An attributional analysis of reactions to poverty is presented. The article begins by discussing ... more An attributional analysis of reactions to poverty is presented. The article begins by discussing the perceived causes of poverty and their taxonomic properties (locus, stability, and controllability). One antecedent of causal beliefs, political ideology, is then examined in detail, followed by a review of the effects of causal beliefs on emotions and behavior. It is contended that helping the poor is a moral issue, but the moral evaluation concerns the targeted recipient of aid rather than the potential help giver. Persons perceived as responsible for their plight, a dominant construal for conservatives, elicit anger and neglect. In contrast, those seen as not responsible for their financial hardship, an outlook predominantly endorsed by liberals, arouse sympathy and help giving. Sympathy is the most important proximal determinant of aid. This analysis is extended to reactions to achievement failure, abortion, and rape. Policy implications are also examined.
The history of ideas guiding the development of an attribution-based theory of motivation is pres... more The history of ideas guiding the development of an attribution-based theory of motivation is presented. These influences include the search for a “grand” theory of motivation (from drive and expectancy/value theory), an attempt to represent how the past may influence the present and the future (as Thorndike accomplished), and the incorporation of causes and their properties (from Heider and Rotter). The goal of this approach is the formulation of a conception in which causes influence action via the mediating mechanisms of specific affects (as first suggested by Atkinson) and expectancy. The empirical and conceptual contributions of the theory are summarized.
Transitions to new achievement settings are often accompanied by unfamiliar learning conditions w... more Transitions to new achievement settings are often accompanied by unfamiliar learning conditions wherein individuals experience unanticipated failures and engage in dysfunctional explanatory thinking. To counter these developments, attributional retraining (AR) was presented to 457 first-year students following an initial test in a two-semester course. A Semester 1 AR treatment (no, yes) and initial-test-performance (low, average, high) 2 x 3 quasi-experimental design was used to assess Semester 2 attributions, emotions, and performance outcomes. AR encouraged all students to endorse controllable attributions and de-emphasize uncontrollable attributions in explaining achievement outcomes in Semester 2. For low- and average-initial-performance students, AR improved subsequent in-class tests, final course grades, and first-year GPAs. Higher initial-test-performance was related to positive emotions and better achievement in Semester 2. The discussion focused on the implications of AR for attributional thinking in unfamiliar achievement settings.
This article presents a history of the study of motivation from approximately 1900-1975, focusing... more This article presents a history of the study of motivation from approximately 1900-1975, focusing on achievement strivings and containing little-known and often surprising facts about the main contributors to this field. Four theorists are highlighted: David McClelland, Kurt Lewin, John Atkinson, and Fritz Heider, each associated with a different theoretical approach (respectively and in order of historical emergence: trait, Gestalt, expectancy/value, and attribution theory). A fifth conception, drive theory, is also represented. In addition, a number of individuals who influenced these theorists and others who followed them are discussed. The article emphasizes the interrelations between the theorists and the interaction between personal and scientific life.
Stereotypic beliefs about older adults and the aging process have led to endorsement of the myth ... more Stereotypic beliefs about older adults and the aging process have led to endorsement of the myth that 'to be old is to be ill.' This study examined community-dwelling older adults' (N = 105, age 80+) beliefs about the causes of their chronic illness (ie, heart disease, cancer, diabetes, etc.), and tested the hypothesis that attributing the onset of illness to 'old age' is associated with negative health outcomes. A series of multiple regressions (controlling for chronological age, gender, income, severity of chronic conditions, functional status and health locus of control) demonstrated that 'old age' attributions were associated with more frequent perceived health symptoms, poorer health maintenance behaviours and a greater likelihood of mortality at 2-year follow-up. The probability of death was more than double among participants who strongly endorsed the 'old age' attribution as compared to those who did not (36% vs. 14%). Findings are framed in the context of self-directed stereotypes and implications for potential interventions are considered.
ABSTRACT We documented what parents report as the cause of their child’s academic and conduct set... more ABSTRACT We documented what parents report as the cause of their child’s academic and conduct setbacks and what they say they do in response. We recruited an opportunity sample of 479 parents and narrowed our sample to parents of children without disabilities between the ages of 5–18 (N = 312). Parents responded to open-ended questions, and we coded responses into categories of disciplinary tactics and types of attributions. Parents who reported experience with child setbacks significantly differed from parents who did not report such experience on several outcome variables. Parents did not exhibit hedonic biasing such that most reported causes of setbacks were controllable by the child; reported controllable causes correlated with the reported use of punishment. Our findings suggest that parental behavior change efforts must also address parents’ attributions, or verbal explanations, of causes of events. We discuss implications of our findings for child and parent researchers, educators, and practitioners.
Attribution theory includes mastery and maintenance of society among its ultimate determinants of... more Attribution theory includes mastery and maintenance of society among its ultimate determinants of action and a variety of information sources and emotions as the proximal or immediate determinants of motivation. These goals are guided by two metaphors: the person as a scientist and the person as a judge. I discuss these positions and point out some of the perceived limitations of the articles in this special issue.
In this article the history of the attribution approach to emotion and motivation is reviewed. Ea... more In this article the history of the attribution approach to emotion and motivation is reviewed. Early motivation theorists incorporated emotion within the pleasure/pain principle but they did not recognize specific emotions. This changed when Atkinson introduced his theory of achievement motivation, which argued that achievement strivings are determined by the anticipated emotions of pride and shame. Attribution theorists then suggested many other emotional reactions to success and failure that are determined by the perceived causes of achievement outcomes and the shared characteristics or dimensions of causality. The article outlines the hypothesized dimensional antecedents of a number of self-and other-directed achievement-related emotions following success (admiration, apprehension, confidence, disliking, envy, gratitude, liking, pride, and surprise) and failure (anger, guilt, helplessness, hope, hopelessness, pity, regret, Schadenfreude, scorn, shame, surprise, and sympathy). Motivational consequences of emotions also are highlighted.
Abstract: A theory of social conduct is reviewed in which attributions of causality and inference... more Abstract: A theory of social conduct is reviewed in which attributions of causality and inferences of responsibility are the key concepts. A meta-analysis testing this theory in the domain of help-giving provides strong support for the conceptualisation. Current research ...
It wasabout 10years agothat mybook, Judgments of Responsibility: Foundations for a Theory of Soci... more It wasabout 10years agothat mybook, Judgments of Responsibility: Foundations for a Theory of Social Conduct (Weiner, 1995) was published. In the subsequent decade, the theoretical and empirical work presented there has expanded in many directions. These extensions ...
Within impression management and attribution research confession presents a paradox. Rather than ... more Within impression management and attribution research confession presents a paradox. Rather than trying to reduce blame, confessors accept responsibility for the transgression. Yet confession is an effective strategy for positive impression formation. In this article, the explanation for these benefits focuses on other's utilitarian concerns regarding future expectations of negative behavior by the transgressor. In 3 studies, level of remorse, harm, personal relevance, and group status are examined in situations of transgression. Remorse had the largest overall multivariate effect on the measures of forgiveness. Most affected by level of remorse was the perceived stability of the cause of transgressor's actions, which was a major antecedent of expectancies regarding future negative acts. It appears that an effective confession must include remorse to positively affect these future expectancies.
The present review syntheses 64 investigations on the determinants of helping and aggression invo... more The present review syntheses 64 investigations on the determinants of helping and aggression involving more than 12,000 subjects, providing empirical tests of Weiner's (1986, 1995) theory of social conduct. A meta-analytic test of the proposed causal cognition-emotion-behaviour sequence reveals that judgements of responsibility determine the emotional reactions of anger and sympathy, and that these emotional reactions, in turn, directly influence help giving and aggression. Results are highly consistent across several potential moderator variables including type of culture, sample characteristics, publication year, and publication status. Moreover, the present analyses suggest that the hypothesised model holds true for real events as well as for simulated data. Exploratory comparisons between the helping versus the aggression domain suggest that comparable results are obtained for these two domains, except that perceptions of responsibility are more likely to exert an additional proximal role in aggressive retaliation as compared to help giving. The implications of these findings for a general theory of motivation in the interpersonal and the intrapersonal domains are discussed.
