Teaching Documents by Andrea L Brock
World Development Perspectives, 2022
*OPEN ACCESS* This Sustainability Case Study considers the trajectory of Ancient Rome’s urban dev... more *OPEN ACCESS* This Sustainability Case Study considers the trajectory of Ancient Rome’s urban development in its riverine environment. Recent geoarchaeological investigations in Rome’s river valley have shed light on the pre-urban setting and landscape changes that occurred alongside urbanization. With these new discoveries and a rich corpus of archaeological and historical evidence, Rome offers one of the longest records available for exploring how rivers impact cities and cities impact rivers.
In order to build in their flood-prone lowlands in the mid-1st millennium BCE, the inhabitants of Rome engaged in large-scale landscape modification projects and flood mitigation measures. Urbanization at Rome, however, triggered fresh ecological challenges, including rapid sedimentation and escalating floods. The inhabitants of Rome responded to their volatile river with a range of adaptive strategies. Over the centuries, they continued to mitigate the effects of overbank flooding through the use of strategic urban planning, land reclamation, flood-resistant architecture, and bureaucratic oversight of the riverine landscape. It is noteworthy that, despite having the capabilities, the ancient Romans chose not to enact large-scale engineering projects to prevent floods altogether. The so-called Eternal City, therefore, should be seen as a resilient city—one that persevered in the face of dynamic ecological conditions and recurrent inundations.
This article emphasizes the value of historical applications for modern sustainability studies: the past offers both empirical evidence and a vibrant perspective for conceptualizing the complexities of human-environment interactions over many centuries. The story of Rome’s relationship with its river ultimately underscores the eternal co-evolution of society and the environment.
***Additional Commentary by M. Thompson (Harvard), “Making a Short Story Long: Teaching Sustainability on the Longue Duree”***
***OPEN ACCESS version of this case study available as part of the Michigan Sustainability Cases Project, https://www.learngala.com/cases/urbanizing-the-eternal-city ***
The Sustainability Series, 2021
*OPEN ACCESS*
Articles by Andrea L Brock
Journal of Roman Studies, 2021
*OPEN ACCESS* A geoarchaeological coring survey of the Forum Boarium has shed considerable light... more *OPEN ACCESS* A geoarchaeological coring survey of the Forum Boarium has shed considerable light on Rome’s archaic landscape. We present the first empirical evidence that substantiates ancient and modern assumptions about the existence of a river harbour and ford in early Rome. Prior to the growth of the city, the riverbank—reconstructed as a high ledge at the base of the Capitoline Hill and a low-lying shore north of the Aventine—was particularly advantageous for river-related activities. However, the river valley changed significantly in the sixth century B.C.E., as a result of complex fluvial processes that were arguably spurred by urbanization. Around the beginning of the Republic, Rome’s original harbour silted up, and a high, wide riverbank emerged in its place. The siltation continued until the Forum Boarium was urbanized in the mid-Republic. In order to build their city and maintain river harbour operations, the Romans therefore had to adapt to dynamic ecological conditions.
International Journal of Earth Sciences, 2021
Geomorphological investigations in Rome's river valley are revealing the dynamism of the prehisto... more Geomorphological investigations in Rome's river valley are revealing the dynamism of the prehistoric landscape. It is becoming increasingly apparent that paleogeographic conditions that defined Rome in the historical era are the product of changes since the Bronze Age, which may be the result of local fault activity in addition to fluvial dynamism. Through a dedicated borehole chronostratigraphic study, integrated by 14 C and archaeological dates, and paleomagnetic investigations, we offer here new evidence for fault displacement since ca. 4500 years/BP. We present the failure of the sedimentary fabric of a clay horizon caused by liquefaction processes commonly linked with seismic shaking, interpreting an (ca. 4 m) offset to signify the existence of a fault line located at the foot of the Capitoline Hill. In addition, we show evidence for another (ca. 1 m) offset affecting a stratigraphic horizon in the river channel, occurring along another hypothesized fault line crossing through the Tiber Valley. Movement along this fault may have contributed to a documented phase of fast overflooding dated to the sixth century BCE which eventually led to the birth of the Tiber Island. The most plausible scenario implies progressive deformation, with an average tectonic rate of 2 mm/year, along these inferred fault lines. This process was likely punctuated with moderate earthquakes, but no large event necessarily occurred. Together, the available evidence suggests that during the early centuries of sedentary habitation at the site of Rome, active fault lines contributed to significant changes to the Tiber River valley, capable of challenging lowland activities.
