1 Especificos Portugues Ingles
1 Especificos Portugues Ingles
1 Especificos Portugues Ingles
A insegurança na comunicação,
2) PROFESSOR principalmente em situações formais,
LETRAS demonstrada pelos escolares, a
incapacidade de redação na maioria dos
(PORTUGUÊS/INGLÊS) candidatos em concurso vestibular e a
dificuldade de compreensão de textos em
1. O ensino da Língua Portuguesa: todos os níveis escolares constituem
língua, linguagem, variação e indicações da importância do ensino na
variedade linguística Língua Portuguesa, cujo questionamento
vem ocupando uma posição central no
Língua contexto educacional.
A Língua é um instrumento de Essa situação faz com que os
comunicação, sendo composta por professores de Português realizem
regras gramaticais que possibilitam que estudos e pesquisas e apresentem
determinado grupo de falantes consiga alternativas para melhor funcionalidade
produzir enunciados que lhes permitam desse ensino, a partir da análise das
comunicar-se e compreender-se. Por suas deficiências.
exemplo: Os profissionais da Língua
falantes da língua portuguesa. Portuguesa voltam-se às ciências
A língua possui um caráter social: linguísticas como a fonte de onde se
pertence a todo um conjunto de pessoas, podem inferir normas metodológicas para
as quais podem agir sobre ela. Cada o ensino, que, associadas aos princípios
membro da comunidade pode optar por metodológicos, permitem uma tomada de
esta ou aquela forma de expressão. Por posição mais efetiva sobre o que ensinar
outro lado, não é possível criar uma e como fazê-lo.
língua particular e exigir que outros Nossa interpretação é de que o
falantes a compreendam. Dessa forma, fato metodológico é realmente
cada indivíduo pode usar de maneira abrangente, visto encerrar uma filosofia
particular a língua comunitária, de educação, o pensamento de uma
originando a fala. A fala está sempre sociedade com peculiaridades locais em
condicionada pelas regras socialmente permanente e acelerada mudança, e uma
estabelecidas da língua, mas é teoria linguística.
suficientemente ampla para permitir um No Brasil, o ensino da língua
exercício criativo da comunicação. Um materna tem-se desenvolvido quase
indivíduo pode pronunciar um enunciado somente por meio do ensino da
da seguinte maneira: gramática tradicional. E o pressuporto
A família de Regina era básico, nessa acepção, é de que saber a
paupérrima. teoria gramatical equivale a saber
Outro, no entanto, pode optar por: Português.
A família de Regina era muito A gramática é, portanto, colocada
pobre. e vista como parte fundamental do ensino
As diferenças e semelhanças da língua. Decorrentes dessas premissa
constatadas devem-se às diversas surgem as diretrizesmetodológicas: toda
manifestações da fala de cada um. Note, a teoria gramatical é sistematizada e
além disso, que essas manifestações estruturada para que o escolar a domine
devem obedecer às regras gerais da no processo de escolarização. Os
língua portuguesa, para não correrem o conteúdos das oito séries de 1º grau e os
risco de produzir enunciados das três séries do 2º grau são reunidos
incompreensíveis como: num conjunto compartimentado. Há,
Família a paupérrima de era assim, onze compartimentos, cada um
Regina. correspondendo a um ano letivo,
complementados com exercícios
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RODRIGUES afirma que uma das da língua, uma vez que outros
tarefas da Linguística no Brasil é a conhecimentos a respeito da língua só
investigação do nosso idioma e que há podem ser desenvolvidos nos alunos a
necessidade de se analisar ou reanalisar partir de um bom domínio da mesma por
a língua portuguesa de um ponto de vista parte deles.
puramente descritivo.10 Um modelo linguístico aplicável ao
A esse respeito ISAURA HIGA se ensino deveria, segundo LOBATO,
pronuncia colocando a necessida de que englobar, além dos elementos
em todos os recantos de nosso propriamente linguísticos, principalmente
país sejam feitas pesquisas linguísticas outros aspectos tais como o contexto
que venham contribuir de forma prática linguístico dos falantes e as variações no
para elaboração de uma descrição da uso da língua pois dominar uma língua
língua nacional que servirá de ponto de significa dominar, além das regras de
partida à atualização do ensino de nossa boa formação de frases, os princípios
língua materna.11 e condições de utilização adequada
Se, de um lado, uma descrição dessas frases num dado contexto
melhor da língua nos vai fornecer um linguístico e numa dada situação de
panorama mais atualizado dela - e comunicação.
poderemos trabalhar nas escolas com Essa abordagem tem merecido,
uma língua menos arcaica e mais recentemente, especial atenção dos
próxima das experiências e necessidades sociolinguístas e, nesse campo, os
de nosso alunos -, será também de estudiosos têm dado maior destaque ao
utilidade adiantar diretrizes gerias para o aspecto sócio-semântico das opções
ensino da língua como base na aplicação linguísticas que caracterizam a
de uma teoria que nos fornceça uma heterogeneidade do uso da língua entre
noção mais abrangente dessa língua, uma determinada população.
vista não apenas como um sistema Um das linhas diretrizes desta
formal, mas também como um sistema investigação reside na tentativa de
de opções comportamentais. integração, na descrição linguística, de
Em relação ao ensino de línguas, considerações referentes aos contextos
dois grandes objetivos podem ser social e cultural em que tem lugar o uso.
esclarecidos. Se entendermos língua Essa posição é atualmente assumida,
como um sistema de opções com particular vitalidade, por HALLIDAY,
comportamentais, o objetivo será que se preocupa não apenas em propor
desenvolver nos alunos as habilidades de um modelo estático das estruturas
expressão e compreensão de linguísticas, mas, também, em mostrar
mensagens verbais: o uso ou como estão integradas no sistema
apropriação da língua, em situações linguístico as possibilidades funcionais da
sociais concretas de intercâmbio língua: para ele a língua é o que é pelas
linguístico. Se encarada como objeto de funções que desempenha, Em suma,
estudo - um sistema a ser identificado e para ele não há distinção entre estrutura
descrito - o objetivo passará a ser o e uso, estando ambos interligados.
conhecimento consciente do sustema Tendo em vista os aspectos acima
linguístico, saber a respeito da língua. A apresentados, a adoção da teoria
ênfase num ou noutro caracteriza um linguística de HALLIDAY parece
ensino prático ou mais teórico. relevante para a reformulação do ensino
Deve-se ressaltar, contudo, que a da Língua Portuguesa, à medida que
ênfase dada a um deles não exclui o HALLIDAY, tomando por base uma visão
outro, e que no ensino de 1º grau deve sociolonguística peculiar, amplia as
predominar o desenvolvimento das concepções correntes de língua,
habilidade de comunicação sobre a passando a entendê-la como um sistema
aquisição de conhecimentos a respeito de opções comportamentais.
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APOSTILA ELABORADA PELA EMPRESA DIGITAÇÕES & CONCURSOS
CONCORDÂNCIA NOMINAL
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APOSTILA ELABORADA PELA EMPRESA DIGITAÇÕES & CONCURSOS
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APOSTILA ELABORADA PELA EMPRESA DIGITAÇÕES & CONCURSOS
pertencendo a uma língua” (POS- SENTI, formação de uma sentença, o falante não
1998, p. 69). organiza as palavras de forma aleatória.
Há regras que determinam a constituição
AFINAL, DE QUAL GRAMÁTICA E DE das unidades que vão assumir funções
QUAIS REGRAS ESTAMOS conforme as posições que ocupam na
FALANDO? sentença. Isso qual- quer falante sabe!
Lembra do contraste ilustrado em 5?
A essa altura do curso,
certamente, você já sabe que, quando (5) a. Ilhéus tem praias muito
falamos em GRAMÁTICA, não bonitas.
necessariamente devamos pensar em b. * bonitas tem muito Ilhéus
gramática normativa, aquele compêndio praias.
que apresenta um “conjunto de regras Você não encontrará nenhum
que devem ser seguidas” (POSSENTI, falante da língua portuguesa produzindo
1998, p. 64). Para esta gramática, a regra a estrutura de 5b. Poderá até observar
é concebida como uma lei, que deve ser algum tipo de vio- lação, como a que
obedecida. Se o falante a usa, ele é temos em 9,
considerado “um bom falante”, pois
obedece às normas prescritas para o (9) Ilhéus tem praias muito
bem falar e escrever. Conforme Travaglia bonita.
(2000), essa gramática dita
(...) normas para a ‘correta’ ou seja, a falta de concordância
utilização oral e escrita do idioma, entre o nome “praias” e o adjetivo
prescreve o que se deve e o que não se “bonita”, mas que não interfere na
deve usar na língua. Essa gramática constituição do significado da sen- tença.
considera apenas uma variedade da Lembra também do objeto direto?
língua como válida, como sendo a língua Retomemos os exemplos:
verdadeira (...) é mais uma espécie de lei
que regula o uso da língua em sociedade (8) a. Ontem, João viu Maria.
(p. 30-31). b. Ontem, João a viu.
Infelizmente, em nossa tradição c. Ontem, João viu ela.
escolar, vigora essa concepção de d. Ontem, João viu Ø.
gramática. Por exemplo, saber sintaxe
implica em reconhecer: todas as classes O falante pode não usar as quatro
gramaticais e funções sintáticas das possibilidades de repre- sentação do
palavras; todas as regras de colocação objeto, mas, com certeza, ele sabe que
dos termos na oração; todas as regras um verbo como “ver” licencia um objeto,
responsáveis pela concordância e seja numa forma explícita (8a; 8b; 8c) ou
regência (verbal e nominal); todos os não (8d). Regra semelhante também se
tipos de sentenças (coordenadas e aplica ao sujeito, como você pode
subordinadas); todas as figuras de observar em 10, abaixo:
sintaxe... Enfim, o “bom falante” da língua
portuguesa tem de saber tudo isso e (10) a. João saiu apressado,
muito mais!!! pois João não queria perder o avião.
Todavia, você tem conhecimento b. João saiu apressado, pois
de que muitos falam uma língua sem ele não queria perder o avião.
nunca mesmo ter frequentado um banco c. João saiu apressado, pois Ø
escolar. E, se falam, é porque sabem não queria perder o avião.
muito bem o que seja “regra”, um aspecto
do conhecimento linguístico que tem Assim como o objeto direto, o
propriedade sistemática. Por exemplo, na sujeito pode ser representado por formas
seção acima, você viu que, para a explícitas (10a) e (10b) ou pelo chamado
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APOSTILA ELABORADA PELA EMPRESA DIGITAÇÕES & CONCURSOS
Desinências
Quando se conjuga o verbo amar,
obtêm-se formas como amava, amavas,
amava, amávamos, amáveis, amavam.
Essas modificações ocorrem à medida
que o verbo vai sendo flexionado em
número (singular e plural) e pessoa
(primeira, segunda ou terceira). Também
ocorrem se modificarmos o tempo e o
modo do verbo (amava, amara, amasse,
por exemplo).
Podemos concluir, assim, que Vogal temática
existem morfemas que indicam as Observe que, entre o radical cant-
flexões das palavras. Esses morfemas e as desinências verbais, surge sempre
sempre surgem no fim das palavras o morfema –a
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APOSTILA ELABORADA PELA EMPRESA DIGITAÇÕES & CONCURSOS
Esse morfema, que liga o radical escolaridade: o -i- entre os sufixos -ar-
às desinências, é chamado de vogal e -dade facilita a emissão vocal da
temática. Sua função é ligar-se ao palavra. Outros exemplos: gasômetro,
radical, constituindo o chamado tema. É alvinegro, tecnocracia, paulada, cafeteira,
ao tema (radical + vogal temática) que se chaleira, tricota.
acrescentam as desinências. Tanto os
verbos como os nomes apresentam 7. A semântica aplicada ao ensino da
vogais temáticas. Língua Portuguesa
• Vogais temáticas nominais: São -
a, -e, e -o, quando átonas finais, como Segundo Pereira e Henriques
em mesa, artista, busca, perda, escola, (2002), a linguística entrou para o
triste, base, combate. Nesses casos, não currículo universitário há apenas três
poderíamos pensar que essas décadas, o que significa que grande
terminações são desinências indicadoras parte dos professores de Língua
de gênero, pois a mesa, escola, por Portuguesa ativos no mercado de
exemplo, não sofrem esse tipo de flexão. trabalho tiveram, em sua formação,
É a essas vogais temáticas que se liga a pouco contato com essa área de
desinência indicadora de plural: mesa-s, conhecimento. Além disso, ao
escola-s, perda-s. Os nomes terminados ingressarem nesse mercado, depararam-
em vogais tônicas (sofá, café, cipó, se com uma rede de ensino enraizada na
caqui, por exemplo) não apresentam tradição e adepta às práticas repetitivas
vogal temática. do ensino gramatical, o que provocava –
• Vogais temáticas verbais: São -a, e ainda provoca – um bloqueio no ímpeto
-e e -i, que caracterizam três grupos de de afrontar essa tradição e de suportar as
verbos a que se dá o nome de pressões sociais ante as mudanças.
conjugações. Assim, os verbos cuja vogal Entretanto, há cerca de dez anos,
temática é -a pertencem à primeira com a criação dos Parâmetros
conjugação; aqueles cuja vogal temática Curriculares Nacionais
é -e pertencem à segunda conjugação e – PCNs –, a linguística ganhou
os que têm vogal temática -i pertencem à destaque no conteúdo programático,
terceira conjugação. visto que ela propõe um trabalho cujo
enfoque é aprimorar a capacidade de
compreensão e expressão dos alunos em
situações de comunicação, isto é, facilitar
sua interação na sociedade.