An attributional analysis of reactions to poverty is presented. The article begins by discussing ... more An attributional analysis of reactions to poverty is presented. The article begins by discussing the perceived causes of poverty and their taxonomic properties (locus, stability, and controllability). One antecedent of causal beliefs, political ideology, is then examined in detail, followed by a review of the effects of causal beliefs on emotions and behavior. It is contended that helping the poor is a moral issue, but the moral evaluation concerns the targeted recipient of aid rather than the potential help giver. Persons perceived as responsible for their plight, a dominant construal for conservatives, elicit anger and neglect. In contrast, those seen as not responsible for their financial hardship, an outlook predominantly endorsed by liberals, arouse sympathy and help giving. Sympathy is the most important proximal determinant of aid. This analysis is extended to reactions to achievement failure, abortion, and rape. Policy implications are also examined.
The history of ideas guiding the development of an attribution-based theory of motivation is pres... more The history of ideas guiding the development of an attribution-based theory of motivation is presented. These influences include the search for a “grand” theory of motivation (from drive and expectancy/value theory), an attempt to represent how the past may influence the present and the future (as Thorndike accomplished), and the incorporation of causes and their properties (from Heider and Rotter). The goal of this approach is the formulation of a conception in which causes influence action via the mediating mechanisms of specific affects (as first suggested by Atkinson) and expectancy. The empirical and conceptual contributions of the theory are summarized.
Transitions to new achievement settings are often accompanied by unfamiliar learning conditions w... more Transitions to new achievement settings are often accompanied by unfamiliar learning conditions wherein individuals experience unanticipated failures and engage in dysfunctional explanatory thinking. To counter these developments, attributional retraining (AR) was presented to 457 first-year students following an initial test in a two-semester course. A Semester 1 AR treatment (no, yes) and initial-test-performance (low, average, high) 2 x 3 quasi-experimental design was used to assess Semester 2 attributions, emotions, and performance outcomes. AR encouraged all students to endorse controllable attributions and de-emphasize uncontrollable attributions in explaining achievement outcomes in Semester 2. For low- and average-initial-performance students, AR improved subsequent in-class tests, final course grades, and first-year GPAs. Higher initial-test-performance was related to positive emotions and better achievement in Semester 2. The discussion focused on the implications of AR for attributional thinking in unfamiliar achievement settings.
This article presents a history of the study of motivation from approximately 1900-1975, focusing... more This article presents a history of the study of motivation from approximately 1900-1975, focusing on achievement strivings and containing little-known and often surprising facts about the main contributors to this field. Four theorists are highlighted: David McClelland, Kurt Lewin, John Atkinson, and Fritz Heider, each associated with a different theoretical approach (respectively and in order of historical emergence: trait, Gestalt, expectancy/value, and attribution theory). A fifth conception, drive theory, is also represented. In addition, a number of individuals who influenced these theorists and others who followed them are discussed. The article emphasizes the interrelations between the theorists and the interaction between personal and scientific life.
Stereotypic beliefs about older adults and the aging process have led to endorsement of the myth ... more Stereotypic beliefs about older adults and the aging process have led to endorsement of the myth that 'to be old is to be ill.' This study examined community-dwelling older adults' (N = 105, age 80+) beliefs about the causes of their chronic illness (ie, heart disease, cancer, diabetes, etc.), and tested the hypothesis that attributing the onset of illness to 'old age' is associated with negative health outcomes. A series of multiple regressions (controlling for chronological age, gender, income, severity of chronic conditions, functional status and health locus of control) demonstrated that 'old age' attributions were associated with more frequent perceived health symptoms, poorer health maintenance behaviours and a greater likelihood of mortality at 2-year follow-up. The probability of death was more than double among participants who strongly endorsed the 'old age' attribution as compared to those who did not (36% vs. 14%). Findings are framed in the context of self-directed stereotypes and implications for potential interventions are considered.
ABSTRACT We documented what parents report as the cause of their child’s academic and conduct set... more ABSTRACT We documented what parents report as the cause of their child’s academic and conduct setbacks and what they say they do in response. We recruited an opportunity sample of 479 parents and narrowed our sample to parents of children without disabilities between the ages of 5–18 (N = 312). Parents responded to open-ended questions, and we coded responses into categories of disciplinary tactics and types of attributions. Parents who reported experience with child setbacks significantly differed from parents who did not report such experience on several outcome variables. Parents did not exhibit hedonic biasing such that most reported causes of setbacks were controllable by the child; reported controllable causes correlated with the reported use of punishment. Our findings suggest that parental behavior change efforts must also address parents’ attributions, or verbal explanations, of causes of events. We discuss implications of our findings for child and parent researchers, educators, and practitioners.
Attribution theory includes mastery and maintenance of society among its ultimate determinants of... more Attribution theory includes mastery and maintenance of society among its ultimate determinants of action and a variety of information sources and emotions as the proximal or immediate determinants of motivation. These goals are guided by two metaphors: the person as a scientist and the person as a judge. I discuss these positions and point out some of the perceived limitations of the articles in this special issue.
In this article the history of the attribution approach to emotion and motivation is reviewed. Ea... more In this article the history of the attribution approach to emotion and motivation is reviewed. Early motivation theorists incorporated emotion within the pleasure/pain principle but they did not recognize specific emotions. This changed when Atkinson introduced his theory of achievement motivation, which argued that achievement strivings are determined by the anticipated emotions of pride and shame. Attribution theorists then suggested many other emotional reactions to success and failure that are determined by the perceived causes of achievement outcomes and the shared characteristics or dimensions of causality. The article outlines the hypothesized dimensional antecedents of a number of self-and other-directed achievement-related emotions following success (admiration, apprehension, confidence, disliking, envy, gratitude, liking, pride, and surprise) and failure (anger, guilt, helplessness, hope, hopelessness, pity, regret, Schadenfreude, scorn, shame, surprise, and sympathy). Motivational consequences of emotions also are highlighted.
Abstract: A theory of social conduct is reviewed in which attributions of causality and inference... more Abstract: A theory of social conduct is reviewed in which attributions of causality and inferences of responsibility are the key concepts. A meta-analysis testing this theory in the domain of help-giving provides strong support for the conceptualisation. Current research ...
It wasabout 10years agothat mybook, Judgments of Responsibility: Foundations for a Theory of Soci... more It wasabout 10years agothat mybook, Judgments of Responsibility: Foundations for a Theory of Social Conduct (Weiner, 1995) was published. In the subsequent decade, the theoretical and empirical work presented there has expanded in many directions. These extensions ...
Within impression management and attribution research confession presents a paradox. Rather than ... more Within impression management and attribution research confession presents a paradox. Rather than trying to reduce blame, confessors accept responsibility for the transgression. Yet confession is an effective strategy for positive impression formation. In this article, the explanation for these benefits focuses on other's utilitarian concerns regarding future expectations of negative behavior by the transgressor. In 3 studies, level of remorse, harm, personal relevance, and group status are examined in situations of transgression. Remorse had the largest overall multivariate effect on the measures of forgiveness. Most affected by level of remorse was the perceived stability of the cause of transgressor's actions, which was a major antecedent of expectancies regarding future negative acts. It appears that an effective confession must include remorse to positively affect these future expectancies.
The present review syntheses 64 investigations on the determinants of helping and aggression invo... more The present review syntheses 64 investigations on the determinants of helping and aggression involving more than 12,000 subjects, providing empirical tests of Weiner's (1986, 1995) theory of social conduct. A meta-analytic test of the proposed causal cognition-emotion-behaviour sequence reveals that judgements of responsibility determine the emotional reactions of anger and sympathy, and that these emotional reactions, in turn, directly influence help giving and aggression. Results are highly consistent across several potential moderator variables including type of culture, sample characteristics, publication year, and publication status. Moreover, the present analyses suggest that the hypothesised model holds true for real events as well as for simulated data. Exploratory comparisons between the helping versus the aggression domain suggest that comparable results are obtained for these two domains, except that perceptions of responsibility are more likely to exert an additional proximal role in aggressive retaliation as compared to help giving. The implications of these findings for a general theory of motivation in the interpersonal and the intrapersonal domains are discussed.
