Papers by Kate Fulcher
Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, 2023
Samples taken from the canopic jars of Djehutyhotep, chief of Tehkhet (Debeira), Lower Nubia, and... more Samples taken from the canopic jars of Djehutyhotep, chief of Tehkhet (Debeira), Lower Nubia, and local versions of Egyptian canopic jars from Sai, Upper Nubia, suggest that the materials used for mortuary ritual unguents in Nubia may have differed from those used in Egypt. Nubian samples consisted of plant gum and bitumen, whereas those from Egypt conformed to the standardizing black resinous liquid recipe used for mummification and other funerary rituals. However, there may be time frame issues to be considered as most samples analyzed from Egypt date to later periods. A standard black funerary liquid was used at Amara West, Upper Nubia, probably poured over a wrapped body, which might suggest that the gum and bitumen mixture was reserved for filling canopic jars, perhaps indicating that the use of canopic jars in Nubia differed from their use in Egypt. Evidence from the canopic jars of Djehutyhotep, local versions of canopic jars from Sai, and the sample from Amara West also indicate a source of bitumen that was not the Dead Sea, which was the main (although not only) source used in Egypt. The new results from the analysis of the Djehutyhotep canopic jars and previously published results from Sai point towards alternative ritual practices associated with local conceptions and uses of canopic jars in colonized Nubia. These samples and data from Amara West further reveal that the bitumen used in mortuary contexts in Nubia originated elsewhere than bitumen used in Egypt, which might have implications for our understanding of colonized Nubia as part of other trade networks independently from Egypt.
Rademakers, F.W., Auenmüller, J., Spencer, N., Fulcher, K., Lehmann, M., Vanhaecke, F. and Degryse, P. (2023), Metals and pigments at Amara West: Cross-craft perspectives on practices and provisioning in New Kingdom Nubia, Journal of Archaeological Science 153, 105766.
This paper presents the results of elemental and lead isotopic analysis of copper alloys, copper-... more This paper presents the results of elemental and lead isotopic analysis of copper alloys, copper-based pigments and an extremely rare tin-based alloy from the town of Amara West (Sudan), the centre for pharaonic control of occupied Upper Nubia between 1300 and 1070 BCE. It is the first assemblage of its kind to be analysed for Upper Nubia during this period. This research examines the selection and consumption of alloys in a colonial context, in light of earlier and contemporaneous practices and patterns in both Egypt and Nubia, to assess broader systems of resource management and metal production. Drawing on the complementary information obtained from pigment analysis, novel insights into interactions between different high-temperature crafts are obtained, particularly in terms of shared provisioning systems. From this unique perspective, pigment analysis is used for the first time to illuminate copper sources not reflected in metal assemblages, while scrap copper alloys are identified as a key colourant for Egyptian blue manufacture. The integrated application of strontium isotope analysis further highlights the potential for identifying links between glass, faience and Egyptian blue production systems within Egypt and for distinguishing these from other manufacturing regions such as Mesopotamia. The analysis of a tin artefact further expands our understanding of potential tin sources available during the New Kingdom and their role in shaping copper alloy compositions. Overall, this holistic approach to copper alloys and their application in other high-temperature industries ties together different strands of research, shaping a new understanding of New Kingdom technological practices, supply networks and material stocks circulating throughout the Nile Valley.
Heritage, 2022
Paints and plasters from two pharaonic settlement sites in Nubia (northern Sudan) were analysed t... more Paints and plasters from two pharaonic settlement sites in Nubia (northern Sudan) were analysed to investigate the presence and origin of organic binding materials. The town of Sai was founded around the time of the pharaonic conquest of Kush (Upper Nubia) around 1500 BC, with Amara West created as a new centre for the pharaonic administration of the region around 1300 BC. Recent fieldwork at both sites yielded examples of paint palettes, including several from houses. These provide a different economic and social context to funerary contexts upon which most previous research has been conducted, making this study the first to report on binding media for vernacular architecture in the Nile Valley. It is also the first study of binding media from Nubia. Gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis of methanolysed and silylated paint and plaster samples revealed a range of monosaccharides present in eight of the seventeen samples from Amara West, and in six of the seven samples from Sai. Interpretation of the data was supported by field collection and study of locally available botanical gums. The results indicate that mixtures of gums were in use as a pigment binder at both sites during the mid- to late-second millennium BC. The possibility that some of these plant gums could have been imported from the Mediterranean is also posited.