A proposta dos parâmetros não
despreza o ensino da gramática
normativa, mas sim questiona a forma
como esta vem sendo trabalhada e
propõe um ensino de Língua Portuguesa
com vistas na dimensão semântica e/ou
discursiva da língua, afinal, é também
através do estudo da semântica,
especificamente a semântica da
enunciação, que se consegue, a partir de
Vogal ou consoante de ligação situações concretas de comunicação,
As vogais ou consoantes de ampliar a abordagem gramatical. Logo, a
ligação são morfemas que surgem por presença da semântica no ensino de
motivos eufônicos, ou seja, para facilitar Língua Portuguesa tem como objetivo
ou mesmo possibilitar a leitura de uma promover a reflexão sobre os recursos
determinada palavra. Temos um exemplo semântico-expressivos da língua,
de vogal de ligação na palavra desenvolvendo, consequentemente, a
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APOSTILA ELABORADA PELA EMPRESA DIGITAÇÕES & CONCURSOS
mesmo testemu- nhei, destacar alguns dessa hierarquia explicitada até aqui:
avanços e, principalmente, anotar
dificuldades e perspectivas para a nova 2 Marcos de uma cronologia do
geração de atuantes na estratégica área ensino de PLE
de Ensino de Português Língua É preciso distinguir, primeiro, entre
Estrangeira (EPLE). uma cronologia de EPLE e a emergência
e vigência de uma especialidade da área
1 A especialidade de PLE de Ensino e Aprendizagem de Línguas
O que está implicado na (EALin), a sa- ber, a do Ensino de
expressão área de especialidade de que Português para Estrangeiros. O ensino
me sirvo para retra- tar a condição de línguas tem uma longa história
acadêmico-científica dessa modalidade enquanto campo de trabalho e de um
de ensino de línguas é a natureza do ofício passível de treinamento de
trabalho de ensino e atividade de aprendizes dese- josos de ingressar no
pesquisa no âmbito do PLE. Para situar ramo. Como especialidade teórico-
essa espe- cialidade, vou invocar uma acadêmica com formação espe- cífica
hierarquia de termos que poderá nas universidades, com disciplinas
esclarecer os sentidos que empresto à formadoras reconhecíveis, com acervo
área do PLE. Essa hierarquia taxonômica de obras públicas especialmente nesse
está afeita à área maior da Lingua- gem foco, com publicações de resultados de
ou Grande Área da Linguagem. Esse estudos e pesqui- sas, com o apoio de
nódulo mais alto compreende as três uma associação de professores e
ciências da Linguagem, a saber, a da pesquisadores, com revistas e con-
Estética da Linguagem, englobando a gressos, numa vertente de consciência
tradicional área das literaturas e sua profissional com carreira e contratos de
teorização, a da Linguística, referindo-se trabalho específicos, nossa história é
aos estudos da estrutura e bem mais recente. Conforme veremos
funcionamento da linguagem humana, e adiante, o afloramento de uma
a dos Estudos Aplicados ou Linguística autopercepção profissional em
Aplicada, como muitas vezes é rotulado especialidade tem pouco mais de vinte
esse terceiro segmento, produzido a anos.
partir de investigações de natureza Pela carta de Caminha, escrita nos
aplicada sobre questões de linguagem na primeiros dias da Colônia, sabemos que
prática social. degre- dados foram “deixados” com os
A pesquisa aplicada gera índios, para que se tornassem “línguas“
conhecimentos de uma certa natureza por imersão, ou seja, para que pudessem
epistêmica para subáreas como a do vir a servir os colonizadores como
Ensino-Aprendizagem de Línguas (à qual intérpretes das línguas brasi- leiras. Eles
se prende o PLE mais abaixo), Tradução tinham de adquirir a língua autóctone no
(incluindo a Interpretação e a convívio espontâneo com as etnias da
Legendagem), Lexicografia e nova terra. Mas houve ensino de
Terminologia Aplicadas, Relações Português nos Colégios que se seguiram
Sociais Mediadas pela Linguagem (vide ao Colégio de Salvador, fundado em
ALMEIDA FILHO, 2008). Abaixo da 1550, tendo à frente o padre Vicente
subárea de Ensino de Línguas, está a Rodrigues. Logo após, fundaram os
especialidade de Ensino e Aprendizagem jesuítas a segunda escola brasileira: o
de Segundas Línguas e de Línguas Colégio dos Meninos de Jesus de São
Estrangeiras à qual se prende, afinal, o Vicente (inaugurado em 1553), onde se
PLE, entre outras, como Línguas de ensinava o jovem habitante da nova terra
Ensino Massivo e Línguas Menos a falar, ler e escrever em Português. Os
Comumente Ensinadas. Veja- mos na professores podiam ser improvisados,
Figura 1 uma representação gráfica como ainda se pode flagrar aqui e acolá
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nas normas gramaticais da dita variedade que se aproximam da oralidade pelo tipo
padrão, na modalidade escrita, de linguagem e pela natureza da relação
entre os indivíduos, por exemplo, as
O estudo da modalidade oral cartas íntimas e pessoais. Isso já não
constitui um objeto novo no ensino da ocorre no caso das cartas comerciais ou
língua materna. Esse caráter de cartas abertas” (MARCUSCHI, 2001, p.
novidade, conforme inicialmente 38).
mencionado, assegura por si só uma “As situações de ensino da língua
predisposição favorável à utilização precisam ser organizadas, basicamente,
desse material em atividades didáticas considerando-se a diversidade de textos
cujo objetivo é tornar o aluno um usuário e gêneros que circulam socialmente, bem
do padrão culto oral e escrito. É também como suas características específicas”
importante ressaltar que a (ROJO, 2005, p. 18), assim, dentro desse
espontaneidade, vivacidade e processo de ensino aprendizagem com
multiplicidade de situações de uso da gêneros, “trata-se de aprender a dominar
língua falada, das quais serão extraídos o gênero, primeiramente, para melhor
os dados a serem analisados, certamente conhecê-lo ou apreciá-lo, para melhor
contribuirão para aguçar a curiosidade do saber compreendê-lo, para melhor
estudante. (RAMOS, 2002, p. 41) produzi-lo na escola e fora dela” (DOLZ;
SCHNEUWLY, 2004, p. 80). Em defesa
O paradigma para se estabelecer da transposição didática e do ensino por
a norma padrão, sempre foi a modalidade meio dos gêneros discursivos, posto que
da língua escrita. O que a nosso ver é “todas as esferas da atividade humana,
uma inversão de paradigma. Entre os por mais variadas que sejam, estão
próprios estudiosos da língua, havia um sempre relacionadas com a utilização da
consenso de que a escrita por ser mais língua. A utilização da língua efetua-se
estável, apresentava-se estruturalmente em forma de enunciados. (...) cada esfera
mais elaborada. Para Marcuschi (2001, p. de utilização da língua elabora seus tipos
37), relativamente estáveis de
enunciados... gêneros discursivos” (
A fala tem sido vista na BAKHTIN, 2003, p. 279), portanto,
perspectiva da escrita e num quadro de apresentamos/apontamos as seguintes
dicotomias estritas porque predominou o vantagens:
paradigma teórico da análise imanente 1. a noção de gênero se
ao código. Enquanto a escrita foi tomada apresenta com potencial para solucionar
pela maioria dos estudiosos como as limitações do ensino de produção de
estruturalmente elaborada, complexa, texto, dado o seu papel social de
formal e abstrata, a fala era tida como representar, sob as formas de texto, os
concreta, contextual e estruturalmente padrões culturais da comunidade em que
simples. se inserem;
2. o aluno, pelo constante
Existem diversas áreas contato com os gêneros discursivos, vai
profissionais que trabalham utilizando se apropriando dos mecanismos sócio-
textos escritos para serem reproduzidos linguísticos que estruturam os
oralmente, a exemplo disso têm-se os enunciados;
setores jurídicos, pois as leis precisam 3. os gêneros, pelo seu caráter
ser faladas na íntegra e o discurso nesse heterogêneo, vão permitir que o aluno
momento deve respeitar algumas normas tenha uma prática pluralizada no uso da
e regras contidas na Gramática língua;
Normativa; e o jornalístico, em que os 4. o gênero constrói de maneira
apresentadores lêem o texto para funcional a competência linguística do
anunciar a notícia. Por isso, “há gêneros
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formas físicas são bastante apelativas nos leva a crer que ela fez uma leitura de
aos olhos masculinos. Esse detalhe será mundo, no sentido dado por Paulo Freire,
retomado mais adiante, pois ele é de que em uma sociedade machista
bastante significativo para o contexto. como a nossa em que a mulher bonita é
O texto em si bem ilustra o que subestimada em sua inteligência em
aqui estamos diferenciando: detrimento do corpo. Sabendo de suas
alfabetização e letramento. A autora do limitações quanto aos requisitos exigidos
“currico” é alfabetizada, porém não tem o para o cargo, a candidata ao emprego
nível de letramento esperado que a lançou mão de um apelo: o físico. Com
escola deveria proporcionar e que o isso demonstra ter feito uma leitura do
cargo a que se candidata socialmente meio social em que vive, o que
exige. Letramento em contraponto com a caracterizaria um letramento que não se
alfabetização vai além desta. Não se prende apenas ao texto escrito.
limita apenas em reconhecer letras e
palavras, mas, neste caso, saber como Considerações Finais
se produz o gênero curriculum
vitae adequadamente, por exemplo e À guisa de conclusão, diante da
para “começo de conversa”, e não se análise feita no corpus, pode-se dizer que
admitem os erros ortográficos presentes as nossas suspeitas se
no texto, posto que o ambiente social em corroboraram. Os “erros” mais
que ele circula e ao que se presta esse frequentes foram aqueles relacionados à
gênero, não se admitem tais erros. Fonologia, motivados pelo
O texto apresenta algumas desconhecimento das convenções
categorias de erros acima expostos. É ortográficas e pela transposição dos
uma ilustração clara de como as marcas hábitos da fala para a escrita,
da oralidade podem se manter presentes consequência da falta de leitura e escrita
na produção escrita quando não se como práticas efetivas do cotidiano
atinge o letramento escrito devido ou escolar. Tais erros são automaticamente
desejado. Palavras como “candidatarme” rotulados como erros de português e
(candidatar-me), “pra” (para), “jornau” atribuídos às variedades não padrão
(jornal), “seija” (seja), “tá” (está) etc. são como sendo próprias delas e da fala dos
exemplos dessas marcas que, em última alunos de classe baixa. O que é meia
leitura, é o reflexo da falta de contato verdade. Tais “erros” se apresentam
com a palavra escrita: por meio da leitura indubitavelmente no processo de
e da produção de texto escrito como aquisição da escrita de qualquer aluno,
práticas de ensino/aprendizagem nas independe de sua classe social.
aulas de língua materna. A variedade linguística, porém,
Os erros presentes no texto, em que ele domine, se mais próxima ou mais
sua maioria, se dão no nível da distante da padrão é que vai ou não
ortografia, da convenção, porém, acentuar a permanência desses erros. A
qualquer leitor consegue ler o que está lá falta de um ensino da dita norma padrão
e entender o que o texto, a mensagem, de maneira adequada e criteriosa,
transmite. principalmente para os alunos que
Poderíamos dizer muito mais dominam uma variedade menos próxima
sobre o texto e seu sujeito-autor, mas da referência culta, que são a clientela
vamos nos limitar ao ponto em das escolas públicas em massa, os limita
discussão. A autora deste texto não tem a usarem apenas a sua variedade
letramento nessa perspectiva do texto linguística, a não padrão, e as formas da
escrito. Porém, diríamos que ela possui oralidade, nas produções escritas, posto
um grau de letramento que vai além da que procuram escrever orientados pela
palavra escrita. O fato de anexar uma fala, ou seja, procuram aproximar a
foto de corpo inteiro em trajes de praia escrita da sua fala e da sua comunidade
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APOSTILA ELABORADA PELA EMPRESA DIGITAÇÕES & CONCURSOS
Tanto no exemplo em que remete nossa língua não pode ser denominada
ao fato de moçambicanos recorrerem à como portuguesa, reforça o escritor.
língua portuguesa em busca de Manohar Saardessai, poeta,
legitimação de seus direitos, como no habitante de Loutolim – Índia, diz que
exemplo acima referido aos latino- mudaram a língua da cidade do
americanos em busca da língua inglesa português para o inglês em um ano. O
na tentativa de ascensão do status quo, poeta diz que não entende o porquê do
temos o que Calvet (202, p.106) sugere fenômeno, “não somos portugueses,
como mercado linguístico, no qual o valor somos indianos, mas ainda assim uns
de diversas línguas e ou dialetos são falam inglês e outros português”, diz. Diz
medidos em comparação à língua ainda que alguns habitantes da região
dominante. Nesse caso o autor nos eram menosprezados porque falavam o
remete a metáfora econômica em que a português.
língua é sinal exterior de riqueza e a Na atualidade a língua portuguesa,
busca de falar ou integrar uma dada nesse país, adquire outro status. É
comunidade linguística confere ao seu perceptível, e a assertiva do poeta
falante força, riqueza e autoridade reforça o fato de que deveras existem
simbólicas. relações entre Língua e Poder.