This paper provides an overview of the cognitive approaches that have recently been used to study... more This paper provides an overview of the cognitive approaches that have recently been used to study stress and coping. Our review focuses on empirical research that links an individual's initial cognitive interpretation (e.g. appraisal, attribution) of a stressor to coping methods and psychological and physical adjustment. The cognitive interpretation of an experience as 'stressful' is crucial in that it varies from person to person, and sets the stress and coping process in motion. Recent findings: Research has shown that appraising a stressor as a threat is associated with negative psychological and physical adjustment, whereas appraising a stressor as a challenge is associated with positive psychological and physical adjustment. There is also some evidence to suggest that the initial cognitive interpretation of a stressor indirectly influences adjustment via the elicitation of certain coping methods. Cognitive interventions that emphasize the alteration of negative interpretations or perceptions result in improved subsequent adjustment. Furthermore, the efficacy of treatment is maximized when other treatment components are also included, such as relaxation and social support. Summary: Clinical practitioners should be sensitive to individual differences in how clients appraise, explain, and cope with stressors. Moreover, it may be clinically beneficial to focus on the initial cognitive interpretations related to stress rather than directly changing coping behaviors.
Valuable insights about emotional well-being can be learned from studying older adults who have w... more Valuable insights about emotional well-being can be learned from studying older adults who have wrestled with differentiating and regulating their emotions while they navigate through the many joys and traumas of a lifetime. Our objective was to document the underlying reasons for older adults' (n = 353, ages 72 -99) emotional experiences. Using a phenomenological approach, we identified participants' reported reasons (i.e., antecedents) for a broad variety of positive and negative emotions, classifying them into thematic categories through a content analysis. The array of thematic categories that emerged for some emotions was more differentiated than for others. For example, 14 antecedent categories were required to account for the emotion of happiness; whereas, only 4 categories were needed to capture all antecedents for anger. Our analysis provided a rich description of what older adults report as the causes of their emotions, showing that later life is characterized as a time when the loss of love ones elicits sadness, self-limitations elicit frustration, and others' transgressions elicit anger. Yet, our data show that old age can be portrayed even more so as a time when a variety of positive emotions are elicited by social factors (interactions and relationships), achievements, and personal attributes. Finally, in an analysis of the most common antecedents for pride (accomplishments) and anger (other's transgression), we suggest that pride over accomplishments is most likely elicited by internal attributions to skill and effort; whereas, anger over others' transgressions is most likely elicited by controllable attributions to the transgressor's inconsiderate or offensive behavior. Overall, this shows the utility of applying Weiner's attributional framework (Weiner, 1985) to an analysis of emotion antecedents in late life.
In 3 studies, we examined the effect of birth outcome on observers' reactions to genetic testing.... more In 3 studies, we examined the effect of birth outcome on observers' reactions to genetic testing. Participants read a scenario in which a woman declined to take a genetic screening test and subsequently gave birth to a child with a genetic disorder (negative outcome) or a healthy child (positive outcome). Retrospective judgments of the likelihood that the child would have a genetic disorder were higher given negative than positive outcome knowledge under conditions of high genetic risk. Moreover, the more likely a negative outcome was perceived to be, the more responsible the mother was held for not taking the genetic screening test. Consistent with Weiner's (1993) theory, responsibility judgments were linked to displeasure and sympathy, with sympathy in turn being related to help judgments.
Social scientists have documented more negative reactions to the concept of welfare versus the co... more Social scientists have documented more negative reactions to the concept of welfare versus the concept of poor, despite the fact that both labels can be used almost interchangeably in current political discussions. We believe that the most proximal explanation rests in the different attributional information contained within the stereotypes of welfare recipients versus poor people. Three studies were conducted to test this idea. The results suggest that the attributional content within stereotypes of welfare recipients, particularly their greater responsibility for their impoverished state compared with poor people, most influences the public's more negative reaction to welfare. The results are discussed in terms of how the rhetoric of stereotypes may be exploited in the political domain.
Previous research (Greitemeyer & Weiner, 2003) has demonstrated that compliance to commit a trans... more Previous research (Greitemeyer & Weiner, 2003) has demonstrated that compliance to commit a transgression for an anticipated reward as opposed to an anticipated punishment results in greater inferences of personal responsibility. The present studies extend these findings to a courtroom context in which punishment decisions are made. In Study 1, a nurse who administered a non-approved drug was perceived as more responsible; and more severe punishment decisions were recommended, given compliance for an offered reward relative to a threatened punishment. These findings subsequently were replicated while varying the consequences of the drug administration (Study 2) and employing an antisocial scenario (Study 3). Legal theory, field theory, and prospect theory are discussed as possible explanations for these phenomena.
Two fundamental principles from attribution theory were examined for the role they might play in ... more Two fundamental principles from attribution theory were examined for the role they might play in the psychology of the consumer. They are: (1) perceptions of causality along a stability dimension influence the anticipated likelihood of product satisfaction, and (2) perceptions of causality along a controllability dimension influence judgments of responsibility and retributive actions. Comments about the longevity of an attributional framework, methodological recommendations, and the heuristic value of the theory also are included. Copyright 2000 by the University of Chicago.
There are a multitude of possible reactions that teachers can have toward students who fall below... more There are a multitude of possible reactions that teachers can have toward students who fall below academic standards. Some of these reactions have utilitarian goals, whereas others are punitive. In this study, the authors investigated these reactions, as well as the situations that determine when these different strategies are likely to be used. Both undergraduates playing the role of teachers (Study 1) and actual high school teachers (Study 2) used attributional information in much the same way to guide their choice of responses to academic failure. Controllable causes of failure give rise to punitive and retributive strategies, whereas lack of controllability elicits utilitarian responses. The stability of the cause moderates teachers' responses to failing students. These attributionally guided interventions are mediated in part by inferences of responsibility, emotional reactions of anger and sympathy, and beliefs in the efficacy of the intervention. The implications of this model are discussed in terms of student motivation and classroom performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
More positivity than negativity is demonstrated in this analysis of discrete emotions among 353 c... more More positivity than negativity is demonstrated in this analysis of discrete emotions among 353 community-dwelling individuals from 72 to 99 years old. A complexity in positive emotions was displayed, with more happiness, contentment, and gratitude reported than frustration, sadness, and anger. Our results also imply that another individual's presence may elicit negative emotions such as anger and guilt, whereas perceptions of support may elicit various positive emotions. As expected, certain negative emotions were associated with poor health, with a link between sadness and sickness being most prominent. Of note, poor health did not undermine positive emotions. These findings provide an optimistic view of emotions in later life, even among individuals who are poor, not well educated, and/or physically unwell.
Attribution theory predicts that when someone is perceived as responsible for a negative event, t... more Attribution theory predicts that when someone is perceived as responsible for a negative event, this inference elicits feelings of anger and anger evokes aggressive responding. In contrast, perceived nonresponsibility should be linked to feelings of sympathy and less aggression. These thinking-feeling-action linkages were applied to the domain of child maltreatment in the present study. In individual interviews, samples of abusive, at-risk, and nonabusive African American mothers were presented with videotaped scenarios depicting a target child engaged in misbehavior. Mothers rated the severity of the behavior, how responsible they perceived the child to be, their feelings of sympathy and anger, and how much punishment they would endorse, coded as mild to harsh. They also completed a measure of parental stress. Compared with nonabusive mothers, abusive mothers reported more stress, perceived the behavior as more negative, inferred the child to be more responsible, reported more anger, and endorsed harsher punishment. The attributional data of at-risk mothers consistently fell between that of the other two groups. Regression and path analyses documented a systematic pattern of thinking-feeling-action linkages in accord with attributional predictions. The usefulness of an attributional approach to child maltreatment and the implications of the findings as a model for intervention were discussed.
