This paper describes history and archaeological topography of the Norther Necropolis of Gebelein ... more This paper describes history and archaeological topography of the Norther Necropolis of Gebelein that was partly reconstructed using data from archival materials and results of current field surveys.
Gebelein is located in southern Egypt, ca. 28km southwest from Luxor, and was subject of numerous archaeological works since 1885. Most of them were not published or their results were presented in very limited way.
Several extraordinary tombs were discovered at the Northern Necropolis of Gebelein. Worth mentioning is an Old Kingdom mastaba with burials made not only in its shafts, but also within its walls. The so called Tomb of Unknowns, that of the General Iti II and his wife Neferu, who was local priestess of Hathor, are well known, but their archaeological contexts were until now poorly known. There were also other tombs discovered at the site, which locations were forgotten. Thanks to the current study their locations were re-discovered and archaeological topography and history of the eastern part of the Northern Necropolis of Gebelein was reconstructed.
The cemetery was developing since the predynastic times (4th millennium BCE) and the latest burials are dated to the Greco-Roman Period (332 BCE – 395 AD). The necropolis presents the development of a significant, provincial burial ground of a local elite. An analysis of its history can contribute to the reconstruction of the history of the region. Worth to note features of the cemetery are Nubian influences on local funerary customs, Middle Kingdom tombs re-used during the 1st millennium BCE, and previously not mentioned in publications animal mummies discovered at the site.
The present volume focuses on Greek documents of the Patermouthis’ archive (Syene, late 5th -early 7th century), involving many soldiers of the garrison of Syene as contracting parties but also as scribes and subscribers. These documents, already studied by scholars because of their interesting content, are exhaustively analysed here in terms of their material and formal aspects, with particular attention to the choices made regarding handwriting, format, layout, and the use of signs and symbols. Firstly, an introduction sets forth the methodological premises of the two authors’ work, situating it within the context of ERC NOTAE, of which it is a result; two main sections follow. The first section, dedicated to palaeography, analyses the handwriting of the documents’ drafters within the wider context of Byzantine cursive production during an important transitional phase in the history of Greek handwriting; graphic analysis leads also to identifying which and how many individuals were involved in the different sections of documents. In addition, the section analyses the level of literacy of the various subscribers and attempts to reconstruct the network of individuals involved in producing documents at Syene. The second section, dedicated to diplomatics, analyses the architecture of documents, following the order of the sections presented in a cheirographon, which is virtually the only type of document to appear in this archive. It lays stress on the format and layout of the documents and the role of signs and symbols (including blank spaces) in the organisation and management of the page, taking also into account the implications of these strategies as regards the creation and reading of documents. The two approaches applied here (paleographical and diplomatic) are in constant dialogue with one another, and constant reference is made also to documents coming from other places in Egypt and elsewhere in the late antique Mediterranean.
The subject of this study is a papyrus containing interesting information about drainage-namely t... more The subject of this study is a papyrus containing interesting information about drainage-namely the so-called 'Legal Code of Hermopolis West', known in both Demotic (P. Matthathird century BC) and Greek versions (P.Oxy. XLVI 3285-second century AD)-and the terminology contained therein in relation to water drains. It aims to determine what type of water these regulations applied to. To this end, the information obtained from papyrological sources is juxtaposed with what we know about drainage thanks to archaeology, especially models of houses (from the Middle Kingdom). This comparison reveals that ancient Egypt had a centuries-old tradition of draining rainwater through long, open, U-shaped gutters, even if their existence might seem unnecessary in this country at first glance.
This article examines Ptolemaic papyrological sources (Demotic and Greek) indicating the existenc... more This article examines Ptolemaic papyrological sources (Demotic and Greek) indicating the existence of marketplaces located next to the river during this period, which have so far been completely overlooked in the discussion on Egyptian markets. It focuses particularly on the location of marketplaces and their relation to settlements and the markets’ setting – whether they were surrounded by farmland or by buildings, and of what type. This analysis points to the highest parts of the riverbanks as the most likely location of marketplaces. Additionally, the article contains terminological remarks regarding the terms for the marketplace and the Nile in both Demotic and Greek.