Heritage, 2021
Pigments from paint palettes and a grindstone excavated from the pharaonic town of
AmaraWest (c. ... more Pigments from paint palettes and a grindstone excavated from the pharaonic town of
AmaraWest (c. 1300–1050 BCE), which lies between the Second and Third Cataracts of the Nile, were
examined using polarized light microscopy, attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), X-ray diffraction, and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive
X-ray spectroscopy. Most of the pigments were consistent with the typical ancient Egyptian palette,
but the greens and some blues were unusual. Two types of green pigment were identified, chlorite
(varieties clinochlore and penninite) and copper chloride hydroxide (atacamite type). The former
constitutes a type of green earth which has only rarely been identified in pharaonic Egyptian contexts
and may be more widespread than is currently reported. The majority of the blue pigment samples
were Egyptian blue, but some were found to be a blue earth, the main component of which being
sodic amphibole riebeckite. The use of this mineral as a pigment has not previously been reported in
any Nile Valley context. These results prompt questions around local and potentially indigenous
practices within an ancient colonial context, and highlight avenues for future research.
PNAS, 2021
Black organic coatings and ritual deposits on ancient Egyptian coffins and cartonnage cases are i... more Black organic coatings and ritual deposits on ancient Egyptian coffins and cartonnage cases are important and understudied sources of evidence about the rituals of funerary practice. Sometimes , the coatings were applied extensively over the surface of the coffin, resembling paint; in other cases, they were poured over the mummy case or wrapped body, presumably as part of a funerary ritual. For this study, multiple samples of black coatings and ritual liquids were taken from 20 Egyptian funerary items dating to a specific time period (c. 943 to 716 BC). Multiple sampling from each object enabled several comparisons to be made: the variability of the black coating within one application, the variability between two applications on one object, and the variability from object to object. All samples were analyzed for lipids using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and 51 samples from across the 20 items were further analyzed for the presence of bitumen using solid phase separation followed by selected ion monitoring GC-MS. The majority of the black substances were found to comprise a complex mixture of organic materials, including bitumen from the Dead Sea, conifer resin, and Pistacia resin, providing evidence for a continuation in international trade between Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean after the Late Bronze Age. Both the coating and the anointing liquid are very similar to mummification balms, pointing to parallels with Egyptian embalming rituals and raising questions about the practical aspects of Egyptian funerary practice. archaeology | ancient Egypt | coffins | chromatography | mass spectrometry
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2021
Black organic coatings and ritual deposits on ancient Egyptian coffins and cartonnage cases are i... more Black organic coatings and ritual deposits on ancient Egyptian coffins and cartonnage cases are important and understudied sources of evidence about the rituals of funerary practice. Sometimes , the coatings were applied extensively over the surface of the coffin, resembling paint; in other cases, they were poured over the mummy case or wrapped body, presumably as part of a funerary ritual. For this study, multiple samples of black coatings and ritual liquids were taken from 20 Egyptian funerary items dating to a specific time period (c. 943 to 716 BC). Multiple sampling from each object enabled several comparisons to be made: the variability of the black coating within one application, the variability between two applications on one object, and the variability from object to object. All samples were analyzed for lipids using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and 51 samples from across the 20 items were further analyzed for the presence of bitumen using solid phase separation followed by selected ion monitoring GC-MS. The majority of the black substances were found to comprise a complex mixture of organic materials, including bitumen from the Dead Sea, conifer resin, and Pistacia resin, providing evidence for a continuation in international trade between Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean after the Late Bronze Age. Both the coating and the anointing liquid are very similar to mummification balms, pointing to parallels with Egyptian embalming rituals and raising questions about the practical aspects of Egyptian funerary practice. archaeology | ancient Egypt | coffins | chromatography | mass spectrometry
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports Volume 33, October 2020, 102550, 2020
An analysis of paints found in ceramic sherd palettes from the 18th Dynasty (1548-1302 BCE) Phara... more An analysis of paints found in ceramic sherd palettes from the 18th Dynasty (1548-1302 BCE) Pharaonic town on Sai Island in Upper Nubia using polarised light microscopy and infrared spectroscopy revealed pigments from the standard Egyptian repertoire: red and yellow ochres, Egyptian blue, calcite, gypsum, anhydrite, and the bright white huntite. Orange-yellow residues in ceramic sherds from the town were analysed using gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and were identified as Pistacia sp. resin, probably for use as incense. A dark organic substance from a vessel in the elite Pharaonic cemetery of the island was analysed using a second GC-MS method and was shown to be bitumen. Biomarkers in the bitumen indicate that its source may be the same as a sample from another Pharaonic town in Upper Nubia, suggesting a possible Nubian source. This is one of the earliest identifications of the use of bitumen in a funerary context in the ancient Nile Valley, and the furthest southern example yet analysed. Black fluids containing bitumen were used in Egypt as part of the process of mummification and for funerary anointing rituals; it is likely that the bitumen material at Sai was related to these practices.