Ricerche nell’area dei templi di Fortuna e Mater Matuta, vol II, 2018
The Tiber valley is a prominent feature in the landscape of ancient Rome and an important element... more The Tiber valley is a prominent feature in the landscape of ancient Rome and an important element for understanding its urban development. However, little is known about the city's original setting. Our research provides new data on the Holocene sedimentary history and human-environment interactions in the Forum Boarium, the location of the earliest harbor of the city. Since the Last Glacial Maximum, when the fluvial valley was incised to a depth of tens of meters below the present sea level, 14 C and ceramic ages coupled with paleo-magnetic analysis show the occurrence of three distinct aggradational phases until the establishment of a relatively stable alluvial plain at 6–8 m a.s.l. during the late 3 rd century BCE. Moreover, we report evidence of a sudden and anomalous increase in sedimentation rate around 2600 yr BP, leading to the deposition of a 4-6m thick package of alluvial deposits in approximately one century. We discuss this datum in the light of possible tectonic activity along a morpho-structural lineament, revealed by the digital elevation model of this area, crossing the Forum Boarium and aligned with the Tiber Island. We formulate the hypothesis that fault displacement along this structural lineament may be responsible for the sudden collapse of the investigated area, which provided new space for the observed unusually large accumulation of sediments. We also posit that, as a consequence of the diversion of the Tiber course and the loss in capacity of transport by the river, this faulting activity triggered the origin of the Tiber Island.
Etruscan Studies, May 2016
Following a brief discussion of the literature and intellectual history of Rome's river port, thi... more Following a brief discussion of the literature and intellectual history of Rome's river port, this article presents preliminary results from a mechanized coring survey of the Forum Boarium valley. Conducted in 2015, this survey produced empirical evidence on prehistoric human activity in Rome's floodplain and acquired substantial data on the paleolandscape of the region, including the shifting position of the Tiber River and the discovery of lacustrine deposits in the valley. Additionally, consideration is given to the advantages and limitations posed by the natural landscape during the origins of settlement and early urban development at Rome.
Proceedings from the Conference on Environmental Archaeology of European Cities, Sep 2017
The site of Rome provided many opportunities for the development of a city: access to natural res... more The site of Rome provided many opportunities for the development of a city: access to natural resources, defensible terrain, a ford in the Tiber River, among others. In addition to these advantages, the environment and landscape also presented numerous challenges to early inhabitants. This ecological dichotomy is especially observable in the Forum Boarium, a region situated in the Tiber's floodplain at the base of the Capitoline and Palatine Hills. By the Archaic period (7th–6th centuries BCE), this vital gateway for trade and communication was operating as a river port, equipped with a harbor temple. Periodic flooding of the Tiber River, however, consistently jeopardized these commercial and cult pursuits in the Forum Boarium. As a result, this region became the focus of early endeavors at landscape modification, which were aimed at protecting and facilitating the growth of urban infrastructure in the floodplain.
In order to explore geoarchaeological conditions in the floodplain, a multi-disciplinary research project was undertaken in the Forum Boarium between 2013 and 2015. This paper presents preliminary results from this recent investigation, including evidence on the natural topography of the river valley, floods and sedimentation, as well as building techniques in a flood-prone region in Archaic and Early Republican Rome. It is argued that, in response to varied and prolonged environmental stress, landscape modification and continuous management became important prerequisites to Rome's urbanization process; in this way, ecological pressures directly influenced the development of the city's built landscape. This research not only represents a significant step towards a paleoenvironmental reconstruction of early Rome, but also demonstrates the advantages of coring survey in urban areas where access to deeply buried archaeological and geological stratigraphy is restricted.
Antiquity, Jun 2016
Evidence of Bronze Age settlement in Rome has, for the most part, been conspicuous by its absence... more Evidence of Bronze Age settlement in Rome has, for the most part, been conspicuous by its absence. The later development of the city has precluded most excavations from reaching a depth sufficient to encounter any such deposits, and early finds have been mostly recovered from secondary deposits. A series of boreholes below the church of Sant'Omobono have revealed in situ deposits of anthropic activity, which date to the late second millennium BC, interspersed with thick alluvial deposits. This new data from the Forum Boarium demonstrates that early settlement activity in Rome was not restricted to the summits or slopes of the Palatine and Capitoline Hills, but also included activity on the banks of the Tiber.
The church of Sant'Omobono sits above one of the highest human occupation sequences in the city o... more The church of Sant'Omobono sits above one of the highest human occupation sequences in the city of Rome. Some 3.5 m of sediment lie between the earliest known Bronze Age occupation lens and the base of the foundations of the early 6th c. B.C. temple, a further 13 m above which lies the floor of the present church, reconstructed in A.D. 1482. 1 The site was sacred to the goddesses Fortuna and Mater Matuta for more than a millennium, before one of their temples was converted into a church of San Salvatore, rebuilt many times and eventually rededicated to Saints Anthony and Omobono. The archaeological remains were discovered by chance in 1936, when the dense neighborhood surrounding the church was demolished to make way for new Fascist infrastructure. The site was spared from further construction, and excavations continued sporadically through the latter half of the 20th c. This work was carried out by a diverse cast of archaeologists employing an equally diverse range of methodologies and field practices, though none of this work has been fully published. Since 2009, the Sant'Omobono Project, a collaboration between the University of Michigan, the Università della Calabria, and the Sovrintendenza Capitolina of the Comune di Roma, has continued this research with the goal of understanding and publishing whatever possible from the earlier excavations and bringing updated methodologies to bear on the site. While preparations for comprehensive publication are ongoing, the present article summarizes the main occupation and construction phases at the site as understood after 6 years of work by the project. 2
Books by Andrea L Brock
This dissertation presents the results of a recent geoarchaeological investigation in the he... more This dissertation presents the results of a recent geoarchaeological investigation in the heart of Rome. Using an interdisciplinary approach with underutilized methodologies, namely coring survey and environmental sampling, I have been able to investigate deeply buried levels in Rome’s river valley, called the Forum Boarium. This region marks the site of Rome’s original river harbor and an important crossroad in prehistoric central Italy. By drilling a series of cores that produce sediment boreholes more than 15m long, it becomes possible to survey previously inaccessible archaeological and geological stratigraphy across a wide area and with great depth. As coring survey effectively explores the interactions and relationships of past peoples with their landscape, utilization and refinement of these techniques will help launch promising new research in the field of environmental history.