Nieczêsto zachowuj¹ siê do naszych czasów oryginalne teksty staro¿ytne 1 , zawieraj¹ce zbiory reg... more Nieczêsto zachowuj¹ siê do naszych czasów oryginalne teksty staro¿ytne 1 , zawieraj¹ce zbiory regu³ prawnych czy komentarze i opracowania prawnicze, pozwalaj¹ce na lepsze poznanie antycznych porz¹dków prawnych. Jeszcze rzadziej dysponujemy kilkoma wersjami tego samego tekstu, w jednym czy te¿ w ró¿nych jêzykach, które pozwalaj¹ na dokonywanie porównañ i uzupe³nieñ. Jednym z takich wyj¹tkowych tekstów jest tak zwany "demotyczny kodeks z Hermopolis" i jego greckie t³umaczenie, daj¹ce nam wgl¹d przede wszystkim w uregulowanie stosunków s¹siedzkich w ró¿nych ich aspektach oraz sporu o w³asnooeae dzia³ki, na której wzniesiono budynek. W³aoenie to greckie t³umaczenie stanowi przedmiot niniejszego artyku³u. Tekst greckiego papirusu zosta³ opublikowany w 1978 r. przez Johna R. Reê 2 w 46 tomie papirusów z Oksyrynchos 3. Stanowi t³umaczenie na jêzyk grecki demotycznego tekstu znanego jako "demotyczny kodeks z Hermopolis", znajduj¹cego siê na recto papirusu odnalezionego przez prof. Sami Gabrê z Uniwersytetu w Kairze podczas sezonu wykopaliskowego 1938-39 w Tuna l'Gebel (wspó³czesna nazwa zachodniej czêoeci Hermopolis) na nekropoli dedykowanej ibisom i pawianom-oewiêtym ptakom i ma³pom Thota. Demotyczny papirus zosta³ znaleziony w czêoeciowo zniszczonym naczyniu w ruinach domu naprzeciwko pokoju mumifikacji-jak siê przypuszcza, pe³ni¹cego funkcjê archiwum. Dokument ten zachowa³ siê do naszych czasów, z licznymi lakunami, w 11 fragmentach, zawieraj¹cych 10 kolumn, w ca³ooeci licz¹c obecnie ok. 305 linii tekstu demotycznego 4. Po odkryciu dokument ten zosta³ powierzony do publikacji Grigisowi Mattha, który w 1941 r. przedstawi³ pierwsze sprawozdanie z jego zawarto-CZASOPISMO PRAWNO-HISTORYCZNE Tom LXIV-2012-Zeszyt 2 1 Pragnê podziêkowaae prof. Marii Zab³ockiej za cenne uwagi i wskazówki oraz prof. Tomaszowi Derdzie za pomoc w t³umaczeniu tekstu greckiego. 2
Przedmiotem artykułu jest fragment Dikaiomata (P. Hal. 1, ll. 79-105), papirusu z III w. p.n.e., ... more Przedmiotem artykułu jest fragment Dikaiomata (P. Hal. 1, ll. 79-105), papirusu z III w. p.n.e., który jako jeden z nielicznych przekazuje nam prawo miejskie Aleksandrii. Analizowana część dokumentu zawiera uregulowania odległości, jakie należało zachować od sąsiadów przy prowadzeniu różnych prac na własnym terenie (odstęp w przypadku wznoszenia ogrodzenia, ściany, budynku, kopania rowów i dołów oraz sadzenia roślin) oraz procedury znajdującej zastosowanie w razie ich naruszenia. Uregulowania dotyczące odległości znane są z innych, zarówno greckich, jak i rzymskich źródeł, co pozwala na ich uzupełnienia oraz porównanie. Te związane z procedurą przekazane zostały wyłącznie w Dikaiomata i ograniczone są jedynie do przypadków sadzenia i kopania. Przewidywały one możliwość powstrzymania prac prowadzonych na terenie sąsiednim, co skutkowało obowiązkiem usunięcia roślin i rowów, a w razie nieuczynienia tego we wskazanym terminie, dopuszczały zastosowanie samopomocy, jak i domagania się na...
