Peer Reviewed Journal Articles by Lucas Villegas-Aristizabal MA PhD FRHistS
Nottingham Medieval Studies: Centres and Peripheries in Medieval Britain and France. Essays in Honour of Michael Jones, 2023
The Normans, like many of the nascent Iberian societies in the tenth and eleventh centuries, deve... more The Normans, like many of the nascent Iberian societies in the tenth and eleventh centuries, developed an understanding of the concept of loyalty as a bond between members of the warring elites that helped forge their shared identity. So, when the Norman diaspora began in the early eleventh century, they began a process of conquest and assimilation in the regions they encountered. The Iberian Peninsula with its embryonic group of Christian principalities that were being consolidated after centuries of Umayyad dominance served as a new theatre for the Norman incursions. Therefore, as in southern Italy, because of their numerical inferiority the Normans made alliances with their Iberian coreligionists to advance in their conquest designs. This essay discusses the contractual relations forged between the Normans and their Iberian coreligionists. It explores the concept of loyalty that both groups shared in consolidating their own political and social identities. It shows that the Normans’ conceptualization of loyalty played a vital role in the establishment of temporary alliances between the different factions in their common military struggle against the Muslim-controlled political entities of the peninsula. Finally, it compares them to the arrangements forged between the Breton routiers and their employers explored by Michael Jones.
Studies in Medieval and Renaissance History, 3rd Series, Vol. 15 (2018) Pub. 2021: 67-149, Jun 10, 2021
This article focuses on the Frisian narrative De itinere frisonum, while comparing it with other ... more This article focuses on the Frisian narrative De itinere frisonum, while comparing it with other evidence available in order to explain the behaviour of the Frisian fleet's actions in the Iberian Peninsula during the Fifth Crusade. It examines the Frisian activities within the framework of the crusading traditions established by this group. It also discusses why despite Innocent III's disqualification of the Iberian theatre in Quia maior, the Frisians did not change their views on the crusading nature of their actions in that theatre as has been traditionally argued by reinterpreting the source material. Also, it addresses how the Frisian author of De itinere sought to legitimise his compatriots' actions in comparison to other groups during the crusading journey. Additionally, this article contains in the appendix an edited version of De itinere frisonum in Latin with its corresponding English translation.
Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies, Aug 5, 2020
This work suggests that empires do not have to be state-led by arguing that religious-political o... more This work suggests that empires do not have to be state-led by arguing that religious-political organisations can also create their own imperial demesnes. Moreover, it argues that there are additional ways for empires to expand other than conquest (through gift, purchase and lease), and that empires do not have to be large. By drawing attention to a variety of players and methods of expansion it rethinks our understanding of what empires are. It focuses upon the history of the Medieval Knights of St John who formed autonomous states on Rhodes and Malta; yet to underscore the continuing significance of this religious-imperial nexus it also briefly draws attention to the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria in the Middle East.
Al-Masāq: Journal of the Medieval Mediterranean, Apr 2019
In 1213, Pope Innocent III issued his letter Quia maior asking Christendom to rescue the Holy Lan... more In 1213, Pope Innocent III issued his letter Quia maior asking Christendom to rescue the Holy Land. He also appeared to suspend the indulgences offered for participating in Iberia so the crusading forces could concentrate their efforts on their venture to Egypt. Despite this, Innocent was unprepared to totally disqualify the Iberian Christian efforts against Al-Andalus. A situation that created artificial separation between Iberian Christians and the rest of Christendom. Notwithstanding, in 1217 when a fleet of northern crusaders arrived in Lisbon, they were invited by its Bishop to join an expedition to conquer the Muslim-controlled city of Alcácer do Sal. This paper discusses the evidence available to explain what the real status of this campaign was in the eyes of the papacy and the participants themselves within the evolving concept of ‘Crusade’.
De Medio Aevo, 2018
This paper assesses the evidence on whether Savary of Mauleon could have been present in the atte... more This paper assesses the evidence on whether Savary of Mauleon could have been present in the attempted conquest of Caceres by King Alfonso IX of Leon around the autumn of 1218. This paper furthermore explains, what were the possible reasons that might have encouraged the participation of this Poitevin mercenary in Iberian wars against the Almohads. It also attempts to contextualise Savary’s alleged involvement in Iberia in relation to his political and military career before and after the events of the Fifth Crusade.
