• Cell membranes are the culprit of the cell energy transfer. • Energy-thermo-electro-chemical tr... more • Cell membranes are the culprit of the cell energy transfer. • Energy-thermo-electro-chemical transports phenomena occur through cell membranes. • Cells can actively modify their behaviours in relation to any change of their environment. • A thermodynamic approach brings also to a useful support for present anticancer therapies. a b s t r a c t Cell membranes are the reason of the cell energy transfer. In cells energy transfer, thermo-electro-chemical processes and transports phenomena occur through their membranes. Cells can actively modify their behaviours in relation to any change of their environment. They waste heat into their environment. The analysis of irreversibility related to this wasted heat, to the ions transport and the related cell-environment pH changes represents a new useful approach to the study of the cells behaviour. This analysis allows also the explanation of the effects of electromagnetic fields on the cell behaviour, and to suggest how low intensity electromagnetic fields could represent a useful support to the present anticancer therapies.
The relation between macroscopic irreversibility and microscopic reversibility is a present unsol... more The relation between macroscopic irreversibility and microscopic reversibility is a present unsolved problem. Constructal law is introduced to develop analytically the Einstein's, Schrödinger's, and Gibbs' considerations on the interaction between particles and thermal radiation (photons). The result leads to consider the atoms and molecules as open systems in continuous interaction with flows of photons from their surroundings. The consequent result is that, in any atomic transition, the energy related to the microscopic irreversibility is negligible, while when a great number of atoms (of the order of Avogadro's number) is considered, this energy related to irreversibility becomes so large that its order of magnitude must be taken into account. Consequently, macroscopic irreversibility results related to microscopic irreversibility by flows of photons and amount of atoms involved in the processes. In 1872, Boltzmann summarized his statistical mechanical results in his famous H-theorem. He introduced the irreversible evolution of any system towards a state of mechanical and thermal equilibrium. Loschmidt objected that this result is inconsistent, because any irreversible process cannot be obtained by using a time-symmetric dynamics 1. This controversy is no more than the problem of the link between the microscopic reversibility and the mac-roscopic irreversibility, named Loschmidt paradox. Despite the enormous advances of statistical mechanics in the description of equilibrium properties and transport processes in condensed matter, the problem of the non-contradictory microscopic foundation of both thermodynamics and kinetics remains unsolved 1. The analytical study of macroscopic irreversibility comes since 1789, when Benjamin Thompson (Count Rumford) highlighted that heat could be generated by friction 2. In 1803, Lazare Carnot analyzed the conservation of mechanical energy for pulleys and inclined planes, pointing out that, in any movement, there always exists a loss of " moment of activity " 3. But, the thermodynamic interpretation of this irreversibility was introduced first in 1824 by his son Sadi Carnot, who introduced the concept of the ideal engine, which is an ideal system which operates on a cycle in a completely reversible way, without any dissipation: unfortunately, efficiency of this ideal systems has an upper limit and isn't unitary. Surprisingly, even in ideal condition without any dissipation, there is something that prevents the conversion of all the energy absorbed, from an ideal reservoir, into work 4. This result was improved, in 1852, by Lord Kelvin, who pointed out that 5,6 :
• The balance of forces between the system and environment is the result of the flows of quanta. ... more • The balance of forces between the system and environment is the result of the flows of quanta. • The transition between two thermodynamic states is the consequence of exchange of quanta. • During the transition, the entropy generation appears and breaks the symmetry of the action. • This interaction results completely time-irreversible for any real process. • The zero temperature state can be achieved only for an infinite work lost. a b s t r a c t The balance of forces and processes between the system and the environment and the processes inside the system are the result of the flows of the quanta. Moreover, the transition between two thermodynamic states is the consequence of absorption or emission of quanta, but, during the transition, the entropy variation due to the irreversibility occurs and it breaks any symmetry of time. Consequently, the irreversibility is the result of a transition , a process, an interaction between the system and its environment. This interaction results completely time-irreversible for any real process because of irreversibility. As a consequence , a proof of the third law is obtained proving that the zero temperature state can be achieved only for an infinite work lost for dissipation or in an infinite time. The fundamental role of time both in equilibrium and in non equilibrium analysis is pointed out. Moreover, the non equilibrium temperature is related to the entropy generation and its fluctuation rate; indeed, non-stationary temperature means that the system has not yet attained free energy minimum state, i.e., the maximum entropy state; the consequence is that the zero temperature state can be achieved only for an infinite work lost for dissipation or in an infinite time. In engineering thermodynamics the efficiency is always obtained without any consideration on time, while, here, just the time is introduced as a fundamental quantity of the analysis of non equilibrium states.