Ademais, Mateus (2002, p. 12) nos A língua, nesse sentido, torna-se,
diz que, quanto mais o indivíduo adquire na contemporaneidade, capital linguístico
consciência de seu papel na sociedade em que os discursos são signos de
mais ele busca definir para si o estatuto riqueza e de autoridade. Quanto mais um
de usuário da língua prestigiada, e cada falante possui “capital linguístico”, capital
vez mais pensa a língua como um meio essencialmente simbólico, mais é
de afirmar-se e identificar-se reconhecido e auto afirmado mediante
valoradamente. sua comunidade e outras comunidades
Teresa Salgueiro, musicista linguísticas e grupos sociais.
lisbonense, em visita ao Brasil diz que Dilo Monteiro, estudante, também
falamos a mesma língua e que ela não é lisbonense, diz que na atualidade muito
falada da mesma maneira. Por isso, se fala de globalização e
reforça Pedro Ayres, amigo de Teresa e multiculturalismo na Europa. Todavia, diz
também musicista, que não faria nenhum o estudante não saber se é uma
sentido ler Os Lusíadas5 no Brasil, novidade ou se é uma maneira de se
devido a essa diferença linguística. refletir sobre os aspectos culturais do
Acreditamos que mais do que agora, uma vez que segundo ele, as seis
referência à diferença linguística contida colônias, a mestiçagem e o
em Os Lusíadas que Pedro Ayres fez multiculturalismo já aconteceram há
menção seja importante atentarmos a muito tempo. No entanto, seu colega
diferença contextual e, sobretudo, cultural Jardel Vieira, também estudante,
em que essa obra fora escrita uma vez discorda. Diz que os valores vão se
que ao ser escrita nessa língua e perdendo porque há uma mistura,
contexto específico a referida obra havendo uma globalização das pessoas
confere um status bem específico a e das culturas.
Portugal e seus habitantes, ao contrário Eis a intenção de promover a
do que conferiria ao Brasil. presente reflexão nesse trabalho a partir
O escritor João Ubaldo, brasileiro, dos relatos encontrados no presente
diz que a língua portuguesa caminha em documentário. Todos esses relatos vêm
direção à língua brasileira, devido a sua reforçar o caráter sociocultural da língua
diversidade. Diz ainda que temos uma que se manifesta através de diversos fins
pluralidade de culturas e subculturas e comunicativos agregando e modelando à
que recebemos influência de outros cultura de uma nação seja conferindo a
povos. É devido a essa história que
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APOSTILA ELABORADA PELA EMPRESA DIGITAÇÕES & CONCURSOS
Bhabha elabora uma aguda crítica sobre apagamento das diferenças culturais e
a produção de um pensamento por uma visão horizontal da sociedade.
totalizador que foi matizado pela busca Daí a problematização,
de uma unicidade absoluta de justamente, de um discurso nacional que
significações nacionais de forma a se estruturava pela denominação de um
ignorar as diversas representações que povo em termos de um anonimato de
emergem de uma diferença cultural indivíduos circunscritos à “horizontalidade
atuante. Daí a disseminação de outros espacial”42 de uma comunidade
signos nacionais – não aqueles [supostamente] hegemônica. No fundo, o
institucionalizados – que orientam a que perpassa a crítica de Homi K.
cultura por intermédio do reconhecimento Bhabha é o deslocamento do povo para
das diferenças e das fronteiras40 os limites da narrativa da nação de
negociadas num campo de práticas e maneira que se possa explorar as formas
discursos em torno de uma coletividade de identidade cultural e solidariedade
contaminada por uma heterogeneidade e política emergentes das temporalidades
pluralidade identitária. Essas disjuntivas da cultura nacional: essa é
representações culturais se organizam uma lição da história a ser aprendida com
como contra narrativas que passam a aqueles povos cujas histórias de
rasurar uma série de fronteiras marginalidade estão enredadas de forma
totalizadoras que estavam atreladas à mais profunda nas antinomias da lei e da
estruturação das “comunidades ordem - os colonizados e as mulheres43.
imaginárias” e à significação de diversas Visto deste ângulo, a fronteira
“identidades essencialistas”. representa um lugar onde se articulam as
Dentro de uma releitura pós- diferenças culturais numa perspectiva de
colonial, o conceito de “fronteira” não é negação da naturalização da
mais associado unicamente à normalidade e da unicidade: um espaço
demarcação dos limites coesos da nação não linear e descontínuo, que não
moderna, pois também passa a ser coincide com a geografia. Nas linhas dos
repensado como uma liminaridade postulados pós-coloniais, parece que
interna contenciosa que promove um uma indagação fica escrita: será que o
lugar do qual “se fala sobre – e se fala antigo conceito de fronteira contenciosa
como – a minoria, o exilado, o marginal e ainda resiste aos novos movimentos
o emergente”41. E, nesse sentido, migratórios de desterritorialização?
percebemos uma mudança no enfoque
analítico: o conceito de fronteira que era 4 Hibridismo, mescla e diferença
apenas concebido em relação a um cultural
espaço exterior, agora, também se
apresenta relacionado com a finitude Assim sendo, o reconhecimento
interior do território nacional. Em das diferenças culturais/históricas
consequência, podemos começar a possibilita uma releitura dos processos
pensar uma nação que se organiza de representação da nação através do
através das diferenças existentes dentro signo da diversidade cultural, pois
do seu interior, em visível oposição, ao nenhuma cultura apresenta caráter
funcionamento daquela antiga lógica da unitário ou, simplesmente, dualístico no
exterioridade que se sustentava pela seu diálogo do eu com o outro. E como
busca dos contrastes entre duas ou mais resultado deste redimensionamento, do
culturas. Dito de outra forma, esta ponto de vista conceitual e histórico,
releitura crítica do conceito de fronteira, percebemos um rompimento com os
de fato, procura desconstruir aquele discursos ideológicos da modernidade
signo da modernidade – a nação – que que buscavam uma normalidade
se encontrava pautado por um hegemônica para o desenvolvimento
irregular das histórias diferenciadas das
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APOSTILA ELABORADA PELA EMPRESA DIGITAÇÕES & CONCURSOS
before over-applying the past tense rule I will now briefly summarise
and producing taked, prior to learning the research findings relating to both
exception to the rule and systematicity and variability, drawing
producing took again, creatively rather implications for teaching methodology as
than rote-learned this time. Teachers will I go along.
also be less frustrated, and their learners
too, when they become aware that 2. Systematicity
teaching will not cause skilful control of a A substantial part of the SLA
linguistic structure if it is offered before a research community has concentrated on
learner is developmentally ready to documenting and trying to understand the
acquire it. discovery that language learning is highly
Now, of course, if we can speed up systematic. A defining moment for the
progression along the route that research field was in the late 70s / early 80s when
has identified we need to understand how it became evident that L2 learners follow
to do so. But understanding this route is a fairly rigid developmental route, in the
inseparably bound up with clarifying the same way as children learning their L1
question of rapid and effective teaching. do, and not dissimilar in many respects
The robust research findings from the L1 route. Moreover, this
regarding the systematicity of the route developmental route, crudely represented
followed by L2 learners do not have below as a series of interlocking linguistic
straightforward implications for language systems (or interlanguages: La, Lb, … Ln
teaching, however. One logical possibility … ), sometimes bore little resemblance to
might be that curricula should closely either the L1 of the learner, or the L2
follow developmental routes; this is not being learnt.
sensible however, given (a) the
incomplete nature of our knowledge of Developmental route
these routes, (b) the fact that classrooms
are typically made up of learners who are Crucially, these interlanguages are
not neatly located at a single linguistic systems in their own right, with
developmental stage, and (c) the fact that their own set of rules. For
developmental stages typically contain example, Hernández-Chávez
non-target forms. (For example, typical (1972) showed that although the plural is
stages in the acquisition of negation will realised in almost exactly the same way
be: 1. 'no want pudding'; 2. 'me no want in Spanish and in English, Spanish
pudding' 3. 'I don't want pudding', with children learning English still went
forms 1 and 2 representing normal through a phase of omitting plural
developmental stages, therefore to be marking. It had been assumed prior to
expected in early L2 productions, but this that second language learners'
which will not be taught). Other productions were a mixture of both L1
possibilities are that curricula should be and L2, with the L1 either helping or
recursive with inbuilt redundancy, and hindering the process depending on
that teachers should not expect whether structures are similar or different
immediate accuracy when teaching a new in the two languages. This was clearly
structure, or that they should give up on shown not to be the case, even if the L1
closely prescribed grammar curricula and of learners does of course play some
opt instead for functional and/or task- role, especially in early stages and more
based syllabus models. Many persistently at the level of pronunciation
teachers/language educators have (more about this later).
actively welcomed the role of 'facilitator' For example, the developmental
rather than 'shaper' of development, stages in the acquisition of German word-
implied by such models. order, in both naturalistic and instructed
learning contexts and irrespective of the
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APOSTILA ELABORADA PELA EMPRESA DIGITAÇÕES & CONCURSOS
L1 of the learners, are claimed to be as After the 1980s the SLA research
follows (Pienemann 1998): agenda focused on (a) documenting the
route followed by learners in a range of
S Canonical Order structures and languages - although
tage (SVO) English remains by far the most studied
1: Die kinder spielen mim ball (= L2, and increasingly (b) explaining this
the children play with the ball) route which, if it is for the most part
Learners initially hypothesise independent of both the L1 and the
that German is SVO, with context of learning, must be due
adverbials in sentence-final to learner-internal processes. This still
position. remains today a crucial part of the SLA
research agenda.
S Adverb preposing
tage Da kinder spielen (= there 2.1 Learning Development
2: children play) Models (Universal Grammar, Cognitive
Learners now place the models, Interactionist / Sociocultural
adverb in sentence initial models)
position, but keep the SVO The theoretical approaches which
order (no verb-subject have been used in order to investigate L2
inversion yet). development fall into three broad
categories:
S Verb separation
tage Aller kinder muss die pause Universal Grammar (UG)
3: machen (= all children must The UG approach, following in the
the pause make) footsteps of L1 acquisition research,
Learners place the non-finite applies the Chomskyan paradigm (Cook
verbal element in clause-final & Newson 1996; White 1989; 1996; 2000)
position. to the study of L2 development. See
papers by Adger and Sorace in this
guide. In a nutshell this linguistic theory
S Verb-second claims that humans inherit a mental
tage Dann hat sie wieder die language faculty which highly constrains
4: knoch gebringt (= then has the shape that human languages can
she again the bone brought) take and therefore severely limits the kind
Learners now place the verb of hypotheses that children can entertain
in sentence-second position, regarding the structure of the language
resulting in verb-subject they are exposed to. This is why children
inversion. acquire their first language easily and
speedily, in spite of its complexity and
S Verb-final in abstractness, at an age when they are
tage subordinate clauses not cognitively equipped to deal with
5: Er sagte dass er nach hause abstract concepts generally. In this view,
kommt (= he said that he to the core of language is separate from
home comes) other aspects of cognition, although it
Learners place the finite verb operates in close interaction with them of
in clause-final position in course. If the L2 developmental route is
subordinate clauses. similar in many respects to the L1 route,
then it must also be because the innate
Similar sequences of acquisition UG constrains L2 development. This
have been found for a wide range of approach has given rise to a wealth of
structures in a range of languages (see studies (see for example White
e.g. Ellis 1994; Mitchell & Myles 1998). 1989, 1996, 2000; Flynn, Martohardjono
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APOSTILA ELABORADA PELA EMPRESA DIGITAÇÕES & CONCURSOS
& O'Neil 1998; Schwartz 1998; Archibald attention to concepts such as noticing or
2000; Herschensohn 2000; Balcom attention.
2001; Hawkins 2001a, 2001b).