The study of anxiety has dominated research on classroom emotions. One could argue that this is a... more The study of anxiety has dominated research on classroom emotions. One could argue that this is a very narrow focus for researchers to take when examining emotions in school settings. To understand what other emotions are left out, we first must consider the perspective from which anxiety is studied. The study of anxiety is guided by an intrapsychic rather than a social view of emotions. This limits the range of emotion-related phenomena that might be examined and their methods of study. I examine additional characteristics or properties of emotion to again point out the void when the study of emotions in the classroom is limited to anxiety. I conceptualize anxiety in educational settings as a negative, achievement-generated, self-directed, and relatively thoughtless emotion, leaving for study the positive, and/or affiliative-generated, and/or other-directed, and/or more thoughtful emotions. I then discuss a number of emotions that I believe are prevalent in the classroom and are understudied. I label these "the moral emotions," and examine them from the perspective of an attribution theorist. Four emotions relate to uncontrollable causal characteristics of the emotional target, whereas eight emotions concern controllable properties. The emotions selected were readily identified and are associated with an empirical literature. The four emotions generated by appraisals of uncontrollability are envy, scorn, shame, and sympathy; the eight emotions directed by thoughts about causal control are admiration, anger, gratitude, guilt, indignation, jealousy, regret, and schadenfreude. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Regularities in social motivation are derived from a causal analysis of the abilityeffort distinc... more Regularities in social motivation are derived from a causal analysis of the abilityeffort distinction, which has implications for perceptions of personal responsibility. A responsibility analysis is then extended and applied to reactions to the stigmatized, to help-giving, and ...
Lack of effort as a cause of achievement failure evokes more punishment than does lack of ability... more Lack of effort as a cause of achievement failure evokes more punishment than does lack of ability. Perceptions of the controllability of these causes, inferences about personal responsibility, and affective reactions of sympathy and anger mediate between the causal perceptions of ability and effort and punishment responses. This general theory of social motivation explains some reactions to stigmatized persons as well as observations related to help giving, peer rejection, and aggression. The proposed conceptual system distinguishes the reactions to sin versus sickness.
The major metaphorical themes in motivation are reviewed and associated with psychological theori... more The major metaphorical themes in motivation are reviewed and associated with psychological theories and characteristic research. The history of motivation is construed as reflecting 2 major metaphors: The person is a machine, and the person is Godlike. In addition, a new submetaphor is proposed as directing current thinking in the field: The person is a judge. This comparison supplements the submetaphor guiding attribution theory, namely, the person is a scientist. Both comparisons, the judge and the scientist, are comprised within the more inclusive metaphor of the person as Godlike. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In organizations, many of the crucial decisions concern employees, particularly regarding those w... more In organizations, many of the crucial decisions concern employees, particularly regarding those who perform poorly. One theory that can potentially assist in understanding how personnel managers make personnel decisions is Weiner's (1995a) attributional theory of social conduct. Two experiments were conducted to examine the effects of ability (low, high) and effort (low, high) causal information for an employee's poor work performance on personnel decisions. In Study 1, college students played the role of personnel managers and read four performance appraisals written about an employee who missed a deadline at work. Results show that each performance-appraisal vignette elicited a unique decision profile (e.g., to reprimand, to fire, to console). These results were replicated using a sample of individuals with personnel-management experience in Study 2. To examine the extent to which certain personnel decisions are mediated by specific cognitive and affective variables, a structural equation analysis was conducted in Study 3. Findings indicate that there is an acceptable fit of the data to the model tested and that attributions and personnel decisions for poor work performance are mediated by how responsible the employee is judged to be and how much sympathy the evaluator feels. The implications for these results are discussed within the framework of Weiner's attributional theory of social conduct and personnel decision making.
2 principles from attribution theory, covariation and hedonic bias, were employed to examine moth... more 2 principles from attribution theory, covariation and hedonic bias, were employed to examine mothers' attributions for their children's outcomes in the academic, social, and personality domains. Mother of 5–17-year-old gifted, regular, and special education children who were from only-child or multiple-child families made attributions for offspring outcomes to childrearing practices, genetics, and the environment. Based on the covariation principle, it was predicted that mothers of only children would attribute greater importance to child-rearing practices as causes of their children's outcomes than would mothers of multiple children. In addition, predictions based on the hedonic bias led us to hypothesize greater endorsement of child-rearing attributions for gifted (perceived high success) than special education (perceived low success) children. Both hypotheses were supported across all 3 domains. The dilemma of perceived parental responsibility and the usefulness of an attributional approach for understanding parents' causal beliefs are discussed.
This study examined the effects of age and aggressive status on children's understanding and use ... more This study examined the effects of age and aggressive status on children's understanding and use of excuses. Younger (3rd–5th grade) and older (6th–8th grade) aggressive and nonaggressive African American boys were first instructed to imagine that they failed to fulfill a social obligation. The cause of the transgression was presented as controllable (e.g., choosing to do something else), and children indicated whether they would reveal that cause or make up an excuse. Next, 4 causes of the same transgression were manipulated to be either controllable or uncontrollable. Children inferred that they would be held more responsible for controllable causes of social misconduct, that these causes would elicit more anger, and that they would be more likely to withhold these causes (i.e., make up an excuse). The linkages between perceived responsibility, anticipated anger, and excuse giving were stronger among older than younger boys and among nonaggressive than aggressive boys. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article examines the moral determinants of achievement evaluation. Conceptual analyses of th... more This article examines the moral determinants of achievement evaluation. Conceptual analyses of the distinction between ability and effort are offered in which responsibility inferences and affective reactions play key roles mediating the relations between causal attributions and evaluation. Three new research directions are then pointed out that pertain to a distinction between onset and offset responsibility for achievement failure, the perceived fairness of achievement evaluation, and what adolescents communicate to peers after achievement outcomes. The article next examines the function of punishing lack of effort. Finally, achievement is viewed as a moral system, which suggests different research directions from those which have dominated the field. This research thrust focuses on achievement values and social obligations.
Attribution theory was used to relate causal explanations for poverty to affect and behavioral in... more Attribution theory was used to relate causal explanations for poverty to affect and behavioral intentions. In Experiment 1, student subjects rated 13 causes of poverty on importance, the attribution of controllability, blame, affects of pity and anger, and judgments of help-giving (personal help and welfare). Two individual differences, conservatism and the belief in a just world, were also assessed. A principal components analysis categorized the causes into three types: individualistic, societal, and fatalistic. Conservatism correlated positively with a belief in the importance of individualistic causes, controllability, blame, and anger, and it correlated negatively with perceptions of the importance of societal causes, pity, and intentions to help. No systematic effects of the belief in a just world emerged. A structural equation analysis revealed that personal help is emotionally determined, whereas welfare judgments are directly related to attributions of responsibility and political ideology. Experiment 2 revealed a similar pattern of results using a nonstudent sample.
Principles from attribution theory were used to analyze public reactions to the health status of ... more Principles from attribution theory were used to analyze public reactions to the health status of Magic Johnson. An experimental study containing two distinct samples (college students and African-American adults) together with supplemental reports from local and national media confirm the value of this approach. The findings show that inferences about causal responsibility are related to affective reactions of sympathy and anger toward Magic Johnson. Implications for attribution theory, as well as for future attitudes toward Magic Johnson, are discussed.
The history of motivational research in education is traced through chapters on motivation in the... more The history of motivational research in education is traced through chapters on motivation in the Encyclopedia of Educational Research from 1941 to 1990. Discussion of the drive concept, the motivation–learning distinction, the role of individual differences, and the emergence of cognitive concerns and the self are examined. Great shifts are documented, and current as well as future trends are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In this article, we report investigations of four role-playing experiments and one laboratory man... more In this article, we report investigations of four role-playing experiments and one laboratory manipulation that examine the effects of confession on forgiveness and other related judgments. The basic paradigm in the simulation studies was to reveal that a political figure or student in a class confessed either following or not following an accusation, or denied personal responsibility for the act. Among the variables manipulated were the attributions for the wrongdoing and the spontaneity of the confession. The dependent variables in one or more investigations included the perceived personal character of the trangressor, attributions of responsibility for the act, affective reactions of sympathy and anger, forgiveness, and behavioral judgments such as sanctioning and voting likelihood. In the laboratory manipulation study, a mixed-motive game setting was used in which a confederate confessed to having prior knowledge that resulted in his winning the game. We then examined whether this admission influenced subsequent cooperation and competition, as well as the other players' perceptions of the confederate's personality and character. Confession was found to have strong beneficial effects, particularly when given without a prior accusation and in ambiguous causal situations.