In the case of Rome, environmental archaeology offers new perspective on the nascent city by providing data on the pre-urban environment and urban development of Rome’s river valley. Among other things, my survey exposed key features of the natural landscape in the Forum Boarium, including the location of Rome’s original river harbor and the nearby section of raised floodplain at the base of the Capitoline Hill. I argue that Rome’s origins as a harbor settlement helped the city achieve regional dominance from its inception. Moreover, I posit that the exponential growth of trade between Etruria and Greece in the seventh century BCE created new opportunities, which motivated the early inhabitants of Rome to begin engaging in large scale building and landscape modification projects, aimed at building a cohesive city that could also be protected from nuisance flooding.
The substantial dataset produced by coring survey and environmental sampling provides an empirically-driven timeline for Rome’s urbanization process, corroborating a rich archaeological and literary record that signals sixth century Rome as transformative and exceptional. The available paleoenvironmental evidence suggests that the Tiber riverine system was relatively stable during the early centuries of human habitation at the site of Rome, but sometime after the early sixth century the Tiber began a process of rapid aggradation. Between 580 and 480 BCE, 5.8m of sediment was deposited in the Forum Boarium. This sedimentation rate represents a significant hydrological shift in the Tiber basin well beyond the norm of nuisance flooding, which I argue is a direct consequence of the Romans’ prolific urban activities on the local landscape. I introduce evidence for dredging in the Forum Boarium as early as the fifth century BCE as one of a variety of flood-mitigating activities pursued in Rome. In sum, this project shows how environmental pressures not only shaped the physical landscape of the early city, but also emergent socio-political institutions, as the Romans were compelled to adapt to their volatile river in order to protect important ritual and commercial pursuits in the Forum Boarium valley.
Papers by Andrea L Brock
Sustainability and Climate Change, 2021
The world faces significant challenges that require transformative changes facilitated by Sustain... more The world faces significant challenges that require transformative changes facilitated by Sustainability Change Agents (SCAs). Universities around the world have explicitly taken up the responsibility of developing in students the skills and knowledge (i.e., competencies) necessary to be successful SCAs. While there is clear convergence around planning competencies, intrapersonal and implementation competencies have recently emerged in the literature. These competencies will have to remain effective even in the face of adversity, yet too little is known about sources of motivation for SCAs and how motivation can be maintained despite these inevitable setbacks. Since the needed transformations will be collective processes, motivation to be a SCA needs to be understood in the social and realistic context in which they would be applied. This study sought to gain specific insights into: 1.) What motivates students to be SCAs? 2.) How do these SCAs maintain their motivation in the face of setbacks? 3.) What can higher education institutions (e.g., universities, colleges) do to better support the motivation of SCAs? In order to gain insights into these questions, 83 aspiring SCAs were surveyed and their responses analyzed using qualitative content analysis. For this group of SCAs, the key source of motivation evolved from a focus on nature, learning, and individual behavior to a more social view with a concern for structural change. Moreover, social networks and intrapersonal skills helped to restore students' motivation following setbacks. Despite being university students, the SCAs surveyed had already experienced significant setbacks and, largely without institutional support, learned strategies to overcome them and maintain their motivation. Motivation and the skills, knowledge, and experience of how to maintain the drive for positive change in the face of setbacks is crucial in order for SCAs to be capable of supporting the critically needed transformations, and universities must play their part in fostering the SCAs' capability.
Book Reviews by Andrea L Brock
The Classical Review, 2021
Book Review: G. Cifani (2021) The Origins of the Roman Economy. From the Iron Age to the Early Re... more Book Review: G. Cifani (2021) The Origins of the Roman Economy. From the Iron Age to the Early Republic in a Mediterranean Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
American Journal of Archaeology, 2019
Conference Presentations by Andrea L Brock
This paper presents preliminary results from a mechanized coring survey of the Forum Boarium vall... more This paper presents preliminary results from a mechanized coring survey of the Forum Boarium valley in the heart of Rome. This survey complements and builds upon recent work at the Sant’Omobono sanctuary, which includes investigation of archaic and pre-archaic layers at the site. This project has provided much-needed context for the cult site at Sant’Omobono by producing new data on the topography and environment of the floodplain as well as early human activity in the area.