Interactionist/sociocultural
Cognitive models models
The cognitive and information In contrast to these models, the
processing models generally, which interactionist approach has paid particular
originate from psychology (and attention to the nature of the interactions
neurolinguistics), claim, on the other L2 learners typically engage in. It has
hand, that language learning is no focused on investigating, for example, the
different from other types of learning, and role of negotiation for meaning in the
is the result of the human brain building context of NS-NNS (Native Speaker -
up networks of associations on the basis Non-Native Speaker) conversations
of input. Information processing models (Gallaway & Richards 1994; Gass
see learning as the shift from controlled 1997;Gass & Varonis 1994; Pica
processes (dealt with in the short term or 1994; Oliver 1995; Long 1996), in order to
working memory and under attentional see how interactions are modified by both
control) to automatised processes stored NSs and NNSs to ensure that the input
in the long term memory (retrieved the latter receive is comprehensible. The
quickly and effortlessly). Through this role of feedback given to learners when
process, what starts as declarative they make mistakes has also been the
knowledge (knowing 'that') becomes object of attention (Aljaafreh & Lantolf
procedural knowledge (knowing 'how') 1994; Lyster & Ranta 1997; Long, Inagaki
which becomes automatic through & Ortega 1998). For example, Lyster &
repeated practice. Recently, connectionist Ranta (1997) found that the most
models have further assumed that all common feedback given to learners when
learning takes place through the building they produce incorrect forms are recasts,
of patterns which become strengthened i.e. a repetition of the learner's utterance
through practice. Computer models of minus the error; however, they also found
such processes have had some success that recasts were the kind of negative
in replicating the L1 and L2 acquisition of feedback learners were most likely to
some linguistic patterns (e.g. past tense, ignore.
gender; Sokolik & Smith 1992; Ellis & Researchers adopting a socio-
Schmidt 1997). The view of language cultural framework, following in the
encapsulated within connectionism, as footsteps of Vygotsky (1978; 1986), who
this view of cognition is called, is believed that all learning was essentially
fundamentally different from linguistic social, have explored the way in which
models, where language is seen as a L2s are learned through a process of co-
system of rules rather than as patterned construction between 'experts' and
behaviour. 'novices'. Language learning is seen as
In both the UG and cognitive the appropriation of a tool through the
models, the focus is on explaining shift from inter-mental to intra-mental
learner-internal mechanisms, and how processes. Learners first need the help of
they interact with the input in order to give experts in order to 'scaffold' them into the
rise to learning. The emphasis on the role next developmental stages before they
played by the input however, varies, with can appropriate the newly acquired
the UG approach assuming that as long knowledge. This is seen as a
as input is present learning will take quintessentially social process, in which
place, and the other models placing a interaction plays a central role, not as a
larger burden on how the input is source of input, but as a shaper of
decoded by learners, paying particular development (Lantolf & Appel
1994; Lantolf 2000).
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APOSTILA ELABORADA PELA EMPRESA DIGITAÇÕES & CONCURSOS
necessarily good at accessing this their L1 is, and no matter what they were
system in real time, i.e. they are very non- actually taught. As more and more
fluent. The reverse is also true, with some empirical research has been carried out,
learners developing high levels of fluency however, a number of important points
quickly, but remaining very inaccurate in have emerged which have meant
their productions. qualifying these statements somewhat.
Similarly, if we are to find out what
can facilitate the learning process, we 3.1 Variability in route
need to gain a much better understanding Despite the relative rigidity of the
of the kinds of interactions and social L2 learning route, transfer does occur in
settings which promote learner so far as the L1 has an impact upon L2
development. Gass (1997), for example, learning, even if it remains true that it is
argues that task-based methodologies (in primarily in the sense of speeding up the
which learners have to negotiate with one learning process in the case of closely
another in order to perform a meaning- related languages or similar linguistic
focused activity) force learners to notice structures, rather than changing the route
'gaps' in their L2, a prerequisite for filling of development itself (i.e. learners still
such gaps. Swain (1995), in her 'pushed follow the same stages, but at different
output hypothesis', argues that it is when speeds, depending on their L1). For
learners' own productions fail to meet example, Italian learners of French will
their communicative goals that they are acquire the idiosyncratic placement of
forced to revise their linguistic system. object pronouns in French more quickly
Some recent teaching than say English learners because it is
methodologies have recognised the similar in both languages, but they will still
important role played by the setting of go through the same stages, when in fact
learning, and by the quality of interactions transferring their L1 structure would lead
therein. Although not necessarily well- to acquisition of the correct system. In
informed either theoretically or fact there is ample evidence, in the
empirically, a number of humanistic literature, of transfer not taking place
teaching methodologies such as when it would help, and conversely of
'suggestopaedia' (which aims to relax the transfer taking place when it leads to
student through e.g. listening to music), errors. Moreover, transfer often occurs
or 'the silent way' (making use of coloured one way and not the other, with English
rods to express meaning), which believe learners of French, for example,
that L2 learning is facilitated if the producing la souris mange le(the mouse
learner's inner-self is set free from eats it) rather than la
inhibitions by providing a stress-free souris le mange (the mouse it eats), but
learning environment, have been very French learners of English never
popular in some parts of the world. produce the mouse it eats in
their interlanguage, which one would
3. Variability expect if transfer was taking place
The variability that occurs in L2 (Hawkins 2001a). But there are also
development, in terms of rate of areas in which the L1 gives rise to
acquisition and outcome, have received structures not found in the language of
much less attention in the SLA literature other L2 learners (see e.g. Odlin
until relatively recently. This was because 1989; Selinker 1992). The impact of the
of the very robust general findings L1 on interlanguage development needs
showing that, in key respects, learners to be better understood, even if its
develop in similar ways no matter what potential influence on SLA remains
their age is, whether they are learning the limited since we know that only a small
L2 in a classroom or in a country where subsection of structures from the L1 are
the language is spoken, no matter what likely candidates for transfer.
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APOSTILA ELABORADA PELA EMPRESA DIGITAÇÕES & CONCURSOS
aprendiz progride na medida em que combine to 'raise' the affective filter and
recebe input inteligível. Linguagem form a 'mental block' that prevents
inteligível é aquela que se situa num nível comprehensible input from being used for
ligeiramente acima do nível de acquisition. In other words, when the filter
proficiência do aprendiz. É a linguagem is 'up' it impedes language acquisition.
que ele não conseguiria produzir mas On the other hand, positive affect is
que ainda consegue entender. Vai além necessary, but not sufficient on its own,
da simples escolha de vocabulário. for acquisition to take place.
Pressupõe contextualização, explicação,
uso de recursos visuais, linguagem O CONSTRUTIVISMO NO
corporal, negociação de significados e ENSINO DE LÍNGUAS
recolocação de pontos obscuros em A teoria de Krashen fornece
outras palavras. As ideias efetivamente substrato ao Natural Approach e ao
transmitidas constituem a experiência de Communicative Approach, versões norte-
aprendizado. americana e britânica, respectivamente,
he Natural Order hypothesis is do construtivismo no ensino de línguas.
based on research findings (Dulay & Burt,
1974; Fathman, 1975; Makino, 1980 cited O construtivismo preconiza o
in Krashen, 1987) which suggested that desenvolvimento de habilidades e
the acquisition of grammatical structures conhecimento como resultado de ação e
follows a 'natural order' which is interação do ser inteligente com o meio
predictable. For a given language, some sócio-ambiental. Portanto, o ambiente é
grammatical structures tend to be fator determinante. No caso de línguas
acquired early while others late. This estrangeiras, o ambiente apropriado é
order seemed to be independent of the aquele que oferece convívio multicultural.
learners' age, L1 background, conditions
of exposure, and although the agreement AMBIENTES MULTICULTURAIS
between individual acquirers was not DE CONVÍVIO: Ambiente de convívio
always 100% in the studies, there were multiculural ou bicultural é aquele
statistically significant similarities that composto de pessoas de diferentes
reinforced the existence of a Natural nacionalidades e culturas, que
Order of language acquisition. Krashen proporciona o desenvolvimento do
however points out that the implication of conhecimento necessário e das
the natural order hypothesis is not that a habilidades básicas necessárias para que
language program syllabus should be todos possam se comunicar em qualquer
based on the order found in the studies. situação e nele se sintam à vontade.
In fact, he rejects grammatical Quanto maior o grau de afinidade entre
sequencing when the goal is language seus integrantes, mais completa será a
acquisition. assimilação.
Finally, the fifth hypothesis, the
Affective Filter hypothesis, embodies The Role of Grammar in Krashen's
Krashen's view that a number of 'affective View
variables' play a facilitative, but non- According to Krashen, the study of
causal, role in second language the structure of the language can have
acquisition. These variables include: general educational advantages and
motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. values that high schools and colleges
Krashen claims that learners with high may want to include in their language
motivation, self-confidence, a good self- programs. It should be clear, however,
image, and a low level of anxiety are that examining irregularity, formulating
better equipped for success in second rules and teaching complex facts about
language acquisition. Low motivation, low the target language is not language
self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can
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teaching, but rather is "language the same time, the field has become
appreciation" or linguistics. increasingly bi- directional and multi-
The only instance in which the faceted in its applications. As new
teaching of grammar can result in theories and research have emerged on
language acquisition (and proficiency) is language, and even more so, on learning,
when the students are interested in the their application to the study of SLA has
subject and the target language is used been fruitful. It has led to long needed
as a medium of instruction. Very often, explanations about developmental
when this occurs, both teachers and regularities and persistent difficulties, and
students are convinced that the study of has opened up new lines of research on
formal grammar is essential for second the processes and sequences of second
language acquisition, and the teacher is language (L2) development.
skillful enough to present explanations in The application of newer findings
the target language so that the students from the study of SLA to educational
understand. In other words, the teacher concerns has both informed and
talk meets the requirements for sustained long standing debates about
comprehensible input and perhaps with the role of the learner's consciousness in
the students' participation the classroom the SLA process, and about the nature of
becomes an environment suitable for the learner's input needs and
acquisition. Also, the filter is low in regard requirements. A modest, but increasing
to the language of explanation, as the number of SLA research findings has had
students' conscious efforts are usually on direct application to instructional
the subject matter, on what is being decisions. Most other findings have
talked about, and not the medium. served as a resource to inform teaching
This is a subtle point. In effect, practice. The many applications to and
both teachers and students are deceiving from the study of SLA. are therefore the
themselves. They believe that it is the focus of this paper.
subject matter itself, the study of
grammar, that is responsible for the DISCIPLINARY CONTEXTS
students' progress, but in reality their SLA research and applied
progress is coming from the medium and linguistics
not the message. Any subject matter that The study SLA is a rich and varied
held their interest would do just as well. enterprise, carried out by researchers,
whose interests and training often lie in
16.2 An overview of broader disciplines of linguistics,
secondlanguageacquisitionresearch psychology, sociology, and education.
(Whatissecondlanguageacquisition? / Yet the field is most commonly
General questions in associated with the domain of applied
secondlanguageacquisitionresearch / linguistics, reflecting a time when this
A framework for latter field focused on practical problems
exploringsecondlanguageacquisition / and concerns in language teaching, and
Learnerlanguage / Learner- attempted to resolve them through the
externalfactors / Learner- application of linguistic theories. Both
internalfactors / The languagelearner fields have expanded over the years.
Their internal growth has enriched and
Research on second language elaborated their relationship.
acquisition (SLA) has expanded Defining and describing research
enormously since its inception. Studies of on SLA within the field of applied
SLA have increased in quantity as linguistics was once a straightforward
researchers have addressed a wider task. Questions focused on practical
range of topics, asked new questions and concerns in language teaching, and were
worked within multiple methodologies. At addressed through linguistic principles
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development are not required of their example, R. Ellis 1994; Gass & Selinker
older, L2 learning counterparts (see Gass 1994; Larsen-Freeman & Long 1991;
& Ard 1985). On the other hand, the L2 Lightbown & Spada 1999).
learner's cultural background, personality Therefore, in the interest of
and identity are unique resources that observing a bi-directional perspective on
make the process of SLA an ever-present the applications to and from SLA
challenge to researchers. Fortunately, research and other fields, the paper will
each of the fields has found a niche in the focus on those areas in which such a
research endeavor, so there is little perspective is clearly apparent: the
concern about whether the study of SLA "linguistic" and the "learning" dimensions
or FLA is more central to questions on of SLA. The paper begins with a review of
language acquisition. In the United research on the linguistic sequences of
States, this friendly co-existence seems interlanguage development.
especially confirmed by academic
placement: Much of the academic study Research on Interlanguage
and research on FLA takes place in Development
departments of psychology, whereas the Much of SLA research has focused
study of SLA finds its place in on describing the learner's interlanguage
departments of linguistics, applied and identifying sequences and patterns of
linguistics, English as a Second development. The focus has been
Language, and education. primarily on grammatical development.
Since interlanguages are systematic, they
CONCERNS AND CONTROVERSIES follow rules and patterns that change over
TRADITIONS, TRENDS the course of L2 development, but do so
in patterned ways.