Nature Scientific Reports, 2020
Bitumen has been identified for the first time in Egyptian occupied Nubia, from within the town o... more Bitumen has been identified for the first time in Egyptian occupied Nubia, from within the town of Amara West, occupied from around 1300 to 1050 BC. The bitumen can be sourced to the Dead Sea using biomarkers, evidencing a trade in this material from the eastern Mediterranean to Nubia in the New Kingdom or its immediate aftermath. Two different end uses for bitumen were determined at the site. Ground bitumen was identified in several paint palettes, and in one case can be shown to have been mixed with plant gum, which indicates the use of bitumen as a ground pigment. Bitumen was also identified as a component of a friable black solid excavated from a tomb, and a black substance applied to the surface of a painted and plastered coffin fragment. Both contained plant resin, indicating that this substance was probably applied as a ritual funerary liquid, a practice identified from this time period in Egypt. The use of this ritual, at a far remove from the royal Egyptian burial sites at Thebes, indicates the importance of this ritual as a component of the funeral, and the value attributed to the material components of the black liquid.
Invisible Archaeologies: Hidden aspects of daily life in ancient Egypt and Nubia, 2019
People in the ancient world used natural materials in the world around them to add colour to thei... more People in the ancient world used natural materials in the world around them to add colour to their living environments, including architecture, textiles, and skin. The ancient Egyptians decorated their houses using bright colours, and archaeological evidence suggests this was not just the prerogative of the elite; the town of Amara West in north Sudan provides material evidence for the production and use of paint to decorate the walls even in modest houses. A scientific analysis of the pigments and binders revealed the materials from which the paint was made and some of the processes employed. The analysis was enhanced by a complementary phenomenological approach to address the sensory aspect of production, including intangible aspects that may have been important in the manufacturing and application of paint. The process of making and using the paints can to some extent be reconstructed and re-enacted, revealing the sensory nature of the process, the texture and appearance of the materials as they were prepared, the effort required, sounds, smells, and the haptic perception of the whole procedure, from collection of materials to dried paint on the wall. Archaeology can suggest to us modes of remembering; sites that are visited multiple times, or tasks that are repeated, would necessarily have memories embedded within them (Edmonds 1999; Hamilakis 2013: 103). As paint materials were gathered and processed by people from the landscape, memories were produced and re-activated via embodied performance, during which each aspect of the haptic experience has a part to play in activating and creating memories. Memories are carried by the paint, which can then act as a mnemonic device. The memories it holds are individual, communal and societal, and make the paint effective within its environment. Differences in the use of paint across the site of Amara West show how the inhabitants of Amara West were using this medium to construct identity and convey distinction.
Current Research in Nubian Archaeology, 2018
We live in a material world, as did people in the ancient world. Human beings are constantly inte... more We live in a material world, as did people in the ancient world. Human beings are constantly interacting with objects, and also with surfaces, both natural and constructed, textiles, food, water, even the air around us. The lived environment is integral to a consideration of the material culture of a society: we are ecologically embodied (Boivin 2008, 75; Ingold 2011, 166–168; van Dyke & Alcock 2003). Landscapes are known, used, and manipulated, a concept which is theoretically drawn from Bordieau’s “habitus”, the ingrained knowledge and habits that come from a life and a culture situated within a particular material world; a “feel for the game”, to use Bordieau’s sports metaphor (Bourdieu 1990, 66). Overlaid on the landscape and taking place within the habitus are the constant actions of people, which collectively have been described as a “taskscape”, the interlocking ensemble of activities performed by people (Ingold 2011, 195). Landscape, person, technical task, and socio-cultural life do not exist independently, and must be considered as one organism, each affecting the other.
Research on the pigments used in ancient Egypt is well established, but much less work has been c... more Research on the pigments used in ancient Egypt is well established, but much less work has been conducted on Nubian sites. Fourteen samples of polychrome decoration were taken from fragments of painted wall plaster from the shrine at Kawa for analysis at the British Museum. Most pigments matched those found in the Egyptian palette, but one pinkish-red was identified as the organic lake pigment madder, on a clay substrate. This has not previously been identified as a pigment used in wall painting in Egypt or Nubia.