Resumen: Este trabajo evalúa la evidencia existente acerca de la posibilidad de que Savary de Mauléon hubiese estado presente en el intento de conquista de la ciudad de Cáceres por el rey Alfonso IX de León en el otoño de 1218. Este trabajo también explica cuáles son las posibles razones que llevaron a este mercenario poitevino a participar en las guerras ibéricas contra los Almohades. También intenta contextualizar la supuesta participación de Savary en la península ibérica en relación con su carrera política y militar, antes y después de su participación en la Quinta Cruzada.
Medieval History Journal, Mar 12, 2018
This article surveys the surviving material regarding Gregory VII and Eblous of Roucy’s expeditio... more This article surveys the surviving material regarding Gregory VII and Eblous of Roucy’s expedition to Iberia c. 1073. This is an expedition that usually has been overlooked which provides a glimpse in to Gregory VII’s mindset with regard to the Iberian wars against the Muslims. This article assesses how Gregory attempted to use the current arguments for ‘Holy War’ to encourage Eblous and his followers to fight in the Christian–Muslim frontier. It also compares the papal plans with Eblous’ probable motives as they can be discerned from sources and the circumstantial evidence. Furthermore, it addresses whether Eblous went to Iberia to fight the Muslims since some of the accounts seem to contradict each other. It will also explore the significance of this episode in the development of Holy War as a preamble to the First Crusade, especially in comparison with the better-known siege of Barbastro of 1064. Lastly, it will also analyse how Eblous’ filial relations with the Aragonese rulers would help create family networks between the Burgundian and Norman nobility and the ruling houses of the Iberian Peninsula in the following decades, and the effect of these on the later involvement of Frankish contingents in the Iberian wars against the Muslims.
Medievalismo, Dec 10, 2017
This article explores the involvement of the Norman nobility in the wars between Christians and M... more This article explores the involvement of the Norman nobility in the wars between Christians and Muslims in the Ebro Valley in the rst half of the 12th Century. The work recognises how the participation of this particular ethno-cultural group in the peninsula was renovated to a certain degree by the deeds and religious transformation that took place as a result of the preaching and success of the First Crusade. Furthermore, by exploring the careers of Rotrou of Perche, Robert Burdet and Walter Guidvilla this piece demonstrates how their religiosity as well as the lial relations and traditional desire for wealth that characterise this group of warriors, made the Iberian theatre of con ict so attractive at this particular period. Also, this article, tries to show how their Iberians lay and clerical coreligionists perceived the usefulness of these Norman contingents in their con ict with the Almoravids.
Portuguese Studies, 29:1, Apr 6, 2013
This article revisits the failed attempt to conquer Lisbon by a combined host of Anglo-Norman and... more This article revisits the failed attempt to conquer Lisbon by a combined host of Anglo-Norman and Portuguese crusaders in 1142 within the wider context of both the crusader movement to the Holy Land and the Iberian Reconquista. Focusing on the Historia Gothorum, De expugnatione Lyxbonensi and other sources, it endeavours to demonstrate the degree of involvement of the Anglo-Norman contingents in maritime adventures at a time when no other crusades had been declared. Finally, it illustrates the consequence of this undertaking for the final conquest of Lisbon, as part of the Second Crusade, in 1147.
Crusades, Vol. 8, Nov 2009
Studia historia: Historia medieval, Mar 4, 2009
This article explores the Anglo-Norman military intervention during the Third Crusade on the Port... more This article explores the Anglo-Norman military intervention during the Third Crusade on the Portuguese coasts, by analysing the narratives of Ralph of Diceto and the Gesta regis Ricardi. It then examines the motives that produced the multiple interventions by the Anglo-Norman fleets from the point of view of the English historiography of the crusades to the Levant. Finally, it discuses the contemporary perception and the consequences of these incursions to the peninsula, and the later interventions of Nordic crusaders in Iberia.
Nottingham Medieval Studies, Oct 1, 2008
... 6 LUCAS VILLEGAS-ARISTIZABAL stories like the Song of Roland in an oral form would have acqua... more ... 6 LUCAS VILLEGAS-ARISTIZABAL stories like the Song of Roland in an oral form would have acquainted a Norman audience with a literary vision of this area of the peninsula.4 All these factors would have made the Frankish-influenced Norman noble more familiar with this ...