Introduction When describing interlanguage
Studies of SLA have existed for as development, researchers often cluster its
long as parents have been keeping patterns into interim grammars, which
diaries of their children's language they refer to as developmental sequences
development (see Leopold 1939-1959, as or stages. Thus, learners are likely to omit
an example, and Hatch 1978 for an grammatical morpheme endings in the
overview). However, many SLA early stages of learning, but overuse
researchers would argue that the formal them at a later stage. For example, We
study of SLA was launched in 1967, with play baseball yesterday We win might
Corder's publication, "The significance of develop into We played baseball
learners" errors" (Corder 1967). Its yesterday. We winned before past regular
construct of "transitional competence," and irregular forms are sorted out.
together with research on "interlanguage" Learners are likely to utter I don't
(Selinker 1972) and data description understand and she don't understand
through "error analysis" (Richards 1974), before they work through a negation
laid the groundwork for most of the early system that includes don't, doesn't, and
studies in the field, and has had an didn't. Although initial descriptions of
impact which is felt to date. interlanguage suggested that these errors
Since that time, moreover, the field were primarily, if not totally,
of SLA has grown at a remarkable pace, developmental, there is now a great deal
so much so that in the course of a single of support for the role of L1 transfer in
paper, it is difficult to cover the enormous error formation, as well as for the
number of topics addressed, findings contributions made by universal
revealed, and factors considered in SLA strategies of communication and learning.
research. Fortunately, many of these Among the sentences above, for
concerns and contributions are detailed in example, the learner's use of play in a
a wide range of textbooks (see, for context for played, are suggestive of
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such as (t) are considered "unmarked" as & Nelson 1988; Gass 1980) This finding
they are found among most languages. has not found its way into language
Language universals also enter curricula, despite its clear application to
into implicational relationships. Thus, the teaching practice.
presence of voiced alveolar stops such as The impact of the study of
/d/ in a language implies the presence of language universals on SLA research has
voiceless alveolar stops, e.g. /t./ The also been seen in work on question
voicing on /d/ makes it more complex and formation. Research by Eckman,
marked than /t./ Since more languages Moravcsik, & Wirth (1989), for example,
have unmarked than marked features, the revealed an implicational relationship
presence of a marked feature implies the between question type and question
presence of its unmarked counterpart. process that was consistent both
The typological universal which typologically and developmentally. Across
has had the strongest role in explaining languages, therefore, the presence of
SLA sequences of development is the yes/no inversion implied the process of
Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy Wh inversion, and this latter implied Wh-
(NPAH), in which relative clauses fronting.
formation follows an order that is Accordingly, this relationship could
consistent with principles of markedness. be seen developmentally as inverted
Thus, across languages of the world, yes/no questions such as are you a
subject noun phrases are more teacher? would emerge after inverted wh
accessible to relativization than are direct questions, as in who are you, themselves
object noun phrases, which are more preceded as fronting was applied to
accessible than indirect object, object of questions such as who you are.? In this
preposition, and comparative noun way the implicational order revealed in
phrases. These are implicationally typological studies was reflected in the
ordered, so that if a language allows developmental data on question
relativization of indirect objects, it also formation, at stages 3, 4 and 5.
allows relativization of direct objects. The explanations and predictions
English allows relativization of all offered through the perspective of
noun phrases on the NPAH. Other language universals and the notion of
languages such as Chinese, allow markedness have given SLA researchers
relativization of fewer phrases, but they a fresh look at the role of transfer in SLA.
still observe the ordering implications. As Eckman (1977) and Hyltenstam
This relationship across languages of the (1984) have shown, an L2 feature will be
world also holds within interlanguages of difficult if it is more marked linguistically in
learners, and can account for the order of an absolute sense and even more so if it
acquisition of relative clause formation is more marked than its L1 counterpart.
described in the previous section. As was Thus, indirect object relativization or
shown, English L2 learners acquire the voiced stops would be more difficult to
ability to form subject relatives before learn than subject relatives or voiceless
direct and indirect object relatives. stops, but would be even more difficult for
In addition to the explanatory role those learners whose L1 was more
that the study of language universals has limited in its scope of relativization or had
played in SLA research, it also has only voiceless consonants. On the other
revealed predictive power. Several hand, if the L2 feature were marked in the
studies have shown that targeted learner's L1, or even absent from it, its
instruction in relative clause formation at acquisition would not pose as much of a
lower levels on the hierarchy, such as problem as long as the feature were
object of preposition, can generalize to unmarked in the L2. Thus, English
acquisition at higher levels such as direct learners of Chinese are able to suppress
object (See Doughty 1991; Eckman, Bell, their L1 relative clause formation for
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objects of prepositions. English learners Once confronted with marked input, they
of German are able to suppress L1 switch the parameters to marked settings.
voicing of final consonants in favor of There are three theoretical views
unmarked, voiceless ones in German L2. on linguistic universals that have been
Principles of the construct of addressed in studies of SLA. Many of
markedness, applied to interlanguage these studies have focused on the
data development, can also explain why principle of "subjacency," which has to do
certain linguistic features are more with wh- movement within sentences.
difficult to notice than others, are less Some languages allow more movement
available in conversational input, and than others, and some do not observe the
might qualify for focused instruction. principle at all. Thus, studies of L2
These possibilities will be further explored learners whose L1 follows subjacency
in the discussion of cognitive processes. rules that are different from the L2
Linguistic Universals. Linguistic provide a good basis for determining the
Universals reflect constraints on the form role of UG in SLA.
of human languages. The linguistic The strongest view is that SLA is
universals that have had the most impact like FLA, and learners have access to the
on SLA research are the innate principles principles and unmarked parameters of
of Universal Grammar (UG) that are UG in much the same way that they did
viewed as a genetic endowment or during FLA. They therefore begin
property of mind, and a binary system of interlanguage development through
options, known as parameters, each with unmarked parameter settings, not
marked and unmarked settings that through their parameterized core
configure into a "core" grammar. The grammar.
construct of markedness, which was There is evidence in support of this
central to work on universals of language view in research by Bley-Vroman, Felix,
typology, also plays a role in the study of and Ioup (1988), who found that Korean
linguistic universals. L1 learners of English were able to
Everyone who has fully acquired recognize English sentences which
an L1, has constructed a core grammar, followed the principle of subjacency for
and has set the parameters of the core wh movement, even though this principle
grammar in accordance with the L1. For is not observed in Korean. This finding
example, individuals whose L1 is a "pro- illustrated that L2 learners are sensitive to
drop" language must set this parameter universal principles, even when those
into its simpler, unmarked setting. Thus, principles have not been realized in their
they might say I have three cats … are L1.
nice because they have set the pro-drop Another view is that L2 learners fall
parameter so that pronoun referents are back on the parameterized core grammar
not needed in subject position. Those of their L1, but are able to reset it for the
individuals whose L1 is a non-pro-drop L2, even when confronted with marked
language need to set their parameter in a data that conflicts with their L1. Support
marked setting, so that a subject pronoun for this position comes from White (1985).
is always needed, as in I have three cats She found that Spanish L1 learners of
… they are nice. The marked parameter English L2 relied initially on their L1
setting might be observed even in setting for pro-drop when making
sentences where the subject pronoun grammaticality judgments of English
held no meaning, as in it is snowing or sentences, whereas French L1 learners
there are 24 hours in a day. It is claimed of English did not appear to do so. In
that children begin learning their L1 as Spanish, the pro-drop parameter has an
though the pro-drop and other unmarked setting, but in English and
parameters were in unmarked settings. French, the setting is marked. Over time,
however, the Spanish learners'
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greater understanding of the SLA message without the need to focus on the
process. many forms that encode it. Even young
Cognitive Theories. Cognitive learners have been shown to have strong
theories are concerned with mental L2 comprehension, but lack grammatical
processes used for skill building and skill proficiency. Some learners have
learning. Thus, when SLA research is internalized versions of the L2 that are
carried out within a cognitive perspective, functionally adequate for communicative
the L2 is viewed as a skill, and its purposes, but developmentally
acquisition as a linguistic system is incomplete in form and structure. The
assumed to be built up gradually through consequences of this are non-standard,
processes of attention, conscious stable, immutable, "fossilized"
awareness and practice. interlanguage varieties. These varieties
To some researchers, a view of were introduced to the field by Selinker in
SLA that includes cognitive processes 1974, and have continued to
such as attention, awareness and challenge researchers, teachers, and of
practice is inconsistent with theoretical course, fossilized L2 learners, to date.
assumptions of interlanguage research, Many of these concerns about SLA
and with universal perspectives on have been expressed as research
language acquisition. This is because questions about the quality and
most researchers have viewed SLA as an accessibility of L2 input that can best
implicit experience, guided by the serve learners as data for their learning.
learner's interaction with L2 input. To Therefore the remaining discussion of
them, the cognitive process of attention is cognitive processes will focus primarily on
important, but mainly because it promotes research about their role in assisting
understanding of meaning not because it learners to notice L2 input and apply it to
facilitates skill learning. They associate their learning.
cognitive constructs such as conscious Cognitive Processes, Input and
awareness and practice with behaviorist Interaction. That samples of L2 are
theories of learning, dismissed from the needed by learners as a source of input
field several decades ago. for their learning has long been a basic
Yet most SLA researchers who assumption of SLA research. Corder
apply cognitive theories to inform their (1967) distinguished between the input
questions and methods, do so under the that is available to L2 learners and that
assumption that SLA is indeed a largely which individual learners can actually use
implicit process. For them, cognitive as intake for building interlanguage
theories are not alternate views on SLA. grammar, given their stage of
Instead, they are applied to research in development.
order to better understand, and to Decades ago, Krashen argued that
possibly explain, why it is that, for many 'comprehensible input' was necessary
learners, an implicit experience of and sufficient for successful SLA (see, for
transacting L2 message meaning is not example, Krashen 1977). He described
sufficient for achieving L2 grammatical such input as understandable in its
competence. meaning, but slightly beyond the learner's
Many L2 learners, for example, current level of development with respect
struggle with linguistic features that are to its linguistic form. Both "intake" and
difficult to notice in the messages they "comprehensible input" were conceptually
hear. These are often outside the scope intriguing, but they did not lend
of UG principles and parameters, and themselves to testable hypotheses about
therefore can be affected by any number SLA processes.
of internal and external factors, or never Long (1980, 1981, 1985) also
acquired at all. Other learners report that argued that comprehensible input was
they can understand the meaning of a crucial to SLA, but his research revealed
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that it was the learners' interaction with students?. Such modifications appeared
interlocutors that mattered as much as to give learners repeated access to L2
the input directed to them. Thus, when form as it encoded message meaning.
input was no longer comprehensible This was the very kind of L2 input that
during interaction between L2 learners could be used as intake for grammar
and interlocutors, they would modify the building, restructuring, and internalization.
flow of the interaction and repeat, Since SLA was considered to be a
rephrase, or request help with the input subconscious, implicit process in terms of
until comprehension was achieved. It was the learner's mental involvement, there
claimed that the modified input directed did not seem to be a push to explore the
toward the learners could assist their cognitive side of the input-intake-
comprehension as well as their L2 internalization progression. SLA models
learning. based on information processing theory
Follow-up studies of such and cognitive processes (see, for
interaction, which Long referred to as the example McLaughlin 1978) were rejected
"negotiation of meaning," were carried out by Krashen for their emphasis on the role
by Long and others (for example, Gass & of consciousness, which Krashen
Varonis 1994; Mackey 1999; Pica, considered unnecessary for SLA, and
Holliday, Lewis & Morgenthaler 1989; possibly detrimental to the learner's
Pica, Holliday, Lewis, Berducci & progress.