In the summer of 2015, our team produced 12 boreholes along the east bank of the Tiber River, in the regions known as the Forum Boarium and Forum Holitorium. Typically employed for geological and engineering projects, special machinery was utilized to drill each borehole to a depth of 15m or more, providing access to the entire sequence of urban stratigraphy and the natural substratum below. Although this project is multi-faceted with a variety of on-going studies (pollen, paleomagnetometry, etc.), the stratigraphic and sedimentary record preserved in the boreholes has already provided a wealth of new insights. First, there is new evidence for the topographic and environmental conditions of the river valley as it existed at the beginning of human occupation at the site of Rome. This project has also documented the changing position of the Tiber River in prehistoric and historical periods as well as the overwhelming effects of floods and alluvial aggradation in the valley. These natural hazards challenged urban development and forced the early inhabitants of Rome to pursue landscape modification projects. Finally, with a greater understanding of the natural landscape, this project has begun to reveal the setting and structure of Rome’s archaic river harbor and harbor temple.
In addition to addressing these preliminary results, this paper discusses plans for future research. It is expected that coring data will be incorporated into 3D models, which will translate this complicated data set into a series of interactive graphics that depict the changing landscape of Rome’s river valley during the 1st millennium BCE. Such results will not only demonstrate the potential of coring survey in urban archaeology, but also offer new evidence for the development of early Rome.
Centrally located at the base of the Capitoline and Palatine Hills, the valley known as the Forum... more Centrally located at the base of the Capitoline and Palatine Hills, the valley known as the Forum Boarium served as a convenient crossing point in the Tiber River and a beaching site for early merchant ships. By the Archaic Period (7th-6th centuries BCE), this floodplain supported a bustling river harbor and related infrastructure, including a temple complex revealed by the Sant’Omobono Project. As seasonal flooding of the Tiber River would have infiltrated the lowland and jeopardized this commercial and cult activity, the Forum Boarium became the object of early attempts at landscape modification in Rome. A massive landfill project at the end of the Archaic Period raised the valley floor by approximately five meters, affording the region greater protection from floodwaters. This land inflation and the related effects of waterlogging have effectively preserved the earliest phases of occupation, but also significantly complicate archaeological investigation in the valley.
Although the Forum Boarium is instrumental to understanding the urbanization process in early Rome, the earliest archaeological deposits extend over 10m below the modern street level, rendering access through traditional excavation techniques problematic. A dual research agenda carried out by the Sant’Omobono Project in 2013-2014, consisting of both deep trench excavation and percussion coring survey, has successfully revealed archaeological and geological levels related to the earliest habitation in the floodplain. This paper presents preliminary results from this investigation of archaic and pre-archaic levels in Rome, including evidence on (1) the natural topography of the river valley; (2) floods and sedimentation; (3) human efforts at landscape modification; and (4) early building techniques in a flood-prone region. Overall, this research not only sheds new light on early Rome, but also demonstrates two unique field methodologies applicable in dense urban areas, where access to deeply buried archaeological and geological stratigraphy is especially challenging.
Having served as a cult center adjacent to the archaic river harbor, the Sant’Omobono Sanctuary i... more Having served as a cult center adjacent to the archaic river harbor, the Sant’Omobono Sanctuary is fundamental to understanding the urbanization process in early Rome, but is complicated by unusually deep stratigraphy. Situated in a natural valley on the southwest slope of the Capitoline Hill known as the Forum Boarium, the complex stratigraphic sequence at Sant’Omobono extends over 10m in depth below the modern street level. In order to access the earliest levels of habitation, our team conducted a percussion coring survey across the site during the 2013 and 2014 field seasons. This paper presents preliminary results from this deep coring survey, including intriguing evidence of pre-archaic anthropic activity at depths never previously documented.
Working in conjunction with the excavation of Sant’Omobono, our team made a total of 18 deep cores in strategically selected locations around the site. We particularly focused on placing boreholes at the bottom of completed trenches, in order to access extremely deep archaeological and geological levels. Using Cobra TT percussion drilling equipment, these cores are capable of reaching over 5m in depth. Across 18 separate entries, our team produced and has begun analysis on over 70 linear meters of stratigraphic data, which includes repeated samples at and below archaic levels. In areas of the site rendered physically impossible to excavate through traditional methods, these boreholes have provided a valuable extension to the stratigraphic sequence at Sant’Omobono, as well as rich data on the natural landscape of the river valley.
This paper discusses coring data and preliminary conclusions associated with early Rome. The results fall into four interrelated categories: 1) natural topography, including the position of the Tiber River and the geological profile of the Capitoline Hill; 2) archaic building techniques in a flood-prone region; 3) human impact on the environment, including efforts to raise the valley floor; 4) new evidence of anthropic material at unprecedented depths, which pre-dates activity previously documented in the river valley. Thus, this set of data sheds new and valuable light on Rome’s urbanization story. Implications of this data necessitate additional coring survey in the region immediately surrounding Sant’Omobono. Upcoming research will provide an extensive sample of boreholes across a wider area in the Forum Boarium, from which we aim to acquire an even more expansive understanding of the topography and environment of Rome’s river valley.