Estudios Humanísticos, Sep 17, 2004
This article tries to gather what has been written on the subject of Roger of Tosny participation... more This article tries to gather what has been written on the subject of Roger of Tosny participation on the Iberian Reconquest and extend it by using the two narrative sources which exist: the Chronicon of Adémar of Chabannes and the Chronique de Saint Pierre le Vi., The article narrates the events of this Norman involvement in the Iberian Reconquest, trying to answer questions, base on these two sources like the reason behind his participation, what did he achieve in the county of Barcelona, and the dates of the events narrated.
Book Chapters by Lucas Villegas-Aristizabal MA PhD FRHistS
Norman Connections – Normannische Verflechtungen zwischen Skandinavien und dem Mittelmeer, Jun 2022
This chapter explores the participation of the Norman nobility in the ‘Reconquista’ in the North-... more This chapter explores the participation of the Norman nobility in the ‘Reconquista’ in the North-eastern side of the Iberian Peninsula within the context of the Norman diaspora of the eleventh and the early twelfth centuries. It shows how these groups were attracted to join expeditions against the Muslim entities of this region as they had been inspired to do in other areas of the Mediterranean in this period. It surveys the interconnection between the religious reform of the Church, the rise of pilgrimage, the changing political circumstances in Normandy and the exodus of certain members of the Norman nobility to areas such as the Iberian Peninsula. Although it is focused on the Norman military endeavours that took place between the famed siege of Barbastro (1065) and the donation of the Principality of Tarragona to Robert Burdet (1129), it begins by discussing the incursions of Roger of Tosny in the county of Barcelona (c. 1018). Within the framework of Holy War and the Crusades, it analyses the changing nature of the Norman involvement in the wars against the Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula. It examines how these undertakings transformed from plunder to conquest and settlement. Finally, it shows how these actions helped to strengthen the filial and cultural links between the Norman world and the Christian rulers of the Iberian Peninsula through marriages, feudal arrangements, and alliances.
Memoria y fuentes de la guerra santa peninsular (ss. X-XV), May 2021
La serie de conflictos entre cristianos y musulmanes que caracteriza a la Edad Media y que colect... more La serie de conflictos entre cristianos y musulmanes que caracteriza a la Edad Media y que colectivamente ha sido llamada controversialmente la «Reconquista» está identificada con cierto interés en las fuentes documentales y narrativas de la península ibérica. En algunos períodos y a pesar de su importancia, hay algunos vacíos apreciables en las crónicas y anales sobrevivientes de la época en la zona. A pesar de ello, las fuentes narrativas de otras áreas del mundo cristiano medieval parecen haberse interesado en este conflicto, pese a que no fueron escritas en la península. A finales del siglo xi, los reinos cristianos peninsulares aprovecharon la oportunidad del desequilibrio político de los reinos de taifas del sur para expandir no solo su hegemonía política, sino su supremacía territorial. Al mismo tiempo, el papado reformista empezó a ver las disputas territoriales peninsulares como una oportunidad más para la guerra santa entre la Iglesia romana y el mundo musulmán. Las guerras peninsulares, desde tiempos de Carlomagno, ya habían empezado a atraer el interés de miembros de la nobleza franca con intervenciones militares en el valle del Ebro. Es por esta relación que las regiones del Reino de Francia y, luego, de otros lugares del mundo cristiano, empezaron a interesarse en esta zona. Los romances épicos, como la historia de Roldán, atraen el interés literario en el conflicto ibérico y las hagiografías empiezan a nombrar tangencialmente los eventos peninsulares, reflejando así un creciente interés en estas guerras que empiezan a ser vistas desde un matiz religioso.4 Este capítulo intenta demostrar cómo desde el siglo xi ya se comenzaba a ver este conflicto desde el norte como un tipo de guerra santa. También intenta mostrar a través de un limitado número de fuentes narrativas existentes de distintas regiones de la Europa cristiana, desde el siglo xi hasta principios del siglo xiii, cómo estas fuentes reflejan la cambiante disposición de este conflicto desde la perspecti- va de estos autores. De la misma manera, intenta mostrar cómo la relación de las guerras ibéricas con los conflictos en el Levante mediterráneo, que colectivamente llamamos las cruzadas, ayudaron en su cambiante percepción de la validez de este teatro bélico. Por otra parte, esta sección muestra la forma en que estos textos, a pe- sar de su lógica parcialidad regional, aportan en algunas ocasiones otra perspectiva útil sobre los eventos peninsulares con relación a las fuentes locales.