The principle of maximum irreversible is proved to be a consequence of a stochastic order of the ... more The principle of maximum irreversible is proved to be a consequence of a stochastic order of the paths inside the phase space; indeed, the system evolves on the greatest path in the stochastic order. The result obtained is that, at the stability, the entropy generation is maximum and, this maximum value is consequence of the stochastic order of the paths in the phase space, while, conversely, the stochastic order of the paths in the phase space is a consequence of the maximum of the entropy generation at the stability.
Cells are open complex thermodynamic systems. Energy transformations, thermo-electro-chemical pro... more Cells are open complex thermodynamic systems. Energy transformations, thermo-electro-chemical processes and transports occur across the cells membranes. Different thermo-electro-biochemical behaviours occur between health and disease states. Moreover, living systems waste heat, the result of the internal irreversibility. This heat is dissipated into the environment. But, this wasted heat represent a sort of information, which outflows from the cell toward its environment, completely accessible to any observer. Consequently, the analysis of irreversibility related to this wasted heat can represents a new approach to study the behaviour of the cells. So, this approach allows us to consider the living systems as black boxes and analyze only the inflows and outflows and their changes in relation to the modification of the environment. Therefore, information on the systems can be obtained by analyzing the changes in the cell heat wasted in relation to external perturbations. In this paper, a review of the recent results obtained by using this approach is proposed in order to highlight its thermodynamic fundamental: it could be the beginning of a new engineering science, the bioengineering thermodynamics. Some experimental evidences from literature are summarized and discussed. The approach proposed can allow us to explain them.
Background: Cells are open complex thermodynamic systems. They can be also regarded as complex en... more Background: Cells are open complex thermodynamic systems. They can be also regarded as complex engines that execute a series of chemical reactions. Energy transformations, thermo-electro-chemical processes and transports phenomena can occur across the cells membranes. Moreover, cells can also actively modify their behaviours in relation to changes in their environment.
• Cells transports phenomena can occur across the cells membranes. • Cells can also actively modi... more • Cells transports phenomena can occur across the cells membranes. • Cells can also actively modify their behaviours in relation to any change of their environment. • Their wasted heat represents also a sort of information. • Effects of electromagnetic fields modify the cell membrane behaviour. • Cells change their energy management. a b s t r a c t Cells are complex thermodynamic systems. Their energy transfer, thermo-electro-chemical processes and transports phenomena can occur across the cells membranes, the border of the complex system. Moreover, cells can also actively modify their behaviours in relation to any change of their environment. All the living systems waste heat, which is no more than the result of their internal irreversibility. This heat is dissipated into their environment. But, this wasted heat represents also a sort of information, which outflows from the cell towards its environment, completely accessible to any observer. The analysis of irreversibility related to this wasted heat can represent a new useful approach to the study of the cells behaviour. This approach allows us to consider the living systems as black boxes and analyse only the inflows and outflows and their changes in relation to any environmental change. This analysis allows also the explanation of the effects of electromagnetic fields on the cell behaviour.
• Irreversibility is the fundamental quantity for the analysis of the open systems. • The entropy... more • Irreversibility is the fundamental quantity for the analysis of the open systems. • The entropy generation describes the irreversibility of the open systems. • Entropy generation is introduced in the analysis of cancer growth. • The growth depends on the chemical reaction time and fractal dimension. a b s t r a c t Cells are chemical engines in which specific ordered chemical reactions occur. Cancer can be described as an open complex dynamic and self-organizing system. Entropy generation approach has been used to evaluate the biochemical and biophysical conditions of the stationary states for tumoral cells, in relation to the transport processes through their membrane. The tumoral systems can assume all the values of volume, temperature, chemical reaction rate and the time of chemical reaction, in the range of stationary conditions. This range can be evaluated by the principle of extrema variation of the entropy generation. Outside this range, cancer cannot develop and dies. The geometrical characteristics are fundamental in the growth of cancer. The fractal dimensions are discussed in this analysis and the geometry of cancer is related to the entropy generation. A possible anticancer thermodynamic approach has been suggested.
h i g h l i g h t s • Irreversibility is the fundamental quantity for the analysis of the open sy... more h i g h l i g h t s • Irreversibility is the fundamental quantity for the analysis of the open systems. • The entropy generation describes the irreversibility of the open systems. • Entropy generation is introduced in the analysis of cancer growth. • The growth depends on the chemical reaction time and fractal dimension.