Newman 1991). Their analyses revealed Cognitive Processes and
that, as learners and interlocutors Evidence. Increasingly, researchers have
attempted to achieve comprehensibility, come to observe that L2 learning is a
they repeated and rephrased initial much more conscious experience than
messages, and extracted and highlighted was heretofore believed. Drawing on his
words and phrases in patterned ways that own experience as a Portuguese L2
often had developmental consequences. learner in and out of classrooms in Brazil,
Pica et al (1989, 1991) showed that the Schmidt found that cognitive processes
extent to which learners worked at these such as attention and noticing were
manipulations was directly related to the crucial to his L2 learning. The frequency
open endedness of the questions they with which he heard complex features of
were asked. Gass and Varonis (1994) Portuguese, and the salience of their form
showed that interlanguage items or position in input were two factors that
negotiated in an initial conversation would helped Schmidt to notice them. Schmidt
be accurately encoded in the learner's also found that in order to incorporate
later production. Mackey (1999) revealed many features of Portuguese into his
that learners' active participation in developing L2 grammar, he needed to
negotiation was closely connected to their "notice the gap" between such features
development of L2 English question as they were used by other speakers, and
forms. how own interlanguage encodings. Here,
An analysis by Pica (1994b) too, his noticing was aided by the
showed that these extractions often frequency and saliency of a feature, the
revealed L2 grammatical relationships as communicative and cognitive demands of
they encoded message meaning. For the situation in which he found himself,
example, in response to the learner's and his readiness to "notice the gap."
initial utterance which encoded a noun Schmidt's observations, along with
phrase in subject position, a listener findings on communicative, content-
might extract the noun phrase, topicalize based classroom contexts, considered
and repeat it in object position. Thus, the rich in L2 input (Pica 2002; Swain 1985),
listener might ask about the students have revealed that comprehensible input,
watch the movie by recoding it as the however modified, might not be efficient,
students? what did you say about the or even sufficient, for SLA. Thus, new
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questions have emerged about the kinds Oikkenon 1996; Van Patten & Sanz
of input learners need to achieve a 1995), the learner's interaction with
successful L2 outcome. Long addressed meaningful materials, enhanced both
these questions in several publications, graphically and linguistically to highlight
including Long (1996) and Long, Inagaki, form and meaning relationships (Doughty
& Ortega (1998). Drawing from not only 1991), problem solving, information
Schmidt's arguments and findings, but exchange and other goal oriented, task
also from FLA theory and research, and based activities.(Pica, Billmyer, Julian,
from studies of L2 form- focused Blake-Ward, Buccheit, Nicolary, &
instruction (such as those of Spada & Sullivan 2001; Pica, Kanagy, & Falodun
Lightbown, 1993; White, 1991; White, 1993), and activities that foster learners'
Spada, Lightbown & Ranta, 1991) and communication about grammar.(Fotos
experimental intervention (Oliver, 1995), 1994; Fotos & Ellis 1991; Loschsky &
Long distinguished between input that Bley-Vroman 1993; Pica, Billmyer, Julian,
provides positive evidence of Blake- Ward, Buccheit, Nicolary, &
relationships of L2 form, function and Sullivan 2001).
meaning, and input that supplies negative In addition to the positive and
evidence on forms and structures that are negative evidence that comes from
used by learners, but are not consistent modified input, feedback, and formal
with the L2 they are learning. instruction, Swain has argued that
According to Long, sources of learners’ own production can provide a
positive evidence include spoken and basis for learning of L2 relationships of
written texts that are in their authentic form and meaning (Swain 1985, 1995,
state, as well as those that have been 1996). Based on extensive observational
modified for comprehensibility in ways data of learner exchanges, she has
described above. Learners can access identified several ways in which this can
negative evidence through explicit occur. First, she found that when asked to
corrective feedback, or implicit feedback. modify their message production toward
Included among this latter are greater comprehensibility or precision,
requests such as could you say that learners moved from their rudimentary
again? and expressions such as huh? interlanguage grammar, in which
which ask learners to clarify or repeat relationships among sentence elements
utterances that can't be understood. Also were often characterized by simple
included are "recasts," which essentially juxtaposition of relevant words, to more
repeat what a learner has just said in a advanced,syntactic processing and
more accurate way. For example I need message organization. Thus learners
pencil might be recoded as You need a might modify Philadelphia live to I live in
pencil. The most effective recasts appear Philadelphia, when asked to clarify their
to be those which focus on only one message meaning.
grammatical feature over the course of a In addition, learners' conversations
conversation or lesson (Doughty & Varela would often engage them in discussion of
1998). When teachers recast of a range the linguistic dimensions of their
of student misproductions, the students interaction, a process Swain refers to as
fail to distinguish them from other follow "metatalk." Finally, Swain claims that
up moves that teachers use to conduct learners' production can also help them to
their lessons. (Lyster 1998). "notice the gap" between their output and
Among the cognitively-oriented input. Swain has placed her work within a
interventions that appear to heighten the collaborative, sociocultural perspective,
learner's access to L2 input for both while other output-focused researchers
positive and negative evidence are have found results consistent with hers,
instruction on how best to process input and have been able to explain them in
for form and meaning (Van Patten & terms of cognitive processes.(see for
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example, deBot 1996). Thus there is shown support for this view. Carefully
strong support for the role of production in controlled in design, they tend to focus on
SLA, across social and cognitive very specific features and highly
perspectives. experimental conditions. Additional
Cognitive Perspectives on L2 support has come from the meta-
Knowledge. Theoretical claims that L2 analysis and comparison or experimental
learning is a much more conscious and quasi-experimental studies on the
process than was heretofore believed, effect of L2 instruction (Norris & Ortega
and an experience that can benefit from 2001) on L2 learning. Together, individual
both input and feedback, have reactivated studies and the meta-analysis of different
the long standing debate in the field kinds of studies indicate that the strong
regarding L2 learning and its relation to interface position is indeed a valid one,
L2 knowledge. This debate, once known but might apply to context- specific
almost exclusively, as Krashen's dimensions of SLA.
"acquisition" vs. "learning" distinction (see Finally, there is a position known
again, Krashen 1977, 1981 as well as as the "weak" interface position, although
Krashen's recent writings, for example, it is much more robust than the other two
Krashen 1994), centers on three positions positions in its number of supporters and
regarding the interface of implicit and supportive studies. Here, SLA is viewed
explicit L2 learning and resultant L2 as a predominantly implicit activity.
knowledge. However, it is believed that L2 knowledge
The first position is a non-interface can be built up through both explicit
position, i.e., that SLA is an altogether instruction and other interventions that
implicit activity. While explicit L2 learning enable learners to notice crucial
and explicit L2 knowledge are possible, relationships of L2 form and meaning that
they remain separate from the L2 are difficult, if not impossible, for them to
competence that learners come to learn without such intervention. This is a
acquire. This position is consistent with view held by not only those who carry out
nativist perspectives drawn from theories research strictly within the cognitive
on linguistic universals (for example perspective, but also among researchers
Schwartz 1986) and with Krashen's associated with strategies of
Monitor Theory (Krashen 1977, 1981), consciousness raising (Rutherford &
which have been used to account for the Sharwood Smith 1985) and those who
regularities of L2 development. However work within a perspective that has come
it does not account for the incomplete to be known as "focus on form." This
acquisition experienced by fossilized work was initiated by Long (1991), and
learners. has been sustained by studies gathered
A very different position is the in a volume edited by Doughty and
strong interface position, supported Williams (1998) (see, for example, papers
through studies by DeKeyser (1997), N. by Harley; Lightbown; Long &
Ellis (1993, 1994), and Robinson (1997). Robinson; Swain; and Doughty
This position, motivated by information (Doughty & Varela) and Williams
processing theory (see McLaughlin 1978, (Williams & Evans), themselves.
1996; O'Malley, Chamot, & Walker 1988), The evidence in support of this
holds that explicit L2 knowledge, attained "weak" position illustrates ways in which
through explicit learning, can become all three positions are correct, as each is
implicit L2 knowledge. This is generally conditioned by factors that are learner-
achieved through practice in which related, stage-specific, language-related.
learners deliberately focus their attention Many of these factors need further
on L2 form as it encodes message exploration. Others have yet to be
meaning and work toward understanding identified. Together with other needs
and internalization. Many studies have across the field of they augur well for a
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solid future for SLA research. The paper embedded in specialized registers such
will therefore close with a brief look as academic or professional discourse,
toward that future. are likely to require focused practice and
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE repeated positive evidence, or various
DIRECTIONS kinds of negative evidence to stimulate
This paper has aimed to highlight their learning. Future studies will need not
the ways in which SLA research, across only to identify the forms whose
the past three decades, has retained its meaningful encodings are difficult to
original applied and linguistic interests, acquire, but also to design activities that
and enhanced them through greater help learners to notice them through
attention to questions on acquisition focused input and negative evidence.
processes. Researchers must also develop
New research, carried out from the ways to operationalize and study
perspectives of linguistic and language processes of restructuring and
universals and cognitive activities, has internalization that occur after learners
shed much light on the complexities of L2 have noticed input and processed it as
development and the input and intake. The interventions designed to
interactional needs of L2 learners. stimulate these processes will not only
Application of findings from this research provide data on the input - intake -
has rekindled old debates on the role of restructuring- internalization progression,
consciousness in L2 learning, and but will serve as a basis for materials and
uncovered new and necessary ways to activities that can be applied to classroom
study corrective feedback and L2 needs.
practice, beyond a behaviorist point of As new findings emerge on the
view. role of consciousness and attention in the
Many questions remain learning process, their relevance to the
unanswered. Others are in need of more classroom is evident. However, there is
complete answers. The three positions on an urgent need to operationally define
the role of UG remain unresolved. Is each these processes, lest they be mis-applied
correct, according to linguistic feature to classroom practice in behaviorist rather
studied? Is one more relevant to UG, the than cognitive terms.
others, more reflective of peripheral A consistent theme throughout
grammars? Continued research along SLA research has been the need for
these lines can contribute to a theory of longitudinal data. The handful of
L2 learning and inform theoretical longitudinal studies that have been
linguistics as well. carried out have made an impressive
The study of the learner's L1 in impact on the field, the most recent that
relation to markedness and language of Schmidt and Frota (1986). The kind of
universals has shown much promise. The longitudinal research needed at present
classroom relevance of this research is must take the form of follow-up studies
already apparent, and that in itself should that check retention of features learned
motivate additional studies. through instructional intervention and
Researchers need to continue to practice. Although it is clear that feedback
identify form-meaning relationships that and focused input can make a difference
defy the learner's grasp, and yet are in the short term, their trusted application
outside of UG, and therefore not to classroom practice will require
learnable from unmodified input or confidence in their long term impact.
positive evidence alone. The construct of The relevance of classroom
markedness can play a role in their practice in informing SLA research and in
identification. Those forms whose being informed by its results will find SLA
encodings of meaning are not salient, are researchers and SLA practitioners
infrequent or highly complex, or are working together to design studies and
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interpret their findings. This has already and speaking, can people say that he is
become apparent among classroom good at English? No. If a woman is only
studies. Lingering linguistic questions, as good at reading and writing, can people
described above, suggest a need for say that she is good at the language? No.
teamwork with linguists as well. In addition, most of the speakers do
Opportunities for such research teams to better in reading and writing than in
collaborate, sharing and exchanging roles listening and speaking. They can read
and responsibilities, as well as to work and write, but they can hardly
together in complementary roles, will communicate. They can hardly express
bring greater efficiency as well as themselves with their own words. We are
theoretical and pedagogical relevance to not able to change the examination
SLA research. system, but we can improve our learning
The field has increased in size and method. So when speakers want to use a
scope, yet it is still sufficiently focused on language well, do not forget to know all
questions of learning and teaching for the abilities of the four skills.
many voices and perspectives to be Listening, one of the means of
acknowledged. The fact that corrective language communication is used most
feedback and focused practice are now widely in people’s daily lives. In addition,
viewed as cognitive processes, and are at teaching the learners a lot of listening
the forefront of research interest, activities is a good way of enlargening
suggests that the field is still open for a their vocabulary. On the other hand, it
fresh look at processes once discarded or also helps the learners improve their
nearly forgotten, as long as the evidence listening comprehension. For instance,
to support them is abundant and people know that the largest difference
convincing. That is how learner errors between mother language learning and
came to be seen as a learning processes foreign language learning is the
rather than bad habits, and how environment. For a foreign language, we
communication and comprehension came can meet it only in formal places and
to be acknowledged as insufficient for L2 classes. Training and practicing the oral
competence. Lingering questions and reading is not a day’s work. Practice is
concerns at present will continue to lead important. Only through the practice can
the way to future studies. New and the learners improve their listening
currently unforseen directions will be comprehension.
taken. The richness and complexity of Next, Speaking is often connected
SLA as an learning process and a field of with listening. For example, the two-way
study suggest that there are many communication makes up for the defect in
perspectives to apply and many more communicative ability in the traditional
applications to be found. learning. Two-way means the relationship
of the communication between the
16.3 Languages skills: Listening teacher and the students at school. This
Comprehension; Speaking; Reading; relationship is connected with the
Writing communicative activities between two
people. It can create a fresh environment
The purpose of language learning for speaking language. The two-way
is to improve the speakers’ four skills of communication can lengthen the dialogue
listening, speaking, reading and writing, limitlessly. This is its advantage. At the
with the base of large vocabulary and same time, if the speakers want to give
good grammar, but this is not the final the correct response, he has to think
purpose. The final purpose is to let hard, the sentence is not easily forgotten
speakers be able to use the language. which is created by themselves through
For instance, why do people study thinking, sometimes with the teacher’s
English? If a man is only good at listening
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APOSTILA ELABORADA PELA EMPRESA DIGITAÇÕES & CONCURSOS
hint. They can talk freely and express time of Comenius in the 17th century, if
themselves as well as they can. not before. The complexity of contexts
Next, Reading is an important way and the greater appreciation of the issues
of gaining information in language lead us to the conclusion that the
learning and it is a basic skill for a panacea of a single, universal optimum
language learner. There are a lot of method for teaching and learning modern
reading exercises in an examination languages does not exist, but rather the
today. But all these readings must be need for teachers to adopt an informed
done in limited time. So learners are eclectic approach, incorporating elements
asked to read them correctly and with a from the range of methods available.
certain speed. For instance, someone Most language teaching today aims to
reads word by word. Someone reads with achieve oral communication, although
his finger pointing to the words or with his some CRAMLAP questionnaire
head shaking. Those are all bad habits. respondents place greater emphasis
They should read phrase by phrase. Do upon grammatical mastery and reading.
not blink eyes so often and shake head.