The Normans in the Mediterranean, eds. Emily A. Winkler and Liam Fitzgerald, Apr 30, 2021
The purpose of this chapter is to explore these two phases of Norman involvement in the peninsula... more The purpose of this chapter is to explore these two phases of Norman involvement in the peninsular wars against the Muslim inhabitants. Why did the Normans depart from their homeland in the first place? How did the Normans' incursions into the Italian peninsula help to explain their involvement in Iberia? Was the rising antagonism between the Normans and their local Christian Iberian allies an important factor in their change in strategy? Finally, how did the changing political circumstances in Iberia and in the Anglo-Norman realms conspire to transform the nature of Norman involvement in the peninsula?
La Repoblació del Camp de Tarragona: Estat de la qüestió, Jun 26, 2018
Crusading and Pilgrimage in the Norman World, Jul 16, 2015
Conference Papers by Lucas Villegas-Aristizabal MA PhD FRHistS
Medieval Meeting at Lleida, Jun 24, 2023
The Normans, like many of the nascent european societies in the tenth and eleventh centuries, dev... more The Normans, like many of the nascent european societies in the tenth and eleventh centuries, developed an understanding of the concept of loyalty as a bond between members of the warring elites that helped to forge their shared identity. So, when the Norman diaspora began in the early eleventh century the Normans began a process of conquest and assimilation in the regions they encountered. The Iberian Peninsula with its nascent group of Christian principalities that were being consolidated after a few centuries of Umayyad dominance served as a new theatre for the Norman incursions. Therefore, with their involvement in southern Italy, the Normans in their numerical inferiority were forced to create alliances with their Iberian coreligionist to advance in their conquest designs. This paper discusses the contractual relations forged between the Normans and their Iberian coreligionists. It explores them within the concept of loyalty that both groups seem to have shared in consolidating of their own political and social identities. It shows that the Normans’ conceptualisation of loyalty played a vital role in the establishment of temporary alliances between the different factions in their common military struggle against the Muslim-controlled political entities of the peninsula.
Una cuestión de mutua lealtad: una exploración de las relaciones contractuales entre normandos e íbericos en sus conquistas (1018-1135)
Los normandos, como muchas de las nacientes sociedades europeas de los siglos X y XI, desarrollaron un entendimiento del concepto de lealtad como un vínculo entre los miembros de las élites en la guerra y la paz. Esta por su parte ayudó a forjar su identidad común. Entonces, cuando comenzó la diáspora de los normandos a principios del siglo XI, estos iniciaron un proceso de conquista y asimilación en las regiones en las que incursionaron. La Península Ibérica con su naciente grupo de principados cristianos que se estaban consolidando tras siglos de dominio omeya, sirvió como nuevo teatro para estas incursiones normandas. Por lo tanto, junto a sus intervenciones en el sur de Italia, los normandos en su inferioridad numérica se vieron obligados a crear alianzas con sus correligionarios ibéricos para avanzar en sus designios de conquista. Esta ponencia analiza las relaciones contractuales forjadas entre los normandos y sus correligionarios ibéricos. Los explora dentro del concepto de lealtad que ambos grupos parecen haber compartido en su consolidación de sus propias identidades políticas y sociales. Esta ponencia entonces intenta mostrar como la conceptualización de la lealtad de los normandos desempeñó un papel vital en el establecimiento de alianzas temporales, entre las diferentes facciones en su lucha militar común, contra las entidades políticas musulmanas en la península.