• The entropy generation describes the irreversibility of the open systems. • Entropy generation ... more • The entropy generation describes the irreversibility of the open systems. • Entropy generation is introduced in the analysis of cancer growth. • Cancer growth depends on thermodynamic quantities. • Thermalisation is proven to be a future engineering anticancer therapy. a b s t r a c t Cells can be regarded as engines that execute a series of chemical reactions. A malignant cell, that is, a cancerous cell, can be described as an open complex dynamic and self-organising system. The entropy generation approach has been used to evaluate the stationary states for cells in relation to the global results of the cell biophysical and biochemical processes. Then, an entropy generation approach can been used to evaluate malignant behaviour in terms of thermal, chemical and transport processes. A numerical evaluation of the mean value of the entropy generation for cancer is developed. A possible therapy against cancer has been suggested by using molecular thermalisation.
• Cancer is an open complex dynamic and self-organizing system. • A thermodynamic theoretical app... more • Cancer is an open complex dynamic and self-organizing system. • A thermodynamic theoretical approach was introduced to study cancer. • The numerical evaluation of this approach is obtained. • The results agree with the experimental data. a b s t r a c t The chemical–physical analysis of the DNA have pointed out the connections between forces, thermodynamics and kinetics. The entropy generation approach has been suggested as a thermodynamic approach to evaluate the accessible states for cancer systems, in relation to their thermodynamic characteristic quantities. Cancer can be described as an open complex dynamic and self-organizing system. The stationary states of tumour systems are analyzed by a thermodynamic approach by using the entropy generation. The aim of this paper is to improve the thermodynamic approach to cell systems, based on the entropy generation. The results obtained consist of the theoretical analysis of the lifetimes of the processes which occur in cells and the numerical evaluation of the theoretical model proposed. Some considerations on the interactions between external fields and cell systems are developed. A possible new anticancer therapy based on the entropy generation is proposed .
• Cell membranes are the culprit of the cell energy transfer. • Energy-thermo-electro-chemical tr... more • Cell membranes are the culprit of the cell energy transfer. • Energy-thermo-electro-chemical transports phenomena occur through cell membranes. • Cells can actively modify their behaviours in relation to any change of their environment. • A thermodynamic approach brings also to a useful support for present anticancer therapies. a b s t r a c t Cell membranes are the reason of the cell energy transfer. In cells energy transfer, thermo-electro-chemical processes and transports phenomena occur through their membranes. Cells can actively modify their behaviours in relation to any change of their environment. They waste heat into their environment. The analysis of irreversibility related to this wasted heat, to the ions transport and the related cell-environment pH changes represents a new useful approach to the study of the cells behaviour. This analysis allows also the explanation of the effects of electromagnetic fields on the cell behaviour, and to suggest how low intensity electromagnetic fields could represent a useful support to the present anticancer therapies.