The prosperity of Egyptian civilization has depended on the efficient use of water deriving from ... more The prosperity of Egyptian civilization has depended on the efficient use of water deriving from the Nile throughout its recorded history. Despite the importance of water and irrigation in ancient Egypt, very little is known of its water regulations. The only known legal source related directly to the maintenance of canals that has been preserved is a section of the Dikaiomata – the Alexandrian city law dealing with the construction and improvement of irrigation channels in the surrounding countryside. However, being Greek in origin, it does not seem to correspond to the legal practice that has been in use in Egypt since the earliest times. How water regulations looked like in practice can therefore only be observed by means of practice documents, i.e. papyri from Ptolemaic period. Such papyri recorded the law in action, both in relation to individuals as well as the whole society in the context of water management. These documents and their similarities and differences to the rules contained in Dikaiomata are the subject of the paper.
ZESZYTY NAUKOWE INSTYTUTU ADMINISTRACJI AJD W CZĘSTOCHOWIE. Gubernaculum et Administratio , 2018
The principle expressed in the maxim superficies solo cedit is one of the best known rules of pri... more The principle expressed in the maxim superficies solo cedit is one of the best known rules of private Roman law and also one of those which had an influence on modern European legal systems. In the Roman law, the rule regulated cases of placing fixtures (movable property) on the land (immovable property). According to this rule, when the union of the land and the object is complete, the object belongs to the owner of the land. However, this principle was not in force in other ancient laws that allowed the ownership of separate floors or rooms. These laws, functioning in the Eastern part of the Roman Empire, had their influence on the Roman law, in which some deviations from the principle of superficies solo cedit were recognized in postclassical and Justinian law. Sources from the East, confirming the separate ownership of buildings and floors, as well as the impact of this practice on the Roman law will be subject of this article.
The supply of water across another proprietor’s land is necessary wherever not all users have the... more The supply of water across another proprietor’s land is necessary wherever not all users have the same access to water. In Egypt, where virtually all the land was irrigated by the Nile’s annual ooding, the floodwater was distributed through an elaborate irrigation system of floodplains, so water access was a marginal problem. There are only a few papyri extant with evidence of this phenomenon in Graeco-Roman Egypt, and they are the subject of this article. They clearly indicate that the need to bring water across someone else’s property was limited to land requiring irrigation all year round. is was observed for vineyards, which were irrigated by means of reservoirs and various types of hydraulic devices not located on each plot. Hence to bring water from them over neighbouring properties. is shows how the legal regulations on water were strictly connected with the hydrological conditions of a given area.
Roman wills, drafted per aes et libram, are mainly known from copies written in Greek on papyri. ... more Roman wills, drafted per aes et libram, are mainly known from copies written in Greek on papyri. A will dating back to the 27th March 142 A.D., drafted by Antonius Silvanus, has survived the ravishes of time and thus allows us to understand the idea behind such forms of wills. Indeed, legal texts written by the Roman jurists and dating back to those times do not go into the contents of such wills. Hence, Silvanus’ will is a very important document which gives us an insight into the clauses which were regularly drafted into wills in that epoch. Silvanus’ nal will and testament was written on a tabulae ceratae (a wooden tablet covered with a layer of wax). It was then meticulously closed in order to protect it from forgeries.
Agora was one of the most distinctive elements of Greek and Hellenistic cities, which played many... more Agora was one of the most distinctive elements of Greek and Hellenistic cities, which played many different functions through its history: mainly public, administrative, religious and last but no least, commercial one.