Presenting a general theory of social motivation, this compelling work integrates research on ach... more Presenting a general theory of social motivation, this compelling work integrates research on achievement evaluation, stigmatization, helping behavior, aggression, and impression management. Bernard Weiner examines how responsibility inferences are reached, the manner in which such judgments affect emotions, and the role that "cold" judgments of responsibility versus "hot" feelings, such as anger, play in producing both pro- and antisocial behaviors. Ideal for students as well as researchers and mental health practitioners, the book includes experiments for the reader to complete that illustrate the main points of the text.
The present study examined the effect of a target's personality and responsibility for a misdeed ... more The present study examined the effect of a target's personality and responsibility for a misdeed on a perceiver's emotions and behavior by determining the variables' impact on the perceiver's emotional reactions and willingness to help the target. A total of 134 Germans and 171 Americans were given information about the level of responsibility (low, medium, or high) for a person's infection with HIV, 2 variations of information about the target's personality (positive vs. negative), and the transmission mode of the virus (needle vs. unsafe sex). Although B. Weiner's (1995) model of responsibility partially explained the findings, the results showed that the target's personality also contributed to the perceiver's emotional and behavioral reactions.
Six studies explored self-enhancing beliefs about own fairness relative to others. Persons report... more Six studies explored self-enhancing beliefs about own fairness relative to others. Persons reported that it is fair to base punishment on a transgressor's responsibility for his or her actions, that they base their rewards and punishments more strongly on a target's responsibility than do others, and that others, but not the self reward and punish in-group and out-group members differently. Collectively, these results reveal that persons define their own superior fairness in terms of judicious use of responsibility information and lack of bias. In contrast, own assistance to the terminally ill was not described as more strongly based on responsibility suggesting that definitions of fairness shift depending on context. Finally, persons consistently described themselves as relatively benevolent. Results are discussed in relation to expressions of intergroup bias and the maintenance of fairness self-perceptions.
A sampling from Heider's notebooks includes the concepts of action, attribution, balance, cogniti... more A sampling from Heider's notebooks includes the concepts of action, attribution, balance, cognition, context, emotion, groups, history of science, intent, interaction, motivation, "ought," perception, "naive psychology," the self, unit, and values. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Attribution theory has proved to be a useful conceptual framework for the study of emotional deve... more Attribution theory has proved to be a useful conceptual framework for the study of emotional development. In this paper, we review a program of research on children's developing understanding of emotion from an attributional perspective. A number of prevalent human emotions are examined in this conception, including happiness, sadness, anger, pity, guilt, pride, and gratitude. The implications of a developmental perspective for an “adult” theory of emotion are discussed.
6 An attributional approach to emotional development Bernard Weiner and Sandra Graham The underst... more 6 An attributional approach to emotional development Bernard Weiner and Sandra Graham The understanding of this chapter will be facilitated if it is acknowledged at the outset that:(1) we are social psychologists;(2) we are cognitive social psychologists; and (3) we are cognitive ...
Two shortcomings of attributional therapy and therapy-related research are pointed out. First, cr... more Two shortcomings of attributional therapy and therapy-related research are pointed out. First, crucial comparisons between attributional inductions are not being made, so that the variables mediating change remain uncertain and, secondly, the full theory is not being used, thereby greatly limiting the possible change programmes.
A subset of emotions that includes pride, gratitude, guilt, anger, and sympathy are elicited by s... more A subset of emotions that includes pride, gratitude, guilt, anger, and sympathy are elicited by specific causal ascriptions. In addition, these emotions give rise to distinct behaviours. In this article, two experiments were discussed that examine the attributional antecedents and the behavioural consequences of the five affects listed above. The research participants ranged in age from 5 to 95, so that changes throughout the life span could be examined. Systematic associations as well as developmental trends were found. The picture of the elderly that emerged was one of kindness and altriuism: Pity and helping increased throughout the life span, whereas anger decreased. In addition, relations between attributions, emotions, and judged behaviour did not decrease among the very elderly.
The relation between perceived controllability for breaking a social contract and anger was inves... more The relation between perceived controllability for breaking a social contract and anger was investigated within a role-playing paradigm. Ninety children representing three age groups (M = 5.1,7.3, and 9.8) participated. The children were asked to provide causes for why a social engagement was not kept, and then to rate these causes as well as a standard set of six others on perceived controllability and anticipated anger reactions. All three age groups perceived the controllable causes as more associated with anger than the uncontrollable causes, although a developmental trend documenting this cognition-emotion relation was also displayed.
In Exp I, 49 9-yr-olds, 48 11-yr-olds, and 70 undergraduates were told the affective reactions of... more In Exp I, 49 9-yr-olds, 48 11-yr-olds, and 70 undergraduates were told the affective reactions of a teacher toward a failing student. The affects included anger, pity, guilt, surprise, and sadness. Ss were asked to infer the cause of the student's failure. For all ages, there were systematic linkages between the following affect–attribution pairings: anger–lack of effort, guilt–poor teaching, and surprise–lack of effort. In addition, among the undergraduates there was an association between pity and low ability. Exp II, using 103 Ss aged 5, 7, and 9 yrs, examined only the affects of anger and pity. A relationship between anger and lack of effort was exhibited by the youngest Ss whereas a pity–lack of ability association was displayed only by the older Ss. The implications of the findings for self-concept are discussed. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
84 to 90 5–12 yr olds were given scenarios that involved social rejection or a broken social enga... more 84 to 90 5–12 yr olds were given scenarios that involved social rejection or a broken social engagement in a role-playing paradigm. The reasons for rejection were varied to be internal or external to the person being rejected, while the reasons for not appearing at an appointment were varied so that they were controllable or uncontrollable. Ss revealed whether they would communicate the true reasons for their outcomes and, if so, how much the other person's feelings would be hurt when rejected or how angry the person would be when stood up. Results show that for all age groups, there were strong associations between the causal properties of locus and controllability and the respective anticipated reactions of hurt feelings and anger. Correlations between anticipated affects and reported response strategy in this hypothetical situation varied as a function of age and the type of emotional anticipation, with older Ss stating that they would especially withhold causes that elicited anger. Data documented developmental changes in communication strategy rather than in the understanding of attributional determinants of affect. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article explores applications from the field of social cognition to educational issues. Amon... more This article explores applications from the field of social cognition to educational issues. Among the topics examined are: mainstreaming, low achievement, academic self‐concept, achievement change programs, achievement‐related emotions, praise and blame, help‐giving, and affective communications of pity and anger. These issues are clarified with the use of concepts from cognitive social psychology such as perceptual salience, causal ascriptions, perceived personal control, and compensatory schema. Throughout the article, future research directions in educational contexts are suggested from the point of view of cognitive social psychology.
This research examined the influence of task difficulty and diagnosticity (ability information) o... more This research examined the influence of task difficulty and diagnosticity (ability information) on task choice and preference. It was found that males preferred diagnostic over non-diagnostic tasks, but among females significant preferences along this variable were not exhibited. Furthermore, the desire to obtain ability-relevant information decreased as a function of prior knowledge about one's ability. Both high and low ability self-perceptions, induced through prior experiences of success and failure, decreased the attraction toward diagnostic in formation. There was no indication that individuals with high ability self-concepts are especially avoidant of further ability-relevant information, as recent literature has suggested. In addition, and contrary to prior findings, difficult tasks were most preferred rather than easy or intermediate tasks, given that diagnosticity is held constant.
The present study examines cross-cultural perceptions of causal attributions pertinent to success... more The present study examines cross-cultural perceptions of causal attributions pertinent to success and failure in achievement-related contexts. Two groups of participants(taxi drivers and civil servants) from five nations (Belgium, West Germany, India, South Korea, and England) rated 22 causal ascriptions (including ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck) on four causal properties (locus, stability, controllability, and globality). There was high agreement among the two social class groups as well as among four of the nations regarding the ratings of specific causes on the causal dimensions. However, Indian respondents rated all causes as more external, variable, and uncontrollable than did participants from the other cultures. With the exception of the Indian data, the results suggest that a priori classifications of causal attributions have cross-cultural validity and that causal dimensions suggested by attribution theorists capture basic aspects of the meanings of causes that are shared in different cultures.