The relation between macroscopic irreversibility and microscopic reversibility is a present unsol... more The relation between macroscopic irreversibility and microscopic reversibility is a present unsolved problem. Constructal law is introduced to develop analytically the Einstein's, Schrödinger's, and Gibbs' considerations on the interaction between particles and thermal radiation (photons). The result leads to consider the atoms and molecules as open systems in continuous interaction with flows of photons from their surroundings. The consequent result is that, in any atomic transition, the energy related to the microscopic irreversibility is negligible, while when a great number of atoms (of the order of Avogadro's number) is considered, this energy related to irreversibility becomes so large that its order of magnitude must be taken into account. Consequently, macroscopic irreversibility results related to microscopic irreversibility by flows of photons and amount of atoms involved in the processes. In 1872, Boltzmann summarized his statistical mechanical results in his famous H-theorem. He introduced the irreversible evolution of any system towards a state of mechanical and thermal equilibrium. Loschmidt objected that this result is inconsistent, because any irreversible process cannot be obtained by using a time-symmetric dynamics 1. This controversy is no more than the problem of the link between the microscopic reversibility and the mac-roscopic irreversibility, named Loschmidt paradox. Despite the enormous advances of statistical mechanics in the description of equilibrium properties and transport processes in condensed matter, the problem of the non-contradictory microscopic foundation of both thermodynamics and kinetics remains unsolved 1. The analytical study of macroscopic irreversibility comes since 1789, when Benjamin Thompson (Count Rumford) highlighted that heat could be generated by friction 2. In 1803, Lazare Carnot analyzed the conservation of mechanical energy for pulleys and inclined planes, pointing out that, in any movement, there always exists a loss of " moment of activity " 3. But, the thermodynamic interpretation of this irreversibility was introduced first in 1824 by his son Sadi Carnot, who introduced the concept of the ideal engine, which is an ideal system which operates on a cycle in a completely reversible way, without any dissipation: unfortunately, efficiency of this ideal systems has an upper limit and isn't unitary. Surprisingly, even in ideal condition without any dissipation, there is something that prevents the conversion of all the energy absorbed, from an ideal reservoir, into work 4. This result was improved, in 1852, by Lord Kelvin, who pointed out that 5,6 :
• The balance of forces between the system and environment is the result of the flows of quanta. ... more • The balance of forces between the system and environment is the result of the flows of quanta. • The transition between two thermodynamic states is the consequence of exchange of quanta. • During the transition, the entropy generation appears and breaks the symmetry of the action. • This interaction results completely time-irreversible for any real process. • The zero temperature state can be achieved only for an infinite work lost. a b s t r a c t The balance of forces and processes between the system and the environment and the processes inside the system are the result of the flows of the quanta. Moreover, the transition between two thermodynamic states is the consequence of absorption or emission of quanta, but, during the transition, the entropy variation due to the irreversibility occurs and it breaks any symmetry of time. Consequently, the irreversibility is the result of a transition , a process, an interaction between the system and its environment. This interaction results completely time-irreversible for any real process because of irreversibility. As a consequence , a proof of the third law is obtained proving that the zero temperature state can be achieved only for an infinite work lost for dissipation or in an infinite time. The fundamental role of time both in equilibrium and in non equilibrium analysis is pointed out. Moreover, the non equilibrium temperature is related to the entropy generation and its fluctuation rate; indeed, non-stationary temperature means that the system has not yet attained free energy minimum state, i.e., the maximum entropy state; the consequence is that the zero temperature state can be achieved only for an infinite work lost for dissipation or in an infinite time. In engineering thermodynamics the efficiency is always obtained without any consideration on time, while, here, just the time is introduced as a fundamental quantity of the analysis of non equilibrium states.
The principle of maximum irreversible is proved to be a consequence of a stochastic order of the ... more The principle of maximum irreversible is proved to be a consequence of a stochastic order of the paths inside the phase space; indeed, the system evolves on the greatest path in the stochastic order. The result obtained is that, at the stability, the entropy generation is maximum and, this maximum value is consequence of the stochastic order of the paths in the phase space, while, conversely, the stochastic order of the paths in the phase space is a consequence of the maximum of the entropy generation at the stability.
Cells are open complex thermodynamic systems. Energy transformations, thermo-electro-chemical pro... more Cells are open complex thermodynamic systems. Energy transformations, thermo-electro-chemical processes and transports occur across the cells membranes. Different thermo-electro-biochemical behaviours occur between health and disease states. Moreover, living systems waste heat, the result of the internal irreversibility. This heat is dissipated into the environment. But, this wasted heat represent a sort of information, which outflows from the cell toward its environment, completely accessible to any observer. Consequently, the analysis of irreversibility related to this wasted heat can represents a new approach to study the behaviour of the cells. So, this approach allows us to consider the living systems as black boxes and analyze only the inflows and outflows and their changes in relation to the modification of the environment. Therefore, information on the systems can be obtained by analyzing the changes in the cell heat wasted in relation to external perturbations. In this paper, a review of the recent results obtained by using this approach is proposed in order to highlight its thermodynamic fundamental: it could be the beginning of a new engineering science, the bioengineering thermodynamics. Some experimental evidences from literature are summarized and discussed. The approach proposed can allow us to explain them.
Background: Cells are open complex thermodynamic systems. They can be also regarded as complex en... more Background: Cells are open complex thermodynamic systems. They can be also regarded as complex engines that execute a series of chemical reactions. Energy transformations, thermo-electro-chemical processes and transports phenomena can occur across the cells membranes. Moreover, cells can also actively modify their behaviours in relation to changes in their environment.