The roles player by agora can be studied also on the basis of the papyri preserved in Egypt. Agora was introduced in this country with the conquest of Alexander the Great. The functions of the Egyptian agora were similar to those known in other parts of the Mediterranean world. We do not have any confirmation of its public function, which is not surprising, as no public assemblies existed in Egypt. In spite of this fact, it performed administrative and juridical roles as the localisation of many important offices and a place where public announcements were made. Agora was also often combined with temples, also typically Egyptian ones, performing a religious function. But its most important role, as is shown by the papyri, was a commercial one – the square was a place where trade with many different products was concentrated, with varied sellers and craftsmen working there as well as numerous shops and stands opening into it.
One of the questions related to the neighbourhood relationships might be the problem of the light... more One of the questions related to the neighbourhood relationships might be the problem of the lighting of buildings, especially in the urban areas with dense architecture. Windows in ancient buildings from Egypt rarely survived to our times and even if they did, they do not inform us about legal issues connected with them. Such information can, however, be obtained from the papyri. They are not numerous but they shed some light on this question. The most important ones are Demotic contracts, which partly consist of examples of agreements, whose subject matter was the establishment of a “light-well”, e.g. a strip of land of a considerably reduced size left between buildings, to which windows of a house were opening. In Greek documentation we do not find similar contracts, but still the papyri in this language contain terms alluding to the function of lighting, especially φωσφόρια. Thanks to all those papyri, we may obtain some information about circumstances in which light could be provided and about its juridical context.
Regulations concerning the distance between the buildings can be already found in the law of the ... more Regulations concerning the distance between the buildings can be already found in the law of the XII Tables, which prescribed that 2,5 foots of free space must be left around every house. at space was called ambitus. But most probably, it was the earlier law of Solon in Athens, that served as a model for Romans, and a few centuries later (III BC) was also applied in Dikaiomata – the law of the city of Alexandria in Egypt. As far as the Roman Empire is concerned, we can nd series of constitutions issued by imperators, usually concerning the distance between public buildings, and, as regards the fth century AD, also the distance between private buildings (the most important of them is the constitution of Zenon). This question was an object of interest also for the author of the compilation of local Palestinian laws – Julian of Ascalon, in whose Treatise the problem was regulated in very detailed way. Julian of Ascalon’s Treatise dealt also with the distance between private buildings and many types of workshops.
Problems of vicinity were a subject of regulations starting from the time of classical Greece, bu... more Problems of vicinity were a subject of regulations starting from the time of classical Greece, but the most complete text relating to this question is Julian of Ascalon’s Treatise, a work written at the end of the V or during the VI century in Palestine by an architect known by the name of Julian. One of the aspects regulated by this text, as well as, in a similar way, by Roman law, was the protection of light and of view. In Roman law light was protected by a series of special servitudes: ius altius tollendi aut non tellendi, ius ne luminibus o ciator, servitus luminum and servitus luminis imittendi. An analogy to the latter is also found in the treatise. According to the above sources also the view (prospectus) was protected. In the constitutions of Roman emperors known from the Code of Justinian we nd only protection of the sea view, but Julian also regulated protection of the view on mountains, gardens and public paintings and he probably based his regulations on other unknown constitutions. A subject connected with view and light was the typology of windows. In both texts there existed a legally relevant distinction between panoramic windows and ones that served only for lighting, because the rst could be made only when certain conditions were met, and the second could be constructed only at a certain height.
In densely built-up urban areas access to a property may be a problem, especially if the property... more In densely built-up urban areas access to a property may be a problem, especially if the property is not connected directly to a public network of streets. is was a familiar problem already in ancient times and can be observed in Demotic and Greek papyri from Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt. Despite an abundance of records attesting to the existence of access to property, there are very few documents giving direct evidence for the regulation of access, viz. its establishment or right of use. SB I 6000, dated to the 6th century AD, is one of these rare items, the only extant papyrus exclusively on access to premises. It contains a series of agreements relating to this problem, some on the division of an inherited estate between the members of a family, and others only on access to the property. This document sheds light on an important, but relatively little known legal issue: access to property in non-Roman legal systems.
This paper describes history and archaeological topography of the Norther Necropolis of Gebelein ... more This paper describes history and archaeological topography of the Norther Necropolis of Gebelein that was partly reconstructed using data from archival materials and results of current field surveys.