This investigation examined the perceived properties of causal attributions for success and failu... more This investigation examined the perceived properties of causal attributions for success and failure and their consequences. Eight attributions or perceived reasons for success and failure, such as ability, effort, and luck, were rated by Chilean and U.S. samples for three causal properties—locus (internal versus external), stability (endurance over time), and controllability (degree to which the person can volitionally alter the cause). The ratings between the two cultures were quite similar and in accordance with attribution theory classifications, although Chilean subjects perceived the external causes as more external, the stable causes as less stable, and the controllable causes as less controllable than did subjects from the United States. In addition, predicted relations between causal stability-expectancy of success and controllability evaluation and liking were also generally confirmed in both cultures. Results were discussed in terms of the generality versus cultural specificity of attributional principles in the achievement domain.
The results of 6 experiments, with 493 undergraduates, question M. V. Covington and C. L. Omelich... more The results of 6 experiments, with 493 undergraduates, question M. V. Covington and C. L. Omelich's (see PA, Vols 62:9720 and 63:2020) conclusions that (1) ability ascriptions generate greater pride for success and shame for failure than do effect attributions and (2) ability is more closely linked with positive self-esteem than is effort. It was demonstrated that some of the prior disagreement has been caused by a confounding of independent variables, in that manipulation of effort expenditure also implicated the perceived importance of a task. Hence, the positive relation between shame and high effort reported by Covington and Omelich was in part caused by a linkage between shame and failure at a task perceived as important. In addition, Covington and Omelich assessed public shame. It was demonstrated that, whereas shame was more closely linked with guilt and lack of effort, public shame was more closely associated with humiliation and low ability. It was also shown that the preference to be a student of high ability rather than high effort was in part due to the long-term instrumental value of ability rather than to a union between high ability and positive self-esteem. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two simulation experiments described a student seeking to borrow class notes. The notes were need... more Two simulation experiments described a student seeking to borrow class notes. The notes were needed either because of a lack of academic effort or because of a physical disability. The perceived controllability of the cause, affective reactions, and the likelihood of lending one's notes were ascertained. A total of 245 undergraduates served as Ss. It was found that (a) lack of effort, perceived controllability, anger, and neglect and (b) lack of ability, perceived uncontrollability, pity, and help formed 2 constellations of associations. There was also suggestive evidence of an attribution–affect–action motivational sequence, in which thoughts determine what is felt and feelings determine what is done. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Responds to comments by M. V. Covington and and C. L. Omelich (see record 1984-14990-001) on the ... more Responds to comments by M. V. Covington and and C. L. Omelich (see record 1984-14990-001) on the present authors' (see record 1984-14988-001) experimental examination of the affective consequences of ability and effort attributions. It is suggested that there appears to be agreement between the 2 positions with regard to the affective meaning of attributions for achievement and the relation of outcome, effort, and ability to feelings of self-worth, although differences remain concerning the concepts of salience or centrality, the importance of the identification of determinants of happiness or unhappiness, and methodological considerations. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Points out a number of methodological errors in attributional research. They include failure of t... more Points out a number of methodological errors in attributional research. They include failure of the causal manipulation, insufficient sampling of causal alternatives, inaccurate classification of causes on various dimensions, prediction of expectancy of success rather than expectancy change, use of preference as an indicator of affect, insufficient representation of affects, and the use of dependent variables, such as exam performance, that provide inappropriate testing grounds for attribution theory. Some of these errors are documented with simple demonstration experiments. In addition, methodological suggestions are offered. (47 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This investigation attempted to replicate and to clarify methodologically an investigation by Pol... more This investigation attempted to replicate and to clarify methodologically an investigation by Pollak and Gilligan (1982). Those investigators reported sex differences in violence imagery to Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) pictures depicting affiliation and achievement situations. Pollak and Gilligan concluded that men perceive danger in situations of affiliation whereas women perceive danger in situations of achievement. It was demonstrated in the present study that Pollak and Gilligan incorrectly classified TAT cards into motivational categories, which may have resulted in incorrect inferences. In addition, their findings could not be replicated when using four different systems for classifying TAT cards into motivational categories. Other potential sources of error in their research, including a restrictive scoring scheme for hostility, unusual instructions, and failure to control for sex role in the TAT pictures, did not influence the pattern of results.
Responds to a rebuttal by S. Pollak and C. Gilligan (see record 1984-12283-001) of the present au... more Responds to a rebuttal by S. Pollak and C. Gilligan (see record 1984-12283-001) of the present authors' (see record 1984-12235-001) criticisms of Pollak and Gilligan's (see record 1982-23594-001) study of males and females' violent TAT responses. In addition to not addressing the prior criticisms, it is argued that Pollak and Gilligan introduce 3 new sources of errors regarding their misunderstanding of experimental replication, fantasy classification, and statistical inference. (3 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... Weiner, Bernard; Frieze, Irene; Kukla, Andy; Reed, Linda; Rest, Stanley; Rosenbaum, Robert M.... more ... Weiner, Bernard; Frieze, Irene; Kukla, Andy; Reed, Linda; Rest, Stanley; Rosenbaum, Robert M. Jones, Edward E. (Ed); Kanouse, David E. (Ed); Kelley, Harold H. (Ed); Nisbett, Richard E. (Ed); Valins, Stuart (Ed); Weiner, Bernard (Ed), (1987). ...
... Theories of motivation: From mechanism to cognition. Post a Comment. CONTRIBUTORS: ... PUB TY... more ... Theories of motivation: From mechanism to cognition. Post a Comment. CONTRIBUTORS: ... PUB TYPE: Book (ISBN 084105018X ). VOLUME/EDITION: PAGES (INTRO/BODY): xxii, 474 p. SUBJECT(S): Motivation (Psychology). DISCIPLINE: Psychology. LC NUMBER: BF683 .W43 ...
Negro and Caucasian 4-18 yr olds (N = 300) made moral and achievement evaluative judgments in 16 ... more Negro and Caucasian 4-18 yr olds (N = 300) made moral and achievement evaluative judgments in 16 situations. The situations differed according to the intent (effort) and ability of the person being judged, and in the objective consequences of the behavior. Analyses of variance reveal that the 3 evaluative dimensions of intent, ability, and outcome were used systematically in both achievement and moral appraisal. Further, there were highly significant age trends. In both the achievement and the moral conditions, subjective intent replaced objective outcome as the main determinant of judgment. However, after the age of 12 yrs, in the achievement context objective outcome again became the more important determinant of evaluation. It is contended that society reinforces this more "primitive" developmental stage. The sequence of evaluative stages in the moral and achievement situations was identical across racial and sex groupings. Data strongly support the position that achievement strivings are maintained primarily by social reward, while moral behavior is controlled primarily by social punishment. (20 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Assessed achievement motivation, test anxiety, and performance on a standardized reading test amo... more Assessed achievement motivation, test anxiety, and performance on a standardized reading test among 43 male and 36 female 7th and 8th graders. 2 achievement test formats were employed: an ascending item-difficulty sequence and a random order. Results indicate that performance was not related to the type of test format. For both male and female Ss, reading performance was positively related to achievement motivation and negatively related to test anxiety. Learning vs. performance explanations of these findings were examined, and a relatively new measure of achievement motivation was briefly discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Assessed test anxiety, achievement orientation, and intellectual achievement responsibility (inte... more Assessed test anxiety, achievement orientation, and intellectual achievement responsibility (internal vs. external locus of control) among 107 undergraduates who had either failed or performed excellently on a midterm exam. The affect which they associated with the final exam was reported at various times following the midterm feedback. Data revealed that the measured personality dimensions discriminated succeeding from failing males, but did not differentiate between corresponding female groups. Correlational analysis also yielded systematic relationships between the individual difference variables. Self-report ratings revealed that the change in level of fear as the exam date approached was related to the level of achievement needs. Data were interpreted using N. E. Miller's (see 38:5) model of conflict.
... Fur-thermore, the affects under consideration are pride and shame, for these have been specif... more ... Fur-thermore, the affects under consideration are pride and shame, for these have been specified as the emotional consequences of success and failure (Atkinson, 1964; Mc-Clelland, Atkinson, Clark, & ... But the drink is likely to elicit more happi-ness or joy in the latter instance. ...