• Cells transports phenomena can occur across the cells membranes. • Cells can also actively modi... more • Cells transports phenomena can occur across the cells membranes. • Cells can also actively modify their behaviours in relation to any change of their environment. • Their wasted heat represents also a sort of information. • Effects of electromagnetic fields modify the cell membrane behaviour. • Cells change their energy management. a b s t r a c t Cells are complex thermodynamic systems. Their energy transfer, thermo-electro-chemical processes and transports phenomena can occur across the cells membranes, the border of the complex system. Moreover, cells can also actively modify their behaviours in relation to any change of their environment. All the living systems waste heat, which is no more than the result of their internal irreversibility. This heat is dissipated into their environment. But, this wasted heat represents also a sort of information, which outflows from the cell towards its environment, completely accessible to any observer. The analysis of irreversibility related to this wasted heat can represent a new useful approach to the study of the cells behaviour. This approach allows us to consider the living systems as black boxes and analyse only the inflows and outflows and their changes in relation to any environmental change. This analysis allows also the explanation of the effects of electromagnetic fields on the cell behaviour.
• Irreversibility is the fundamental quantity for the analysis of the open systems. • The entropy... more • Irreversibility is the fundamental quantity for the analysis of the open systems. • The entropy generation describes the irreversibility of the open systems. • Entropy generation is introduced in the analysis of cancer growth. • The growth depends on the chemical reaction time and fractal dimension. a b s t r a c t Cells are chemical engines in which specific ordered chemical reactions occur. Cancer can be described as an open complex dynamic and self-organizing system. Entropy generation approach has been used to evaluate the biochemical and biophysical conditions of the stationary states for tumoral cells, in relation to the transport processes through their membrane. The tumoral systems can assume all the values of volume, temperature, chemical reaction rate and the time of chemical reaction, in the range of stationary conditions. This range can be evaluated by the principle of extrema variation of the entropy generation. Outside this range, cancer cannot develop and dies. The geometrical characteristics are fundamental in the growth of cancer. The fractal dimensions are discussed in this analysis and the geometry of cancer is related to the entropy generation. A possible anticancer thermodynamic approach has been suggested.
h i g h l i g h t s • Irreversibility is the fundamental quantity for the analysis of the open sy... more h i g h l i g h t s • Irreversibility is the fundamental quantity for the analysis of the open systems. • The entropy generation describes the irreversibility of the open systems. • Entropy generation is introduced in the analysis of cancer growth. • The growth depends on the chemical reaction time and fractal dimension.
• The entropy generation describes the irreversibility of the open systems. • Entropy generation ... more • The entropy generation describes the irreversibility of the open systems. • Entropy generation is introduced in the analysis of cancer growth. • Cancer growth depends on thermodynamic quantities. • Thermalisation is proven to be a future engineering anticancer therapy. a b s t r a c t Cells can be regarded as engines that execute a series of chemical reactions. A malignant cell, that is, a cancerous cell, can be described as an open complex dynamic and self-organising system. The entropy generation approach has been used to evaluate the stationary states for cells in relation to the global results of the cell biophysical and biochemical processes. Then, an entropy generation approach can been used to evaluate malignant behaviour in terms of thermal, chemical and transport processes. A numerical evaluation of the mean value of the entropy generation for cancer is developed. A possible therapy against cancer has been suggested by using molecular thermalisation.
• Cancer is an open complex dynamic and self-organizing system. • A thermodynamic theoretical app... more • Cancer is an open complex dynamic and self-organizing system. • A thermodynamic theoretical approach was introduced to study cancer. • The numerical evaluation of this approach is obtained. • The results agree with the experimental data. a b s t r a c t The chemical–physical analysis of the DNA have pointed out the connections between forces, thermodynamics and kinetics. The entropy generation approach has been suggested as a thermodynamic approach to evaluate the accessible states for cancer systems, in relation to their thermodynamic characteristic quantities. Cancer can be described as an open complex dynamic and self-organizing system. The stationary states of tumour systems are analyzed by a thermodynamic approach by using the entropy generation. The aim of this paper is to improve the thermodynamic approach to cell systems, based on the entropy generation. The results obtained consist of the theoretical analysis of the lifetimes of the processes which occur in cells and the numerical evaluation of the theoretical model proposed. Some considerations on the interactions between external fields and cell systems are developed. A possible new anticancer therapy based on the entropy generation is proposed .
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