of "identity," archaeologists and bioarchaeologists continue to struggle to rigorously investigate this complex phenomenon. Here, we present a contextualized multiscalar bioarchaeological approach to studying identities in the past-individual and group, mutable and immutable-through the mortuary record. We argue that, while many scholars have moved beyond the single-focus study, archaeological individuals themselves are still neglected. A contextualized bioarchaeological approach brings together a variety of methods to investigate aspects of individual and group identities, provides a means of accessing biological facets of identity, and allows for more nuanced understanding of the complexities of social identities. We illustrate the utility of our model with a case study using archaeological, bioarchaeological, and biogeochemical data from northern Chile, stressing both the fixed and the dynamic aspects of different identities. We focus on the tumultuous transition between the Middle Horizon (AD 500-1100) and Late Intermediate Period (AD 1100-1400) in northern Chile's San Pedro de Atacama oases and the neighboring upper Loa River Valley. Our research demonstrates a shift toward homogenizing representations of social identities as well as biological aspects of identities as societies began reformulating their social groups following the end of the complex and cosmopolitan Middle Horizon.
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Papers by Christina M Torres
Osteonecrosis has been associated in modern clinical studies as a secondary response of the body to cancer treatments which include bisphosphonates, pamidronate, and zoledronate that produce cell death. The female individual under study would not have been exposed to the chemicals included in chemotherapy. Therefore, a variety of differential diagnoses could account for the observed alterations including, osteomyelitis, secondary infection in response to traumatic injury, endemic syphilis, herpes zoster (shingles), and intraosseous trigeminal schwannoma. The divergent pathological conditions observed in the rhino-maxillary region and mandible indicate multiple etiologies may explain these alterations.