The site of Sant’Omobono in the heart of Rome preserves evidence of continuous occupation in the ... more The site of Sant’Omobono in the heart of Rome preserves evidence of continuous occupation in the area of the Forum Boarium from the 7th century BCE. Serving as a cult center adjacent to the archaic river harbor, this site is fundamental to understanding the urbanization process in early Rome, but is complicated by unusually deep stratigraphy. Situated in a natural valley on the southwest slope of the Capitoline Hill, the complex stratigraphic sequence at Sant’Omobono extends over 15m below the modern street level, making access through traditional excavation especially problematic. This poster discusses the methodological and practical implications of coring deep sites, demonstrated through preliminary results at Sant’Omobono.
In order to enhance the on-going excavation of Sant’Omobono, our team drilled a series of deep percussion-driven cores in various locations around the site. The cores reflect three different, but ultimately intertwined strategies: 1) Cores placed in a trench prior to excavation, which significantly aid digging strategy by providing a detailed stratigrahic sequence of the layers below. 2) Cores at the bottom of anthropic levels in a completed trench, providing information on natural sediment. 3) Cores placed in areas of the site that were impossible or unlikely to be excavated. Each percussion core provides a deep vertical slice of up to six meters of stratigraphy, affording an unusual opportunity to access a continuous section of several centuries of urban activity. Nevertheless, the data must be analyzed with an understanding of its limitations. The individual core offers a narrow window of visibility, from which it is dangerous to draw complex interpretations. When combined with excavation or extensive coring, however, this survey methodology proves a productive strategy to acquire valuable data otherwise impossible or difficult to access through traditional excavation methods.
This poster presents the potential of coring survey as applied at Sant’Omobono, where preliminary results are beginning to shed light on the development of the Forum Boarium. As the earliest levels of occupation in the valley are especially deep, this on-going survey allows unique access to new information on Rome’s urbanization story. The cores provide a glimpse of the natural topography as well as human efforts to re-shape the landscape. Perspectives for future coring survey in and around Sant’Omobono will provide a larger sample of cores and a robust set of data, from which we aim to acquire a greater understanding of the topography and environment of this part of the city.
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Teaching Documents by Andrea L Brock
In order to build in their flood-prone lowlands in the mid-1st millennium BCE, the inhabitants of Rome engaged in large-scale landscape modification projects and flood mitigation measures. Urbanization at Rome, however, triggered fresh ecological challenges, including rapid sedimentation and escalating floods. The inhabitants of Rome responded to their volatile river with a range of adaptive strategies. Over the centuries, they continued to mitigate the effects of overbank flooding through the use of strategic urban planning, land reclamation, flood-resistant architecture, and bureaucratic oversight of the riverine landscape. It is noteworthy that, despite having the capabilities, the ancient Romans chose not to enact large-scale engineering projects to prevent floods altogether. The so-called Eternal City, therefore, should be seen as a resilient city—one that persevered in the face of dynamic ecological conditions and recurrent inundations.
This article emphasizes the value of historical applications for modern sustainability studies: the past offers both empirical evidence and a vibrant perspective for conceptualizing the complexities of human-environment interactions over many centuries. The story of Rome’s relationship with its river ultimately underscores the eternal co-evolution of society and the environment.
***Additional Commentary by M. Thompson (Harvard), “Making a Short Story Long: Teaching Sustainability on the Longue Duree”***
***OPEN ACCESS version of this case study available as part of the Michigan Sustainability Cases Project, https://www.learngala.com/cases/urbanizing-the-eternal-city ***
Articles by Andrea L Brock
In order to explore geoarchaeological conditions in the floodplain, a multi-disciplinary research project was undertaken in the Forum Boarium between 2013 and 2015. This paper presents preliminary results from this recent investigation, including evidence on the natural topography of the river valley, floods and sedimentation, as well as building techniques in a flood-prone region in Archaic and Early Republican Rome. It is argued that, in response to varied and prolonged environmental stress, landscape modification and continuous management became important prerequisites to Rome's urbanization process; in this way, ecological pressures directly influenced the development of the city's built landscape. This research not only represents a significant step towards a paleoenvironmental reconstruction of early Rome, but also demonstrates the advantages of coring survey in urban areas where access to deeply buried archaeological and geological stratigraphy is restricted.
Books by Andrea L Brock
In the case of Rome, environmental archaeology offers new perspective on the nascent city by providing data on the pre-urban environment and urban development of Rome’s river valley. Among other things, my survey exposed key features of the natural landscape in the Forum Boarium, including the location of Rome’s original river harbor and the nearby section of raised floodplain at the base of the Capitoline Hill. I argue that Rome’s origins as a harbor settlement helped the city achieve regional dominance from its inception. Moreover, I posit that the exponential growth of trade between Etruria and Greece in the seventh century BCE created new opportunities, which motivated the early inhabitants of Rome to begin engaging in large scale building and landscape modification projects, aimed at building a cohesive city that could also be protected from nuisance flooding.