Presents a theory of motivation based on attributions of causality for success and failure. The h... more Presents a theory of motivation based on attributions of causality for success and failure. The heart of the theory consists of an identification of the dimensions of causality and the relation of these underlying properties of causes to psychological consequences. Three central causal dimensions have been discerned: stability, locus, and control; these dimensions, respectively, are linked with expectancy change, esteem-related emotions, and interpersonal judgments. (81 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Coalition preferences of 300 male and female subjects were ascertained under varying motivational... more Coalition preferences of 300 male and female subjects were ascertained under varying motivational conditions. Two of the experimental conditions repeated the typical three-person coalition paradigm, with a monetary reward (extrinsic motivation) offered for the winning of a luck-determined game. In a third condition, skill rather than luck influenced the outcome and no monetary reward was given for winning (intrinsic motivation). Two additional conditions examined coalition preferences in a mixed-motive situation, with either a small or a large monetary reward offered for winning a skill-related game. In the extrinsic motivation condition, the low and the medium resource persons typically desired to coalesce, contrary to the wishes of the excluded, high resource player. In contrast, the coalition between the low and the medium resource persons also was preferred by the high resource player in the intrinsic motivation condition. Coalition conflict was intermediate in the mixed-motive conditions. In sum, it was demonstrated that coalition formation and interpersonal conflict are dependent upon the motivational determinants of group activity.
Two experiments are reported which examine causal attributions in achievement-related contexts Su... more Two experiments are reported which examine causal attributions in achievement-related contexts Subjects were provided with information about an achievement-related activity (the immediate outcome of the action, percentage of prior success and failure at the same and similar tasks, percentage of success and failure of others, time spent at the task, task structure, and whether the achievement activity was undertaken by oneself or others) The subjects were required to attribute the immediate performance outcome (success or failure) to the causal factors of ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck The data revealed that the achievement cues were systematically utilized both as main effects and in configural patterns Included among the significant findings were that success is more likely to be attributed to internal factors (ability and effort) than is failure, consistency with the performance of others results in task ascriptions, whereas inconsistency is attributed to ability, effort and luck, and consistency with one's own past performance is ascribed to ability and task difficulty, while inconsistent outcomes give rise to luck and effort attributions Individual data analyses revealed considerable systematic yet idiosyncratic usage of the achievement information The results suggest a confounding in the locus of control literature, and new directions for the study of achievement motivation.
Two experiments examined the linkages between cognitions and emotions. In the 1st investigation, ... more Two experiments examined the linkages between cognitions and emotions. In the 1st investigation, 79 undergraduates reported a "critical incident," in which they succeeded or failed an exam for a particular reason (e.g., help from others, lack of long-term effort). They then recounted 3 affects that were experienced. The data reveal prevalent affects linked with success and failure regardless of the attribution for the outcome. Many emotions identified were associated with specific attributions (e.g., luck–surprise; others–gratitude and others–anger); dimensions of causal attributions, such as locus, also influenced recollected feeling states, particularly esteem-related emotions. It is proposed that in achievement-related contexts there are 3 sources of affect elicited by disparate cognitions. The 2nd experiment demonstrated that 48 undergraduates used emotional cues to infer why a success or a failure had occurred. The proposed cognition–emotion and emotion–cognition couplings appeared to be symmetrical. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Argues that the Hull-Spence conception cannot clearly predict the findings in this area, that M. ... more Argues that the Hull-Spence conception cannot clearly predict the findings in this area, that M. Boor and J. Harmon (see PA, Vol. 46:Issue 3) have misinterpreted B. Weiner's theoretical position, and that other conceptions of behavior (e.g., attribution theory) may account for the reported results. A replication of the Weiner study is presented, which includes the data called for by Boor and Harmon. Again drive theory was contradicted, while the data fit readily within cognitive conceptions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reports 3 experiments based on the findings of B. Weiner and A. Kukla (see record 1970-12575-001)... more Reports 3 experiments based on the findings of B. Weiner and A. Kukla (see record 1970-12575-001) that perceived effort expenditure and ability level in addition to achievement outcome, are determinants of reward and punishment in achievement-related contexts. In Exp I 32 male and female undergraduates served as Ss in a simulated teaching experiment. Results demonstrate that the trait of diligence, as well as high effort expended on a particular task, enhances rewards from others. In Exp II, with 81 Swiss school teachers, perceived task difficulty was manipulated by varying task instructions. It was found that the perceived difficulty of a test does not influence the rewards and punishments dispensed as a function of perceived effort expenditure and level of ability. In Exp III 216 undergraduates made judgments about hypothetical students in all experimental conditions. It was suggested that prior findings indicating that low ability is relatively rewarded may be mediated, in part, by inferences of compensatory effort. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A total of 200 male undergraduates, classified according to their level of achievement needs on a... more A total of 200 male undergraduates, classified according to their level of achievement needs on a test by A. Mehrabian (1969), received 4 failure trials at a digit-symbol substitution task in 2 experiments. Prior to the failure, Ss in an experimental condition received a placebo pill described as interfering with their hand-eye coordination. Compared with Ss in a control condition, ascription of failure to the pill augmented the performance of Ss low in achievement needs, while it decreased the performance of Ss high in achievement needs. These findings were consistent across the 2 studies. Data are discussed in terms of their relevance to (a) an attributional analysis of Expectancy * Value theory, (b) achievement change programs, (c) the relation between thought and action, and (d) alleged attributional biases. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Presents a cognitive model of motivation in which ascriptions concerning the causes of success an... more Presents a cognitive model of motivation in which ascriptions concerning the causes of success and failure mediate between achievement outcomes and subsequent achievement-related behavior. 3 experiments were conducted in which (a) 63 American 5th and 6th grade males were given the Intellectual Achievement Responsibility Questionnaire and performed an achievement-oriented puzzle task, (b) 39 German high school males completed a digit substitution task, and (c) 23 German teachers ranked the amount of effort they would expend on several hypothetical tasks. It was found that attributions to effort (an internal or personal causal factor) magnified relative reward for success and punishment for failure at achievement activities. Attributions to lack of effort or bad luck (causal factors which may vary from moment to moment) produced lesser decrements in the expectancy of success following failure experiences than attributions to low ability or high task difficulty. Ability and task difficulty were perceived as fixed person and task characteristics, respectively. Results suggest that (a) locus of control (internal vs. external) and stability (fixed vs. variable) dimensions of causality are confounded in the locus of control literature, (b) task difficulty as a cue provides information on the efficacy of effort expenditure, and (c) outcomes at tasks of intermediate difficulty are most influenced by effort. It is concluded that attributions to effort play an important role in determining the direction, magnitude, and persistence of achievement-oriented activity. (25 ref.)
Four experiments were conducted that examine the affective and informational determinants of risk... more Four experiments were conducted that examine the affective and informational determinants of risk-preference behavior. In the initial two experiments, subjects classified according to their level of achievement needs expressed a preference among tasks varying in difficulty. In two of the experimental conditions, instructions, respectively, conveyed that performance at the task chosen should either maximize satisfaction or the information gained about one's ability and effort expenditure. It was found that the majority of all subjects preferred to undertake tasks of intermediate difficulty and that both positive affect and information gain were perceived to be optimal at or near the level of intermediate difficulty. Experiments III and IV investigated at what level of task difficulty individuals most desire information about their performance. Police trainees and high school students with disparate self-concepts of respective target shooting and high-jumping ability were able to receive limited but self-selected performance feedback at a series of achievement tasks that varied in difficulty. The data revealed that the tasks selected for feedback became objectively less difficult as the self-perception of ability decreased. In addition, the tasks chosen for feedback were near the intermediate subjective certainty of success level for all subjects. It was contended that the data contradict Atkinson's model of choice but support an attributional conception. The general issue of affective versus informational models of motivation was discussed.
205 male students indicated their level of aspiration on a final exam, and subsequently were aske... more 205 male students indicated their level of aspiration on a final exam, and subsequently were asked to recall the exam items. 2 measures of resultant achievement motivation, 1 objective and 1 in part projective, were used to classify ss into motive groups. for both measures ss high in resultant achievement motivation recalled a greater percentage of failed than passed questions (the zeigarnik effect). they also exhibited a greater zeigarnik effect than ss low in resultant achievement motivation. it is hypothesized that these ss covertly rehearse and think about the missed questions more than ss low in achievement motivation. it is contended that the zeigarnik effect is a learning rather than a memory phenomenon. only the projective measure revealed group differences in level of aspiration. (22 ref.)