Just move the eyeball. That is enough. If In attempting to define what
they want to get more word information, ‘method’ is, we can consider Edward
there must be a proper distance between Anthony’s tripartite distinction of
their eyes and the reading material. Approach, Method and Technique
Finally, Writing is one way of (Anthony: 1963).
providing variety in classroom This distinction was developed and
procedures. It provides a learner with recast by Richards and Rodgers (1982,
physical evidence of his achievements 1985) as Approach, Design and
and he can measure his improvement. It Procedure encompassed within the
helps to consolidate their grasp of overall concept of Method, “an umbrella
vocabulary and structure, and term for the specification and interrelation
complements the other language skills. of theory and practice” (Richards &
Sentence is the base of an article. So he Rodgers 1985: 16) where
should begin his writing with sentences.
For example, translation, sentence Approach refers to the
pattern exchanging, and text shortening beliefs and theories about language,
and rewriting. It helps to understand the language learning and teaching that
text and write compositions. It can foster underlie a method
the learner’s ability to summarize and to Design specifies how
use the language freely. theories of language and learning are
Generally these four skills cannot implemented in a syllabus model and
be separated. People often say “First teaching and learning activities and
listening and speaking, then reading and materials in the classroom
writing.” But this way of saying is fit for Procedure concerns the
the beginning stage. Before they are techniques and practices employed in the
going to have a new lesson, do reading classroom as consequences of particular
and writing first. So, training and approaches and designs.
practicing helps learners that raise their
ability of language skills. (Richards & Rodgers 1985:17)
Alternative or ‘Designer’
methods
The 1970s saw the emergence of
some alternative, less-commonly used
methods and approaches, such as
Suggestopedia; The Silent Way; Total
Physical Response. An overview table
of these ‘Designer’ methods is provided
by Nunan (1989: 194-195) and Brown
(2001: chapter 2).
Krashen
The Natural Approach was based
The Natural Approach
upon Krashen’s theories of second
The Natural Approach, with echoes
language acquisition, and his Five
of the ‘naturalistic’ approach of the Direct
Hypotheses. As we shall see, Krashen’s
Method, was developed by Krashen and
influence went beyond this particular
Terrell (1983). It emphasised
method and as such merits closer
“Comprehensible Input”, distinguishing
attention.
between ‘acquisition’ – a natural
subconscious process, and ‘learning’ – a
conscious process. They argued that
learning cannot lead to acquisition. The
focus is on meaning, not form (structure,
grammar).
Nunan’s overview of the Natural
Approach (1989, 194-195), adapted here,
outlines its characteristics:
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Communicative Language
Teaching (CLT) has emerged as the
norm in second language teaching. As a
broadly-based approach, there are any
number of definitions and interpretations,
but the following interconnected
characteristics offered by Brown (2001:
43) provide a useful overview:
Functional-Notional Syllabus
The move from method to
approach has also focused on syllabus
design. The Notional/ Functional
Syllabus (NFS) has been associated with
CLT. The content of language teaching is
organised and categorized by categories
of meaning and function rather than by
elements of grammar and structure. The
work of Van Ek and Alexander (1975) for
the Council of Europe and Wilkins (1976)
has been influential in syllabus design up
to the present day, and the Common
European Framework of Reference
(CEFR).
The A1 Syllabus for Irish presented
in CRAMLAP follows the
recommendations of the CEFR and owes
much to the NFS concept. It is a syllabus, The woman in the picture is
not a pedagogy, and due consideration my mother.
must be given to the role of grammatical Her name is Anna. She’s
form in teaching it. from Manchester.
The Framework cannot replace The diagram shows the different
reference grammars or provide a strict types of nouns and how they relate to
ordering (though scaling may involve one another.
selection and hence some ordering in Most nouns are common nouns,
global terms) but provides a framework referring to classes or categories of
for the decisions of practitioners to be people, animals and things.
made known. (Council of Europe 2001a: Proper nouns are the names of
152) specific people, animals and things.
They are written with a capital letter at
18. Grammar Topics the start.
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APOSTILA ELABORADA PELA EMPRESA DIGITAÇÕES & CONCURSOS
A. Personal Pronouns:
Examples
Gerunds
Examples
4. three cases
subjective
(I you he she it we they)
possessive (my mine your yours hi
s her hers our ours their theirs)
objective (me you him her it us th
em)
Examples
3. two numbers
singular
(I me my mine you your yours he hi
m his she her hers it its)
plural (we us our ours you your
yours they them their theirs)
Examples - objective case
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APOSTILA ELABORADA PELA EMPRESA DIGITAÇÕES & CONCURSOS
Example:
Examples:
Singular:
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APOSTILA ELABORADA PELA EMPRESA DIGITAÇÕES & CONCURSOS
Who is there?
F. Relative Pronouns:
Examples:
Examples:
Construction
The present perfect is formed
with has/have + the past participle. For
regular verbs, the past participle is
The present tense is not formed by adding "ed" to the verb.
specifically tested on ACT English, but Examples of present perfect verbs
you do need to know how to properly include "has talked," "have done," and
conjugate verbs in the present tense "has brought."
for subject-verb agreement questions. Check out this example sentence:
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APOSTILA ELABORADA PELA EMPRESA DIGITAÇÕES & CONCURSOS
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the gerund to a verb and putting in a Context clues are placed around
subject (the person who did the action) the verb to indicate the proper verb tense.
corrects the sentence fragment without 18.4. Preposition sand conjunctions
adding an additional clause. The answer
is C. All of the other answer choices are Words that are sometimes
sentence fragments. conjunctions can act as prepositions.
Here are some more general rules The subordinating conjunctions
to keep in mind that will help you correctly BEFORE, AFTER and UNTIL can act as
answer all verb questions on the ACT. prepositions when they are followed by
objects rather than dependent clauses.
Remember that a clause has a
subject and a verb. A prepositional
phrase does not.
PREPOSITION
Charlie will wait
here until sunset.
UNTIL connects the object of the
preposition SUNSET with the clause.
NOTE: The entire prepositional
phrase is an adverb, not one word.
Remember these tips!! It will be some
time before summer.
General Strategies for Verb BEFORE connects the object of
Questions the preposition SUMMER with the clause.
After that effort, everyone
#1: If a Verb is Underlined and doubts whether she can win.
the Answer Choices are Different AFTER THAT EFFORT is an
Tenses, Make Sure To Use the adverbial phrase and AFTER is a
Appropriate Form of the Verb preposition.
If the answer choices are different CONJUNCTION
tenses of the same verb, then you're Charlie will wait
probably answering a question about verb here until we finish the test.
forms. Make sure that the verb follows UNTIL connects the independent
consistency rules and the tense is clause to the dependent clause.
correct. NOTE: CHARLIE WILL WAIT is
If the answer choices are different connected to WE FINISH.
conjugations of a verb in the present It will be some
tense, you're most likely dealing with a time before the seasons change.
subject-verb agreement question instead. BEFORE connects the IT WILL BE
to SEASONS CHANGE.
#2: Look for Words/Phrases After she did so badly,
That Indicate Which Verb Tense everyone doubted whether she could win.
Should Be Used AFTER connects SHE DID with
Often, words or phrases elsewhere EVERYONE DOUBTED.
in the sentence or in surrounding
sentences will let you know what tense to 18.5. Preposition alphrases;
use. If a date in the past is referenced,
you should probably use a form of the Prepositional phrases consist of a
past tense. If the word “since” is written, preposition and the words which follow it
there should probably be a present (a complement). The complement
perfect verb. (underlined below) is most commonly a
noun phrase or pronoun, but it can also
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APOSTILA ELABORADA PELA EMPRESA DIGITAÇÕES & CONCURSOS
be, an adverb phrase (usually one of forms a verb which has a single
place or time), a verb in the -ing form or, meaning. We call such verbs ‘phrasal
less commonly, a prepositional phrase or prepositional verbs’. Their meaning is
a wh-clause: often not related to the meaning of the
They first met at a original verb:
party. (preposition + noun phrase) She really looks up to her
She was taken ill during the grandfather. (admires)
film. (preposition + noun phrase) We’re all looking forward
Would you like to to having a few days’ holiday
come with me please? (preposition + together. (anticipate with pleasure)
pronoun) See also:
From there, it’ll take you about Verbs: multi-word verbs
half an hour to our house. (preposition +
adverb)
Until quite recently, no one knew 18.6. Articles
about his paintings. (preposition + Assim como no português, os
adverb phrase) artigos em inglês também são
She’s decided on doing a Chinese classificados em definidos e indefinidos.
language course. (preposition + - O artigo definido é o THE (o, a, os,
ing clause) as), e os indefinidos são A, AN (um,
Not: … decided on to do … uma).
It’s a machine for making ice- THE:
cream. (preposition + -ing clause) O artigo definido é usado:
If you can wait until after my • antes de substantivos que podem
meeting with Jack, we can talk ser precedidos ou não por adjetivos.
then. (preposition + prepositional phrase) Ex: the girl (a menina) the pretty girl (a
We were really surprised at what menina bonita)
they wrote. (preposition + wh-clause) • antes de nomes de instrumentos
We can put an adverb before a musicais ou nomes de famílias.
preposition to modify it. This applies Ex: the piano (o piano) the Kennedys (os
mainly to prepositions of time or place Kennedys)
which are gradable (above, before, far, • antes de nomes de oceanos,
deep, down, opposite): mares, ilhas, rios, montanhas, países,
They’ve moved far into the hotéis, cinemas, teatros, trens e navios.
country. Ex: the Pacific (o Pacífico)
They left the party just before us. the United States (os Estados Unidos),
You can’t miss it. His office etc.
is almost opposite the coffee machine. • antes de um representante de
uma classe ou espécie.
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES Ex: the poor (os pobres) the rich (os
AFTER VERBS ricos)
Prepositional phrases can be • antes de um substantivo único na
complements of verbs. If we need a espécie.
special preposition to introduce the Ex: the earth (a terra) the sun (o sol)
complement of the verb, we call such
verbs ‘prepositional verbs’: Quando o artigo the é omitido:
Do these keys belong to you? • antes de nomes próprios, nomes
We’re not happy but we de línguas e ciências.
do approve of their decision. Ex: Beth English (Inglês) geography
We sometimes use an adverb (geografia)
particle before the preposition. The verb • antes de substantivos de uso
+ adverb particle + preposition structure comum e de substantivos incontáveis.
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APOSTILA ELABORADA PELA EMPRESA DIGITAÇÕES & CONCURSOS
Ex: gold (ouro) money (dinheiro) coffee She will arrive in an hour (this
(café) adverb phrase tells when)
• antes de pronomes possessivos. Let's go outside (tells where)
Ex: our dress (nosso vestido) their house We looked in the basement (this
(casa deles(as)) adverb phrase tells where)
• antes de alguns substantivos Bernie left to avoid trouble (this
como home, church, school, hospital, adverb phrase tells why)
bed, prison,quando usados para o seu Jorge works out strenuously (tells
propósito original. to what extent)
Ex: I go to church. (to pray) Jorge works out whenever possible
Eu vou para a igreja. (para rezar) (this adverb phrase tells to what extent)
I go to school. (to study)
Eu vou para a escola. (para estudar)
A, AN
Existem dois artigos indefinidos Rule 1. Many adverbs end in -ly,
com usos diferentes no inglês: a, an but many do not. Generally, if a word can
• A: é usado antes de sons de have -ly added to its adjective form, place
consoantes. it there to form an adverb.
Ex: a car (um carro) a chair (uma cadeira)
• AN: é usado antes de sons de Examples:
vogais. She thinks quick/quickly.
Ex: an egg (um ovo) an umbrella (um How does she think? Quickly.
guarda-chuva)
She is a quick/quickly thinker.
18.7. Adjectives and adverbs; Quick is an adjective describing
thinker, so no -ly is attached.
An adjective is a word or set of
words that modifies (i.e., describes) a She thinks fast/fastly.
noun or pronoun. Adjectives may come Fast answers the question how, so
before the word they modify. it is an adverb. But fast never has -ly
Examples: attached to it.
That is a cute puppy.
She likes a high school senior. We performed bad/badly.