The substantial dataset produced by coring survey and environmental sampling provides an empirically-driven timeline for Rome’s urbanization process, corroborating a rich archaeological and literary record that signals sixth century Rome as transformative and exceptional. The available paleoenvironmental evidence suggests that the Tiber riverine system was relatively stable during the early centuries of human habitation at the site of Rome, but sometime after the early sixth century the Tiber began a process of rapid aggradation. Between 580 and 480 BCE, 5.8m of sediment was deposited in the Forum Boarium. This sedimentation rate represents a significant hydrological shift in the Tiber basin well beyond the norm of nuisance flooding, which I argue is a direct consequence of the Romans’ prolific urban activities on the local landscape. I introduce evidence for dredging in the Forum Boarium as early as the fifth century BCE as one of a variety of flood-mitigating activities pursued in Rome. In sum, this project shows how environmental pressures not only shaped the physical landscape of the early city, but also emergent socio-political institutions, as the Romans were compelled to adapt to their volatile river in order to protect important ritual and commercial pursuits in the Forum Boarium valley.
Papers by Andrea L Brock
Book Reviews by Andrea L Brock
Conference Presentations by Andrea L Brock
In the summer of 2015, our team produced 12 boreholes along the east bank of the Tiber River, in the regions known as the Forum Boarium and Forum Holitorium. Typically employed for geological and engineering projects, special machinery was utilized to drill each borehole to a depth of 15m or more, providing access to the entire sequence of urban stratigraphy and the natural substratum below. Although this project is multi-faceted with a variety of on-going studies (pollen, paleomagnetometry, etc.), the stratigraphic and sedimentary record preserved in the boreholes has already provided a wealth of new insights. First, there is new evidence for the topographic and environmental conditions of the river valley as it existed at the beginning of human occupation at the site of Rome. This project has also documented the changing position of the Tiber River in prehistoric and historical periods as well as the overwhelming effects of floods and alluvial aggradation in the valley. These natural hazards challenged urban development and forced the early inhabitants of Rome to pursue landscape modification projects. Finally, with a greater understanding of the natural landscape, this project has begun to reveal the setting and structure of Rome’s archaic river harbor and harbor temple.
In addition to addressing these preliminary results, this paper discusses plans for future research. It is expected that coring data will be incorporated into 3D models, which will translate this complicated data set into a series of interactive graphics that depict the changing landscape of Rome’s river valley during the 1st millennium BCE. Such results will not only demonstrate the potential of coring survey in urban archaeology, but also offer new evidence for the development of early Rome.
Although the Forum Boarium is instrumental to understanding the urbanization process in early Rome, the earliest archaeological deposits extend over 10m below the modern street level, rendering access through traditional excavation techniques problematic. A dual research agenda carried out by the Sant’Omobono Project in 2013-2014, consisting of both deep trench excavation and percussion coring survey, has successfully revealed archaeological and geological levels related to the earliest habitation in the floodplain. This paper presents preliminary results from this investigation of archaic and pre-archaic levels in Rome, including evidence on (1) the natural topography of the river valley; (2) floods and sedimentation; (3) human efforts at landscape modification; and (4) early building techniques in a flood-prone region. Overall, this research not only sheds new light on early Rome, but also demonstrates two unique field methodologies applicable in dense urban areas, where access to deeply buried archaeological and geological stratigraphy is especially challenging.
Working in conjunction with the excavation of Sant’Omobono, our team made a total of 18 deep cores in strategically selected locations around the site. We particularly focused on placing boreholes at the bottom of completed trenches, in order to access extremely deep archaeological and geological levels. Using Cobra TT percussion drilling equipment, these cores are capable of reaching over 5m in depth. Across 18 separate entries, our team produced and has begun analysis on over 70 linear meters of stratigraphic data, which includes repeated samples at and below archaic levels. In areas of the site rendered physically impossible to excavate through traditional methods, these boreholes have provided a valuable extension to the stratigraphic sequence at Sant’Omobono, as well as rich data on the natural landscape of the river valley.
This paper discusses coring data and preliminary conclusions associated with early Rome. The results fall into four interrelated categories: 1) natural topography, including the position of the Tiber River and the geological profile of the Capitoline Hill; 2) archaic building techniques in a flood-prone region; 3) human impact on the environment, including efforts to raise the valley floor; 4) new evidence of anthropic material at unprecedented depths, which pre-dates activity previously documented in the river valley. Thus, this set of data sheds new and valuable light on Rome’s urbanization story. Implications of this data necessitate additional coring survey in the region immediately surrounding Sant’Omobono. Upcoming research will provide an extensive sample of boreholes across a wider area in the Forum Boarium, from which we aim to acquire an even more expansive understanding of the topography and environment of Rome’s river valley.