Gebelein is located in southern Egypt, ca. 28km southwest from Luxor, and was subject of numerous archaeological works since 1885. Most of them were not published or their results were presented in very limited way.
Several extraordinary tombs were discovered at the Northern Necropolis of Gebelein. Worth mentioning is an Old Kingdom mastaba with burials made not only in its shafts, but also within its walls. The so called Tomb of Unknowns, that of the General Iti II and his wife Neferu, who was local priestess of Hathor, are well known, but their archaeological contexts were until now poorly known. There were also other tombs discovered at the site, which locations were forgotten. Thanks to the current study their locations were re-discovered and archaeological topography and history of the eastern part of the Northern Necropolis of Gebelein was reconstructed.
The cemetery was developing since the predynastic times (4th millennium BCE) and the latest burials are dated to the Greco-Roman Period (332 BCE – 395 AD). The necropolis presents the development of a significant, provincial burial ground of a local elite. An analysis of its history can contribute to the reconstruction of the history of the region. Worth to note features of the cemetery are Nubian influences on local funerary customs, Middle Kingdom tombs re-used during the 1st millennium BCE, and previously not mentioned in publications animal mummies discovered at the site.
The present volume focuses on Greek documents of the Patermouthis’ archive (Syene, late 5th -early 7th century), involving many soldiers of the garrison of Syene as contracting parties but also as scribes and subscribers. These documents, already studied by scholars because of their interesting content, are exhaustively analysed here in terms of their material and formal aspects, with particular attention to the choices made regarding handwriting, format, layout, and the use of signs and symbols. Firstly, an introduction sets forth the methodological premises of the two authors’ work, situating it within the context of ERC NOTAE, of which it is a result; two main sections follow. The first section, dedicated to palaeography, analyses the handwriting of the documents’ drafters within the wider context of Byzantine cursive production during an important transitional phase in the history of Greek handwriting; graphic analysis leads also to identifying which and how many individuals were involved in the different sections of documents. In addition, the section analyses the level of literacy of the various subscribers and attempts to reconstruct the network of individuals involved in producing documents at Syene. The second section, dedicated to diplomatics, analyses the architecture of documents, following the order of the sections presented in a cheirographon, which is virtually the only type of document to appear in this archive. It lays stress on the format and layout of the documents and the role of signs and symbols (including blank spaces) in the organisation and management of the page, taking also into account the implications of these strategies as regards the creation and reading of documents. The two approaches applied here (paleographical and diplomatic) are in constant dialogue with one another, and constant reference is made also to documents coming from other places in Egypt and elsewhere in the late antique Mediterranean.
The subject of this study is a papyrus containing interesting information about drainage-namely t... more The subject of this study is a papyrus containing interesting information about drainage-namely the so-called 'Legal Code of Hermopolis West', known in both Demotic (P. Matthathird century BC) and Greek versions (P.Oxy. XLVI 3285-second century AD)-and the terminology contained therein in relation to water drains. It aims to determine what type of water these regulations applied to. To this end, the information obtained from papyrological sources is juxtaposed with what we know about drainage thanks to archaeology, especially models of houses (from the Middle Kingdom). This comparison reveals that ancient Egypt had a centuries-old tradition of draining rainwater through long, open, U-shaped gutters, even if their existence might seem unnecessary in this country at first glance.
This article examines Ptolemaic papyrological sources (Demotic and Greek) indicating the existenc... more This article examines Ptolemaic papyrological sources (Demotic and Greek) indicating the existence of marketplaces located next to the river during this period, which have so far been completely overlooked in the discussion on Egyptian markets. It focuses particularly on the location of marketplaces and their relation to settlements and the markets’ setting – whether they were surrounded by farmland or by buildings, and of what type. This analysis points to the highest parts of the riverbanks as the most likely location of marketplaces. Additionally, the article contains terminological remarks regarding the terms for the marketplace and the Nile in both Demotic and Greek.