Badly describes how we
Adjectives may also follow the performed, so -ly is added.
word they modify: Rule 2. Adverbs that answer the
question how sometimes cause
Examples: grammatical problems. It can be a
That puppy looks cute. challenge to determine if -ly should be
The technology is state-of-the-art. attached. Avoid the trap of -ly with linking
verbs such as taste, smell, look, feel,
An adverb is a word or set of which pertain to the senses. Adverbs are
words that modifies verbs, adjectives, or often misplaced in such sentences, which
other adverbs. Adverbs answer how, require adjectives instead.
when, where, why, or to what extent—
how often or how much (e.g., daily, Examples:
completely). Roses smell sweet/sweetly.
Examples: Do the roses actively smell with
He speaks slowly (tells how) noses? No; in this case, smell is a linking
He speaks very slowly (the adverb verb—which requires an adjective to
very tells how slowly) modify roses—so no -ly.
She arrived today (tells when)
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APOSTILA ELABORADA PELA EMPRESA DIGITAÇÕES & CONCURSOS
sentences where two nouns are on the number of syllables in the original
compared, in this pattern: adjective.
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APOSTILA ELABORADA PELA EMPRESA DIGITAÇÕES & CONCURSOS
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APOSTILA ELABORADA PELA EMPRESA DIGITAÇÕES & CONCURSOS
See also:
Passive: active and passive
Cleft sentences
See also:
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APOSTILA ELABORADA PELA EMPRESA DIGITAÇÕES & CONCURSOS
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APOSTILA ELABORADA PELA EMPRESA DIGITAÇÕES & CONCURSOS
It was only when I woke at 8 am, red, verbs in blue, direct objects in
that I realised the alarm hadn’t gone off! maroon, etc.
English word order
(Compare: When I woke at 8 am, I ► 1.1 In a normal (declarative)
realised the alarm hadn’t gone off.) sentence, the subject of a sentence
comes directly in front of the verb. The
There to create focus direct object (when there is one) comes
directly after it:
We can use there at the start of a Examples:
clause as a type of indefinite subject. This The man wrote a letter.
means that we can put the actual subject People who live in glasshouses
at the end of the clause and so give it shouldn't throw stones.
emphasis or focus (underlined below): The president laughed.
► 1.2. Note that by the subject,
There was a strange smell coming we mean not just a single word, but the
from the room. (Compare: A strange subject noun or pronoun plus adjectives
smell was coming from the room.) or descriptive phrases that go with it. The
rest of the sentence - i.e. the part that is
There are many people willing to not the subject - is called the predicate.
travel to the concert. (Compare: Many
people are willing to travel to the concert.) Examples:
People who live in glasshouses
Noun forms of verbs to create shouldn't throw stones.
focus I like playing football with my
friends in the park.
In formal writing, especially The child who had been
academic writing, we can use a noun sleeping all day woke up.
form of a verb as a subject. By doing this, ► 1.3. If a sentence has any other
extra focus is given to the end of the parts to it - indirect objects, adverbs or
clause. Noun phrase subjects (topics) are adverb phrases - these usually come in
in bold type below; the focus of each specific places:
sentence is underlined:
1.3.1 The position of the indirect
object
The indirect object follows the
The discovery of oil brought direct object when it is formed with the
immense wealth to the country. preposition to:
(Compare: Oil was discovered and this The indirect object comes in front
brought immense wealth to the country.) of the direct object if to is omitted
Adverb
An adverb gives more information
about the meaning of a verb, adjective,
another adverb or a sentence. Most
adverbs end in –ly. They can appear in
different places in the sentence.
Your input has
been extremely helpful.
The children
played happily together.
Next you add the milk.
Connective
A connective or linking word
connects different parts of the sentence.
There are dogs and cats for sale in
the pet shop.
I would pay for the meal, but I’ve
forgotten my wallet.
Determiner
The main word forms (also known
A determiner is a word that limits
as parts of speech or word classes) are
the meaning of a noun. It could be an
as follows:
article (e.g. a, an, the); a demonstrative
(this, that, these, those) or a possessive
Noun pronoun (my, your, his, her, etc.)
I have a pen here
A noun is a word or group of words
Our car is at the garage.
that names a person, a place, an object,
an activity or a concept.
Pronoun
A pronoun is a word used in place
The traffic is heavy in the town
of a noun or noun phrase. A pronoun
centre today.
like this can refer to a whole sentence or
group of sentences.
Verb
He told me to give it back to him.
A verb is a word or a group of
words that describes an action or a state
Preposition
of being:
A preposition is a word or group of
I have been waiting for you for ages.
words used before a noun or pronoun to
show its relationship with other words in
the sentence.
Adjective
An adjective is a word that
18.12. Word choice and redundancy;
describes a noun or a pronoun. It often
appears before the noun and after the
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APOSTILA ELABORADA PELA EMPRESA DIGITAÇÕES & CONCURSOS
What do all the expressions in bold this sentence. It would be better to just
type in the sentences below have in leave out the adjective altogether:
common? In a moment of optimism, she
They are constantly working made the call.
on new innovations in gambling. Here's another example of an
He was the younger of the two adjective repeating the meaning of
twins. a noun:
The events will start at 11 a.m. on It was a strange place for both of
the following dates below. us to be, given our past histories.
They are A person's history is the whole
all redundant expressions: groups of series of past events connected with
words in which at least one word is them. There's no need to use the
unnecessary because it just repeats the adjective past in this sentence because
meaning that's already contained in the this meaning is already contained in the
other word or words. An innovation is ‘a noun history. If you remove the
new method, idea, product, etc.’, so adjective, the meaning of the sentence
there's no need to use new to describe is unaffected:
one; following means ‘coming after’, so It was a strange place to for both of
it's not necessary to say below as well; us to be, given our histories.
and as for twins, there can only ever be Adverbs that repeat the meaning
two of them. contained in a verb, especially a verb that
This sort of repetition of meaning is begins with a prefix such as re- (meaning
also known as tautology and it's ‘again’ or ‘back’) or pro- (meaning ‘out’,
something to be aware of when you're ‘forwards’, etc.). For example:
writing. It can give the impression that On her death, the throne reverted
you don't really understand the meaning back to the next male in the line of
of the words you're using, or that you're succession.
just careless in your choice of words. If you look up revert, you'll find that
The key to a good writing style that the dictionary gives the meaning ‘return to
avoids redundant expressions is to (a previous state, practice, topic, etc.)’.
develop your knowledge of what words Since the idea of going back to something
really mean, checking in is contained in the verb itself, there's no
a dictionary whenever you aren't need to include the adverb back. The
completely sure. sentence would be better if the adverb
Here is an outline of some of the was just left out:
main types of redundant expressions: On her death, the
Different types of redundant throne reverted to the next male in the
expressions line of succession.
There are several ways in which Here's another example:
you can fall into the tautology trap. Here The sign above the
are some of the main types of redundant door protruded out over the sidewalk.
expression together with tips on how to Protrude means ‘to extend beyond
deal with them: a surface’, so the adverb out is
Adjectives that repeat the meaning unnecessary: it's just repeating the
already contained in the word they meaning of protrude. We can just omit
describe, e.g.: it:
In a moment of hopeful optimism, The sign above the
she made the call. door protruded over the sidewalk.
If you look up optimism in the
dictionary, you'll see that it means ‘a
feeling of hopefulness about the future’ so
there's no need for the word hopeful in
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APOSTILA ELABORADA PELA EMPRESA DIGITAÇÕES & CONCURSOS
-The sentence literally (or mathematically) -These two ideas can be combined to
means that Trygve can easily get out of form one complex sentence; otherwise,
bed; two negatives = a positive the second clause is a fragment.
Corrected version: Trygve can Corrected version: The Senator
hardly get out of bed for his 8:00 class. voted for the health care bill to the
delight of the opposition although he
5. Entering the bakery, the smell of had to admit there were certain
fresh pastries and coffee overwhelmed provisions with which he disagreed.
her.
Dangling construction 8. Dairy farmers should of received a
-It sounds like “the smell of fresh larger subsidy from the Federal
pastries and coffee” is “entering the government because of the increased
bakery.” cost of operation.
-As a reader, I am unclear as to what was Wrong verb form
entering the bakery—a woman or a -This sentence should read “should
smell? have” because “of” is a phonetic way of
-The actor of the sentence must be at the saying “have” in spoken English.
beginning of the independent clause. -Should’ve = should have
Corrected version: Entering the -“Of” is a preposition while “should have”
bakery, she was overwhelmed by the is a helping or auxiliary verb.
smell of fresh pastries and coffee. Corrected version: Dairy farmers
should have received a larger subsidy
6. In Strindberg’s Miss Julie an from the Federal government because
aristocratic woman pays a nighttime of the increased cost of operation.
visit to the servants’ quarters and
slept with the family valet. 9. Anne rode her bicycle to the
Verb tense shift meeting in the -40 temperatures,
-Pick a verb tense and stick with it; everyone else either drove or stayed
present tense is the standard for writing home.
about literature. Comma splice
-Avoid verb tense changes—The woman -A comma doesn’t correctly join
pays/ The woman sleeps. two sentences (or two independent
-Verb tenses should stay consistent clauses).
within a sentence. -You have two complete sentences here;
Corrected version: In Strindberg’s use a semi-colon or a period rather than a
Miss Julie an aristocratic woman pays comma.
a nighttime visit to the servants’ -There is no putting two sentences
quarters and sleeps with the family together with just a comma.
valet. Corrected version: Anne rode her
bicycle to the meting in the -40
temperatures; everyone else either
7. The Senator voted for the health drove or stayed home.
care bill to the delight of the
opposition. Although he had to admit
that there were certain provisions with 10. Warren and Alice spent at least
which he disagreed. $5000 on their Hawaiian vacation the
Sentence fragment trip could have been less expensive if
-Although indicates that the they had stayed at hotels away from
segment following should be joined to the the beach.
main clause. Run-on sentence
-Things that sound like afterthoughts or -A new subject and a new verb
additions are rarely complete sentences. after “vacation” – a new sentence
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-There are two complete sentences here form. For example, carbo- only appears
not separated by punctuation. in compounds to indicate carbon, but
-This sentence contains two complete there are many related words that begin
thoughts without the necessary with carbon-; these are considered to be
punctuation. compound words and carbon- is not
Corrected version: Warren and listed on this site as a combining form.
Alice spent at least $5000 on their Having said that, in some cases a
Hawaiian vacation; the trip could have combining form has at some point in its
been less expensive if they had stayed life taken on the status of a free-standing
at hotels away from the beach. word (cyber- is an example), but if its
primary function is as a combining form, it
11. Ellen quit her job not only because appears in its place in the text.
of the long commute but also because To be a combining form an
she did not respect her supervisor. element must be found attached to stems
(Lack of) Parallel construction that also have intrinsic meaning; this
-If you want to use not only … but excludes stems whose only compounds
also, the word group following each part are grammatical variations, such
(phrase or clause) must be parallel in as intense (intensive, intensively, inten
construction. siveness).
-Because + Prepositional phrase is An infix is placed within a word;
grammatically different from because + S these are rare in English,
+ V. though cupful can be made plural
-Match the form of items joined by as cupsful by inserting the plural s as an
coordinating conjunctions or phrases. infix; infixes sometimes occur in facetious
creations like absobloodylutely (which
18.14. Affixes; some grammarians would rather describe
as tmesis). Infixes often appear as linking
A prefix is an element placed at vowels between prefixes and stems, for
the beginning of a word to adjust or example the final letters of narco-
qualify its meaning, for example de-, non- and calci-. They are also found between
, and re-. a stem ending in a consonant and a suffix
A suffix is an element placed at beginning with one, as with -ferous,
the end of a word to form a derivative, which frequently appears as -iferous, or -
such as -ation, -fy, -ing, frequently one logy, which is commonly seen as -ology.
that converts the stem into another part of The only examples of such linking vowel
speech. infixes here are -i- and -o-.
A combining form can be either a No formal identification is made in
prefix or a suffix; the difference is that the the text of the class of affix to which
combining form adds a layer of extra entries belong. The position of the
meaning to the word. For example, bio- hyphen is sufficient indication whether it
adds the idea of life or living things to is placed at the beginning, in the middle
words, as in biochemistry, the study of or at the end of a word: neo-, -i-, -
the chemical processes which occur graphy.
within living organisms; -cide adds the Many prefixes that end in a vowel
idea of killing or a killing agent, as can lose that vowel when attached to a
in pesticide. Compare these examples stem that begins in one, as for
with a prefix such as ex- or a suffix such example phlebo- loses its final letter
as -ic, neither of which add meaning, but in phlebitis. Such cases are marked by
only modify an existing meaning. enclosing the final letter of the headword
Combining forms only appear as in parentheses: phleb(o)-.
elements in a compound. If it can stand The term productive has a special
alone as a word it is not a combining sense throughout the site: it refers to an
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affix which is active in the language and In most English sentences with an
which is being used by writers today to action verb, the subject performs the
create new words. action denoted by the verb.
These examples show that
18.15. Conditional sentences the subject is doing the verb's action.
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