In order to enhance the on-going excavation of Sant’Omobono, our team drilled a series of deep percussion-driven cores in various locations around the site. The cores reflect three different, but ultimately intertwined strategies: 1) Cores placed in a trench prior to excavation, which significantly aid digging strategy by providing a detailed stratigrahic sequence of the layers below. 2) Cores at the bottom of anthropic levels in a completed trench, providing information on natural sediment. 3) Cores placed in areas of the site that were impossible or unlikely to be excavated. Each percussion core provides a deep vertical slice of up to six meters of stratigraphy, affording an unusual opportunity to access a continuous section of several centuries of urban activity. Nevertheless, the data must be analyzed with an understanding of its limitations. The individual core offers a narrow window of visibility, from which it is dangerous to draw complex interpretations. When combined with excavation or extensive coring, however, this survey methodology proves a productive strategy to acquire valuable data otherwise impossible or difficult to access through traditional excavation methods.
This poster presents the potential of coring survey as applied at Sant’Omobono, where preliminary results are beginning to shed light on the development of the Forum Boarium. As the earliest levels of occupation in the valley are especially deep, this on-going survey allows unique access to new information on Rome’s urbanization story. The cores provide a glimpse of the natural topography as well as human efforts to re-shape the landscape. Perspectives for future coring survey in and around Sant’Omobono will provide a larger sample of cores and a robust set of data, from which we aim to acquire a greater understanding of the topography and environment of this part of the city.
In order to build in their flood-prone lowlands in the mid-1st millennium BCE, the inhabitants of Rome engaged in large-scale landscape modification projects and flood mitigation measures. Urbanization at Rome, however, triggered fresh ecological challenges, including rapid sedimentation and escalating floods. The inhabitants of Rome responded to their volatile river with a range of adaptive strategies. Over the centuries, they continued to mitigate the effects of overbank flooding through the use of strategic urban planning, land reclamation, flood-resistant architecture, and bureaucratic oversight of the riverine landscape. It is noteworthy that, despite having the capabilities, the ancient Romans chose not to enact large-scale engineering projects to prevent floods altogether. The so-called Eternal City, therefore, should be seen as a resilient city—one that persevered in the face of dynamic ecological conditions and recurrent inundations.
This article emphasizes the value of historical applications for modern sustainability studies: the past offers both empirical evidence and a vibrant perspective for conceptualizing the complexities of human-environment interactions over many centuries. The story of Rome’s relationship with its river ultimately underscores the eternal co-evolution of society and the environment.
***Additional Commentary by M. Thompson (Harvard), “Making a Short Story Long: Teaching Sustainability on the Longue Duree”***
***OPEN ACCESS version of this case study available as part of the Michigan Sustainability Cases Project, https://www.learngala.com/cases/urbanizing-the-eternal-city ***
In order to explore geoarchaeological conditions in the floodplain, a multi-disciplinary research project was undertaken in the Forum Boarium between 2013 and 2015. This paper presents preliminary results from this recent investigation, including evidence on the natural topography of the river valley, floods and sedimentation, as well as building techniques in a flood-prone region in Archaic and Early Republican Rome. It is argued that, in response to varied and prolonged environmental stress, landscape modification and continuous management became important prerequisites to Rome's urbanization process; in this way, ecological pressures directly influenced the development of the city's built landscape. This research not only represents a significant step towards a paleoenvironmental reconstruction of early Rome, but also demonstrates the advantages of coring survey in urban areas where access to deeply buried archaeological and geological stratigraphy is restricted.
In the case of Rome, environmental archaeology offers new perspective on the nascent city by providing data on the pre-urban environment and urban development of Rome’s river valley. Among other things, my survey exposed key features of the natural landscape in the Forum Boarium, including the location of Rome’s original river harbor and the nearby section of raised floodplain at the base of the Capitoline Hill. I argue that Rome’s origins as a harbor settlement helped the city achieve regional dominance from its inception. Moreover, I posit that the exponential growth of trade between Etruria and Greece in the seventh century BCE created new opportunities, which motivated the early inhabitants of Rome to begin engaging in large scale building and landscape modification projects, aimed at building a cohesive city that could also be protected from nuisance flooding.
The substantial dataset produced by coring survey and environmental sampling provides an empirically-driven timeline for Rome’s urbanization process, corroborating a rich archaeological and literary record that signals sixth century Rome as transformative and exceptional. The available paleoenvironmental evidence suggests that the Tiber riverine system was relatively stable during the early centuries of human habitation at the site of Rome, but sometime after the early sixth century the Tiber began a process of rapid aggradation. Between 580 and 480 BCE, 5.8m of sediment was deposited in the Forum Boarium. This sedimentation rate represents a significant hydrological shift in the Tiber basin well beyond the norm of nuisance flooding, which I argue is a direct consequence of the Romans’ prolific urban activities on the local landscape. I introduce evidence for dredging in the Forum Boarium as early as the fifth century BCE as one of a variety of flood-mitigating activities pursued in Rome. In sum, this project shows how environmental pressures not only shaped the physical landscape of the early city, but also emergent socio-political institutions, as the Romans were compelled to adapt to their volatile river in order to protect important ritual and commercial pursuits in the Forum Boarium valley.