The Fifth Quadrennial Symposium on Crusade Studies, 2024
The crusading narrative known as De expugnatione Lyxbonensi has provided historians with the most... more The crusading narrative known as De expugnatione Lyxbonensi has provided historians with the most detailed description of the crusading venture that culminated in the conquest of Lisbon in 1147 as part of the expedition known as the “Second Crusade”. According to popular consensus, a certain Anglo-Norman cleric, who participated in the venture and who settled in Lisbon after its capture, wrote it. This text has attracted a lot of attention also because the author provides a relatively sympathetic portrayal of the Muslim inhabitants of Lisbon and because he exhibits a surprising knowledge of Muslim qualms about Christian Christology. In an attempt to balance his narrative, the author creates a discussion between Archbishop João Peculiar of Braga and an unnamed leader of the Lisbon garrison which uses a few quotations from Seneca’s letters. Seneca’s works were relatively well-known in the period and had attracted the interest of theologians, who thought that Seneca had converted to Christianity because of the similarities of his views with Christian teachings. Both the Archbishop’s and his interlocutor’s rhetorical speeches seem to use phrases regarding both fortune and death that provide the text with a didactic discussion of both the legality of the Crusaders’ cause and the criticism of the venture. Furthermore, the author also gives voice to the anguish of the Muslim defenders facing death by quoting directly from Seneca’s letters. This paper attempts therefore to discuss how the author’s understanding of Seneca’s stoic philosophy coloured his views of Muslim beliefs and the crusading venture’s legitimacy.
The expedition of the high-ranking Frankish barons that was responsible for the capture of Jerusa... more The expedition of the high-ranking Frankish barons that was responsible for the capture of Jerusalem in 1099, travelled there mostly through the land route. However, soon after, other lower-ranking members of the nobility and the merchant casts realised that the sea route around the Iberian peninsula provided them with a quicker and cheaper option. Furthermore, as was the case with the land route, the crusading armies at times had to rely on supplies along the way, causing them to get involved in skirmishes with the locals they encountered. However, unlike those going by land, these contingents were able to encounter the Muslim enemies much quicker in the Iberian peninsula, where the Christians and Muslims had been fighting for political control for centuries. The arrival of these groups of crusaders to the western coasts of the Iberian peninsula provided the local Portuguese monarchs with opportunities to increase the size of their armies. However, the northern Europeans and the Portuguese had a different set of priorities, with the Northerners preferring to capture movable wealth and the Portuguese land, which led to conflict. This paper will explore of few examples of these encounters and the problems that aroused during the sieges of Lisbon (1108/9, 1142 & 1147), Also, it will explore how the different parties attempted to mitigate their disputes regarding the division of spoils of war before and after the events, through a comparison of the surviving narrative sources.
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Peer Reviewed Journal Articles by Lucas Villegas-Aristizabal MA PhD FRHistS
Resumen: Este trabajo evalúa la evidencia existente acerca de la posibilidad de que Savary de Mauléon hubiese estado presente en el intento de conquista de la ciudad de Cáceres por el rey Alfonso IX de León en el otoño de 1218. Este trabajo también explica cuáles son las posibles razones que llevaron a este mercenario poitevino a participar en las guerras ibéricas contra los Almohades. También intenta contextualizar la supuesta participación de Savary en la península ibérica en relación con su carrera política y militar, antes y después de su participación en la Quinta Cruzada.
Book Chapters by Lucas Villegas-Aristizabal MA PhD FRHistS
Conference Papers by Lucas Villegas-Aristizabal MA PhD FRHistS
Una cuestión de mutua lealtad: una exploración de las relaciones contractuales entre normandos e íbericos en sus conquistas (1018-1135)
Los normandos, como muchas de las nacientes sociedades europeas de los siglos X y XI, desarrollaron un entendimiento del concepto de lealtad como un vínculo entre los miembros de las élites en la guerra y la paz. Esta por su parte ayudó a forjar su identidad común. Entonces, cuando comenzó la diáspora de los normandos a principios del siglo XI, estos iniciaron un proceso de conquista y asimilación en las regiones en las que incursionaron. La Península Ibérica con su naciente grupo de principados cristianos que se estaban consolidando tras siglos de dominio omeya, sirvió como nuevo teatro para estas incursiones normandas. Por lo tanto, junto a sus intervenciones en el sur de Italia, los normandos en su inferioridad numérica se vieron obligados a crear alianzas con sus correligionarios ibéricos para avanzar en sus designios de conquista. Esta ponencia analiza las relaciones contractuales forjadas entre los normandos y sus correligionarios ibéricos. Los explora dentro del concepto de lealtad que ambos grupos parecen haber compartido en su consolidación de sus propias identidades políticas y sociales. Esta ponencia entonces intenta mostrar como la conceptualización de la lealtad de los normandos desempeñó un papel vital en el establecimiento de alianzas temporales, entre las diferentes facciones en su lucha militar común, contra las entidades políticas musulmanas en la península.