The conservation of wooden objects is complicated by their response to changes in their environme... more The conservation of wooden objects is complicated by their response to changes in their environment. In particular, filling voids in wooden objects can be difficult when their dimensions might be expected to alter over time. A short survey of conservators showed that a wide variety of materials have been, and are being used for this purpose. Following conservation work undertaken on a wooden coffin, the author wished to investigate the properties of cellulosic materials and their suitability in the conservation of wooden objects. This paper shares the results of experiments that were conducted to determine the way in which hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC) and paper pulp fills respond in various conditions, as compared to other fill materials used by conservators. The compatibility of the HPC and paper pulp fills with wood is satisfactory enough to be able to recommend their use in the conservation of wooden artefacts, but ideally further experiments would be carried out, and on a wider variety of fill materials.
Journal of Open Archaeology Data 3:e2, Jul 2014
The data here described are the results of a survey sent to conservators to discover the range of... more The data here described are the results of a survey sent to conservators to discover the range of materials being using to fill gaps in wooden objects, and to assess how popular hydroxypropyl cellulose and paper pulp were in regards to this. The survey was created using Survey Monkey, a free online survey tool. The complete dataset is available from UCL Discovery in Excel and CSV format. It is hoped that these survey results can be used by conservators to inform their work on wooden objects and inspire experimental work that will demonstrate the suitability of different materials for the purpose of filling wood.
If you are interested in the performance of materials used to fill wood (and other hydroscopic materials) please see my other paper, also available from Academia.edu "An investigation of the use of cellulose-based materials to gap-fill wooden objects"
In the 1960s a conservation filler known as AJK dough was developed at the Institute of Archaeolo... more In the 1960s a conservation filler known as AJK dough was developed at the Institute of Archaeology, University College London, as an alternative to plaster. It was used into the 1990s to conserve a wide variety of materials. Applications included the reconstruction of ceramics, gapfilling wooden objects, adhering and reinforcing fossils, and repairingmusical instruments. Itwas made by kneading together Alvar (polyvinyl acetal), jute flock and kaolin powder with solvents. Butvar (polyvinyl butyral) was used from1980, when Alvar ceased to be manufactured, creating a very similar material called BJK dough. In the 1990s, difficulty in obtaining the raw ingredients, and concerns with its disadvantages, led to other materials being used in its place. However, it is now being encountered in museum collections where its inappropriate use has led to physical damage to objects. This article provides a review of AJK dough and its uses in conservation. The properties of the dough that caused it to be so widely used are discussed, and its advantages and disadvantages in different applications. Reasons for its disuse are also discussed. Current approaches to treating objects previously conserved with AJK dough are considered.
The London Underground is the oldest Underground railway in the world. Some of its stations are n... more The London Underground is the oldest Underground railway in the world. Some of its stations are now over a century old, and many others have important historical associations. A great number of the early stations were tiled in distinctive schemes, leaving London Underground with an enormous amount of tiling heritage to care for in a transport network that has to continue offering a customer focussed service on a daily basis. This paper discusses the difficulties this presents to London Underground in its efforts to conserve its heritage tiling, and the approaches they have taken. Both London Underground’s and the heritage community’s attitudes to large scale architectural conservation have changed over time, so from an initial approach of retention of all viable original material, they have moved on to a more considered aim of holistic station conservation, focusing on the architect’s intent and the “feel” of a station. It is not only London Underground who have been involved in the work affecting heritage tiling, and the impact of other parties is also discussed.
Book Reviews by Kate Fulcher
Bibliotheca Orientalis LXXVIII 5/6, 2021
NUNN, A. and H. PIENING (eds.) — Mesopotamian Sculpture in Colour. PeWe Verlag, Gladbeck, 2020. (... more NUNN, A. and H. PIENING (eds.) — Mesopotamian Sculpture in Colour. PeWe Verlag, Gladbeck, 2020. (30,5 cm,
XIII, 254, 8 pls.). ISBN 978-3-935012-42-3. € 65,–.
Review of Treasures from the Sea: Sea Silk and Shellfish Purple Dye in Antiquity, ed. H. L. Enegr... more Review of Treasures from the Sea: Sea Silk and Shellfish Purple Dye in Antiquity, ed. H. L. Enegren and F. Meo
This volume presents the proceedings of a conference in Lecce in 2013, which brought together several different approaches including archaeology, experimentation, scientific analysis, and terminology. This interdisciplinary approach is reflected in the publication, which both maintains the reader’s interest and works well for ancient materials.