In the summer of 2015, our team produced 12 boreholes along the east bank of the Tiber River, in the regions known as the Forum Boarium and Forum Holitorium. Typically employed for geological and engineering projects, special machinery was utilized to drill each borehole to a depth of 15m or more, providing access to the entire sequence of urban stratigraphy and the natural substratum below. Although this project is multi-faceted with a variety of on-going studies (pollen, paleomagnetometry, etc.), the stratigraphic and sedimentary record preserved in the boreholes has already provided a wealth of new insights. First, there is new evidence for the topographic and environmental conditions of the river valley as it existed at the beginning of human occupation at the site of Rome. This project has also documented the changing position of the Tiber River in prehistoric and historical periods as well as the overwhelming effects of floods and alluvial aggradation in the valley. These natural hazards challenged urban development and forced the early inhabitants of Rome to pursue landscape modification projects. Finally, with a greater understanding of the natural landscape, this project has begun to reveal the setting and structure of Rome’s archaic river harbor and harbor temple.
In addition to addressing these preliminary results, this paper discusses plans for future research. It is expected that coring data will be incorporated into 3D models, which will translate this complicated data set into a series of interactive graphics that depict the changing landscape of Rome’s river valley during the 1st millennium BCE. Such results will not only demonstrate the potential of coring survey in urban archaeology, but also offer new evidence for the development of early Rome.
Although the Forum Boarium is instrumental to understanding the urbanization process in early Rome, the earliest archaeological deposits extend over 10m below the modern street level, rendering access through traditional excavation techniques problematic. A dual research agenda carried out by the Sant’Omobono Project in 2013-2014, consisting of both deep trench excavation and percussion coring survey, has successfully revealed archaeological and geological levels related to the earliest habitation in the floodplain. This paper presents preliminary results from this investigation of archaic and pre-archaic levels in Rome, including evidence on (1) the natural topography of the river valley; (2) floods and sedimentation; (3) human efforts at landscape modification; and (4) early building techniques in a flood-prone region. Overall, this research not only sheds new light on early Rome, but also demonstrates two unique field methodologies applicable in dense urban areas, where access to deeply buried archaeological and geological stratigraphy is especially challenging.
Working in conjunction with the excavation of Sant’Omobono, our team made a total of 18 deep cores in strategically selected locations around the site. We particularly focused on placing boreholes at the bottom of completed trenches, in order to access extremely deep archaeological and geological levels. Using Cobra TT percussion drilling equipment, these cores are capable of reaching over 5m in depth. Across 18 separate entries, our team produced and has begun analysis on over 70 linear meters of stratigraphic data, which includes repeated samples at and below archaic levels. In areas of the site rendered physically impossible to excavate through traditional methods, these boreholes have provided a valuable extension to the stratigraphic sequence at Sant’Omobono, as well as rich data on the natural landscape of the river valley.
This paper discusses coring data and preliminary conclusions associated with early Rome. The results fall into four interrelated categories: 1) natural topography, including the position of the Tiber River and the geological profile of the Capitoline Hill; 2) archaic building techniques in a flood-prone region; 3) human impact on the environment, including efforts to raise the valley floor; 4) new evidence of anthropic material at unprecedented depths, which pre-dates activity previously documented in the river valley. Thus, this set of data sheds new and valuable light on Rome’s urbanization story. Implications of this data necessitate additional coring survey in the region immediately surrounding Sant’Omobono. Upcoming research will provide an extensive sample of boreholes across a wider area in the Forum Boarium, from which we aim to acquire an even more expansive understanding of the topography and environment of Rome’s river valley.
In order to enhance the on-going excavation of Sant’Omobono, our team drilled a series of deep percussion-driven cores in various locations around the site. The cores reflect three different, but ultimately intertwined strategies: 1) Cores placed in a trench prior to excavation, which significantly aid digging strategy by providing a detailed stratigrahic sequence of the layers below. 2) Cores at the bottom of anthropic levels in a completed trench, providing information on natural sediment. 3) Cores placed in areas of the site that were impossible or unlikely to be excavated. Each percussion core provides a deep vertical slice of up to six meters of stratigraphy, affording an unusual opportunity to access a continuous section of several centuries of urban activity. Nevertheless, the data must be analyzed with an understanding of its limitations. The individual core offers a narrow window of visibility, from which it is dangerous to draw complex interpretations. When combined with excavation or extensive coring, however, this survey methodology proves a productive strategy to acquire valuable data otherwise impossible or difficult to access through traditional excavation methods.
This poster presents the potential of coring survey as applied at Sant’Omobono, where preliminary results are beginning to shed light on the development of the Forum Boarium. As the earliest levels of occupation in the valley are especially deep, this on-going survey allows unique access to new information on Rome’s urbanization story. The cores provide a glimpse of the natural topography as well as human efforts to re-shape the landscape. Perspectives for future coring survey in and around Sant’Omobono will provide a larger sample of cores and a robust set of data, from which we aim to acquire a greater understanding of the topography and environment of this part of the city.