Resumen: Este trabajo evalúa la evidencia existente acerca de la posibilidad de que Savary de Mauléon hubiese estado presente en el intento de conquista de la ciudad de Cáceres por el rey Alfonso IX de León en el otoño de 1218. Este trabajo también explica cuáles son las posibles razones que llevaron a este mercenario poitevino a participar en las guerras ibéricas contra los Almohades. También intenta contextualizar la supuesta participación de Savary en la península ibérica en relación con su carrera política y militar, antes y después de su participación en la Quinta Cruzada.
Una cuestión de mutua lealtad: una exploración de las relaciones contractuales entre normandos e íbericos en sus conquistas (1018-1135)
Los normandos, como muchas de las nacientes sociedades europeas de los siglos X y XI, desarrollaron un entendimiento del concepto de lealtad como un vínculo entre los miembros de las élites en la guerra y la paz. Esta por su parte ayudó a forjar su identidad común. Entonces, cuando comenzó la diáspora de los normandos a principios del siglo XI, estos iniciaron un proceso de conquista y asimilación en las regiones en las que incursionaron. La Península Ibérica con su naciente grupo de principados cristianos que se estaban consolidando tras siglos de dominio omeya, sirvió como nuevo teatro para estas incursiones normandas. Por lo tanto, junto a sus intervenciones en el sur de Italia, los normandos en su inferioridad numérica se vieron obligados a crear alianzas con sus correligionarios ibéricos para avanzar en sus designios de conquista. Esta ponencia analiza las relaciones contractuales forjadas entre los normandos y sus correligionarios ibéricos. Los explora dentro del concepto de lealtad que ambos grupos parecen haber compartido en su consolidación de sus propias identidades políticas y sociales. Esta ponencia entonces intenta mostrar como la conceptualización de la lealtad de los normandos desempeñó un papel vital en el establecimiento de alianzas temporales, entre las diferentes facciones en su lucha militar común, contra las entidades políticas musulmanas en la península.
During the Fifth Crusade (1216-1222) a Frisian fleet travelled to the East on a similar voyage as countless northern crusaders had done before them, but as they did they described their travels in a itinerary known as the Itinere frisonem which compared to other similar texts, such as De expugnatione Lyxbonensi and the Gesta regis Ricardi, contains a higher level of detail for the distances, the stopovers, the kingdoms and the general geography of the lands. As I have showed in my previous work, this chronicle has given us an insight into the Frisian fleet’s motives and actions in the Iberian conflict against the Almohads. In this work, however, I intend to show how this chronicle can be used as a source for naval journeys and the spiritual views of the crusaders with regards to the expedition to Jerusalem. Also, as crusaders engaged in trade, raiding and praying along the way, this paper will attempt to address the following questions regarding its content: How did the clerical author of the chronicle view the activities of his fellow crusaders within the framework of the imitation of Christ? What was the purpose of the itinerary? Why does the text end with their arrival at Acre and does not mention the capture of Damietta? And finally how was the sense of ‘other’ used to portray the peoples (both Christian and Muslims) they encountered along the way?
However, in 1217, when the fleet of Northern Crusaders arrived in the Iberian Peninsula on their obligatory stopover on the coasts of Portugal, they were invited by the Bishop of Lisbon to join an expedition being planned to recapture Alcacer do Sal. As it had occurred earlier crusades, the Iberian prelates tried to convince the forces of the Northern Crusaders to join their coreligionists in their coming campaign arguing of the value of their struggle as part of their Crusading venture. Traditionalist Crusade historians have sometimes used Innocent’s disqualification and the Itinere Frisonem version of the events in the eve of the siege to illustrate their point that the Iberian wars against the Al-Andalus did not enjoy the same status as those to the Holy Land. However, it is evident that Pope Innocent was unprepared to disqualify the Iberian Christian efforts against the Muslims in their region, making an artificial separation between the Iberians and the rest of Christendom. Furthermore, the Itinere is far from clear in its view that their involvement in Iberia was not a crusading venture. This paper will try to revise the evidence that survive to decipher what was the real status of the campaign in the eyes of the Papacy by 1217. It will also explore how this differentiation of one group of lay Christians from another might have affected the conceptualisation of the Iberian theatre as Crusade in the eyes of its participants.