This is the third book of this type published by Dr Donker van Heel. Each claims to be able to ac... more This is the third book of this type published by Dr Donker van Heel. Each claims to be able to access the ordinary people of ancient Egypt via textual sources. This work is based on the ostraca and papyri from the New Kingdom village of Deir el-Medina. Whilst this work would have benefitted from the incorporation of more non-textual sources, the reviewer concludes that overall this is a thoughtful, yet pragmatic interpretation of texts, leading to interesting discussions on sometimes little considered topics. Mrs. Naunakhte and Family: The Women of Ramesside Deir al-Medina, by Koenraad
Books by Kate Fulcher
The first in a series of volumes generated by the British Museum’s Amara West Research Project, t... more The first in a series of volumes generated by the British Museum’s Amara West Research Project, this explores the use of pigments and the experience of colour in the town founded around 1300BC as a centre of the pharaonic administration of Upper Nubia (Kush). Combining scientific analyses, archaeological fieldwork, and modern ethnographic perspectives, the research provides nuanced perspectives on lived experience at Amara West. This study outlines the evidence for paint products at the site from pigments, palettes, grindstones, painted walls, and coffin fragments, and uses several scientific techniques to identify the materials used. The evidence is used alongside interviews with current residents of the area around Amara West, and experiments with grinding and painting, to discuss the importance of the process of collecting and preparing the paint in ancient times, and its place in the interconnected taskspaces in the ancient town.
Uploads
Papers by Kate Fulcher
AmaraWest (c. 1300–1050 BCE), which lies between the Second and Third Cataracts of the Nile, were
examined using polarized light microscopy, attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), X-ray diffraction, and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive
X-ray spectroscopy. Most of the pigments were consistent with the typical ancient Egyptian palette,
but the greens and some blues were unusual. Two types of green pigment were identified, chlorite
(varieties clinochlore and penninite) and copper chloride hydroxide (atacamite type). The former
constitutes a type of green earth which has only rarely been identified in pharaonic Egyptian contexts
and may be more widespread than is currently reported. The majority of the blue pigment samples
were Egyptian blue, but some were found to be a blue earth, the main component of which being
sodic amphibole riebeckite. The use of this mineral as a pigment has not previously been reported in
any Nile Valley context. These results prompt questions around local and potentially indigenous
practices within an ancient colonial context, and highlight avenues for future research.
If you are interested in the performance of materials used to fill wood (and other hydroscopic materials) please see my other paper, also available from Academia.edu "An investigation of the use of cellulose-based materials to gap-fill wooden objects"
Book Reviews by Kate Fulcher
XIII, 254, 8 pls.). ISBN 978-3-935012-42-3. € 65,–.
This volume presents the proceedings of a conference in Lecce in 2013, which brought together several different approaches including archaeology, experimentation, scientific analysis, and terminology. This interdisciplinary approach is reflected in the publication, which both maintains the reader’s interest and works well for ancient materials.
Books by Kate Fulcher
AmaraWest (c. 1300–1050 BCE), which lies between the Second and Third Cataracts of the Nile, were
examined using polarized light microscopy, attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), X-ray diffraction, and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive
X-ray spectroscopy. Most of the pigments were consistent with the typical ancient Egyptian palette,
but the greens and some blues were unusual. Two types of green pigment were identified, chlorite
(varieties clinochlore and penninite) and copper chloride hydroxide (atacamite type). The former
constitutes a type of green earth which has only rarely been identified in pharaonic Egyptian contexts
and may be more widespread than is currently reported. The majority of the blue pigment samples
were Egyptian blue, but some were found to be a blue earth, the main component of which being
sodic amphibole riebeckite. The use of this mineral as a pigment has not previously been reported in
any Nile Valley context. These results prompt questions around local and potentially indigenous
practices within an ancient colonial context, and highlight avenues for future research.
If you are interested in the performance of materials used to fill wood (and other hydroscopic materials) please see my other paper, also available from Academia.edu "An investigation of the use of cellulose-based materials to gap-fill wooden objects"
XIII, 254, 8 pls.). ISBN 978-3-935012-42-3. € 65,–.
This volume presents the proceedings of a conference in Lecce in 2013, which brought together several different approaches including archaeology, experimentation, scientific analysis, and terminology. This interdisciplinary approach is reflected in the publication, which both maintains the reader’s interest and works well for ancient materials.