Ss classified according to strength of achievement motivation were given 20 tasks and were interr... more Ss classified according to strength of achievement motivation were given 20 tasks and were interrupted at ½ the tasks before completion. ½ the Ss were then given interpolated success experiences, and ½ were given interpolated failures. Ss classified as high in n Achievement spontaneously tended to resume the interrupted tasks following failure but not following success; Ss classified as low in n Achievement tended to resume the tasks following interpolated success but not after failure. The results support previous findings in the area. The behavioral models as presently formulated cannot account for these interactions. (17 ref.)
The recall of completed and incompleted tasks was used to investigate the motivational effects of... more The recall of completed and incompleted tasks was used to investigate the motivational effects of social context on achievement striving. 3 experimental conditions were employed: male competing against male, female competing against female, and male competing against female. Results showed males exhibited a significantly greater Zeigarnik effect after competing against females than after competing against males. Female Ss also showed a greater Zeigarnik effect when competing against females than when competing against males, although the difference in recall between the females in the 2 competitive conditions was not statistically significant. An objective test used to measure achievement motivation predicted differential recall of incompleted and completed tasks for male Ss but not for females. Because the test items were derived from Atkinson's theory of achievement motivation, the results tend to validate the test and the theory.
Ss learned an easy or difficult list of paired associates. On the easy task, false norms implied ... more Ss learned an easy or difficult list of paired associates. On the easy task, false norms implied that Ss were doing poorly relative to others. On the difficult task, false norms implied that Ss were doing well relative to others. Results indicated that Ss high in resultant achievement motivation (n Achievement-Test Anxiety) performed better on the easy task than Ss low in resultant achievement motivation, but worse on the difficult task. Similarly, when these Ss were classified according to level of anxiety, Ss low in anxiety performed better on the easy task than Ss high in anxiety, but worse on the difficult task. The results are contradictory to predictions derived from drive theory. A theory based upon the motivational consequences of success and failure was offered to account for the data. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
Reports 5 short-term memory experiments which examined whether the instructional set to forget af... more Reports 5 short-term memory experiments which examined whether the instructional set to forget affects trace formation or trace retrieval. The experimental paradigms included a manipulation of covert rehearsal efforts, variation in the temporal point in the memory sequence at which a remember or forget instructional cue is introduced, a "latent memory" design in which Ss perceived identical stimuli under shifting instructional sets, and a procedure in which identical stimuli were repeatedly perceived under constant instructional sets. Results strongly suggest that the motivational set to forget hinders trace utilization, rather than original learning. The retrieval deficit caused by the instruction was not necessarily mediated by conscious cognitive processes. The relevance of this work to the clinical conception of repression was emphasized. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A review which analyzes a vast array of studies relating motivation and memory is presented. Inve... more A review which analyzes a vast array of studies relating motivation and memory is presented. Investigations in which the motivational manipulation occurred during trace formation are distinguished from studies in which the manipulation occurred during trace storage or trace retrieval. Includes a series of investigations by the author which varied the incentive for retaining stimuli. The general conclusion is that many studies in the area are methodologically inadequate, and have yielded conflicting results. However, there are studies which provide strong evidence that memory can be influenced by nonassociative factors. (3 p. ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
15 studies which examine the effects of motivation on memory are presented. It was demonstrated t... more 15 studies which examine the effects of motivation on memory are presented. It was demonstrated that the effects of motivation on retention are in part determined by the magnitude of incentive, quality of incentive, nature of the activity intervening between stimulus onset and recall, place in the memory sequence at which the motivational factor is introduced, type of stimuli, and type of experimental design. It is suggested that research in the area may require both between-Ss and within-Ss experimental designs. Rehearsal, repression, and action decrement are discussed briefly.
The effects of motivation on retention were investigated. Using a short-term memory technique, st... more The effects of motivation on retention were investigated. Using a short-term memory technique, stimuli were cued for different incentives. At a short time interval there were no differences in recall as a function of the incentive condition. However, after a longer interval, stimuli associated with a five cent reward or shock were recalled significantly more than stimuli for which neither shock nor money was a potential outcome. It was argued that motivation did not affect the strength of original learning, but did influence the temporally subsequent process of trace storage.
A mediational paradigm devised by Glucksberg and King (1967) apparently demonstrated the “repress... more A mediational paradigm devised by Glucksberg and King (1967) apparently demonstrated the “repression” of stimuli associated with shock. However, three experiments conducted by these writers, one which replicated the Glucksberg and King results, suggest that undetected inequalities in the degree of original learning may have been responsible for the observed pattern of retention.
In a short-term memory task the to-be-remembered stimuli were cued for different incentive values... more In a short-term memory task the to-be-remembered stimuli were cued for different incentive values. 4 incentive conditions were employed: win Iji for correctly retaining the stimulus, win 5i, receive a shock for not correctly recalling the stimulus, and a control group where ...
Using an attributional framework, the study examined college students' (N=529) expectations of th... more Using an attributional framework, the study examined college students' (N=529) expectations of their future economic outcomes and the role they perceived that discrimination would play in determining these outcomes. Expectancies for self, locus of causality for outcomes, self-esteem, locus of causality for failure, locus of causality for success, academic motivation, and group activism were measured; an ANOVA was conducted. Results are presented and discussed. It was found that early in college African Americans have higher expectancies than other students, but that these expectancies decline during college. At the same time that expectancies decline, African Americans' self-esteem does not decline. There is a dissociation, such that self-esteem is less related to expectancies for Black than for White students. The decline can be accounted for by African Americans' increasing external attributions for their future outcomes: their pessimism about being able to overcome the barriers faced by African Americans. Further analyses show that when these external attributions for failure are combined with internal attributions for success, they are associated with high achievement motivation and high group activism. (EMK)
Previous research has documented that attributional information contained in causal accounts for ... more Previous research has documented that attributional information contained in causal accounts for success induce impressions of arrogance and modesty. The research further examined the role of accounts as well as level of success when perceivers know the real reason for success. Two studies of university students revealed that honesty strongly decreases arrogance and increases modesty in the case of effort accounts, and not in situations of communicated ability. In addition, honesty was determined not only by the truth value of an account but also by the extent to which the account induced impressions of arrogance and modesty. The present findings provide further understanding of the link between attributional information and social judgments.
International journal of psychology : Journal international de psychologie, Jan 26, 2015
In this response to the manuscript by Pilati, attribution theory as applied to motivation is firs... more In this response to the manuscript by Pilati, attribution theory as applied to motivation is first reviewed. Then shortcomings of Pilati's method and analysis are pointed out. In addition, issues concerning the significance of lack of cross-cultural replication are discussed.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Jan 1, 1987
We conducted four studies that pertained to excuses given for a broken social contract. In an ini... more We conducted four studies that pertained to excuses given for a broken social contract. In an initial field investigation, participants recalled occasions in which they had given true and false reasons for not fulfilling a social obligation. Communicated reasons tended to be external to the person, uncontrollable, and unintentional (e.g., "My car broke down"), whereas withheld reasons tended to be internal, controllable, and either intentional (e.g., "I did not want to go") or unintentional (e.g., "I forgot"). The external uncontrollable excuses were anticipated to lessen the anger of the wronged party. In a subsequent simulation study, excuses based on the categories detected in Experiment 1 were manipulated and related to anger ratings. The same pattern of results was displayed, with intent and negligence provoking the highest anger ratings. The final two studies involved laboratory manipulation of a communicated reason for coming late to an experiment. In Experiment 3, a confederate conveyed either an internal controllable, an external uncontrollable, or no reason for making a subject wait, whereas in Experiment 4, subjects were detained and created their own good, bad, any, or no excuse for being tardy, which was communicated to a second, waiting subject. A consistent pattern of good excuse/external uncontrollable reason and bad excuse/internal controllable reason was displayed; offering no excuse resulted in the same judgments as giving a poor excuse. Relative to the external uncontrollable reasons, internal controllable excuses for being late augmented aversive emotional reactions, increased negative personality ratings, and resulted in a desire for no further social contact. The data were discussed as illustrating the use of a naive theory of emotion to manipulate the feelings of others in social contexts. This emotion approach to excuses was compared with an impression management perspective.
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