Nieczêsto zachowuj¹ siê do naszych czasów oryginalne teksty staro¿ytne 1 , zawieraj¹ce zbiory reg... more Nieczêsto zachowuj¹ siê do naszych czasów oryginalne teksty staro¿ytne 1 , zawieraj¹ce zbiory regu³ prawnych czy komentarze i opracowania prawnicze, pozwalaj¹ce na lepsze poznanie antycznych porz¹dków prawnych. Jeszcze rzadziej dysponujemy kilkoma wersjami tego samego tekstu, w jednym czy te¿ w ró¿nych jêzykach, które pozwalaj¹ na dokonywanie porównañ i uzupe³nieñ. Jednym z takich wyj¹tkowych tekstów jest tak zwany "demotyczny kodeks z Hermopolis" i jego greckie t³umaczenie, daj¹ce nam wgl¹d przede wszystkim w uregulowanie stosunków s¹siedzkich w ró¿nych ich aspektach oraz sporu o w³asnooeae dzia³ki, na której wzniesiono budynek. W³aoenie to greckie t³umaczenie stanowi przedmiot niniejszego artyku³u. Tekst greckiego papirusu zosta³ opublikowany w 1978 r. przez Johna R. Reê 2 w 46 tomie papirusów z Oksyrynchos 3. Stanowi t³umaczenie na jêzyk grecki demotycznego tekstu znanego jako "demotyczny kodeks z Hermopolis", znajduj¹cego siê na recto papirusu odnalezionego przez prof. Sami Gabrê z Uniwersytetu w Kairze podczas sezonu wykopaliskowego 1938-39 w Tuna l'Gebel (wspó³czesna nazwa zachodniej czêoeci Hermopolis) na nekropoli dedykowanej ibisom i pawianom-oewiêtym ptakom i ma³pom Thota. Demotyczny papirus zosta³ znaleziony w czêoeciowo zniszczonym naczyniu w ruinach domu naprzeciwko pokoju mumifikacji-jak siê przypuszcza, pe³ni¹cego funkcjê archiwum. Dokument ten zachowa³ siê do naszych czasów, z licznymi lakunami, w 11 fragmentach, zawieraj¹cych 10 kolumn, w ca³ooeci licz¹c obecnie ok. 305 linii tekstu demotycznego 4. Po odkryciu dokument ten zosta³ powierzony do publikacji Grigisowi Mattha, który w 1941 r. przedstawi³ pierwsze sprawozdanie z jego zawarto-CZASOPISMO PRAWNO-HISTORYCZNE Tom LXIV-2012-Zeszyt 2 1 Pragnê podziêkowaae prof. Marii Zab³ockiej za cenne uwagi i wskazówki oraz prof. Tomaszowi Derdzie za pomoc w t³umaczeniu tekstu greckiego. 2
Przedmiotem artykułu jest fragment Dikaiomata (P. Hal. 1, ll. 79-105), papirusu z III w. p.n.e., ... more Przedmiotem artykułu jest fragment Dikaiomata (P. Hal. 1, ll. 79-105), papirusu z III w. p.n.e., który jako jeden z nielicznych przekazuje nam prawo miejskie Aleksandrii. Analizowana część dokumentu zawiera uregulowania odległości, jakie należało zachować od sąsiadów przy prowadzeniu różnych prac na własnym terenie (odstęp w przypadku wznoszenia ogrodzenia, ściany, budynku, kopania rowów i dołów oraz sadzenia roślin) oraz procedury znajdującej zastosowanie w razie ich naruszenia. Uregulowania dotyczące odległości znane są z innych, zarówno greckich, jak i rzymskich źródeł, co pozwala na ich uzupełnienia oraz porównanie. Te związane z procedurą przekazane zostały wyłącznie w Dikaiomata i ograniczone są jedynie do przypadków sadzenia i kopania. Przewidywały one możliwość powstrzymania prac prowadzonych na terenie sąsiednim, co skutkowało obowiązkiem usunięcia roślin i rowów, a w razie nieuczynienia tego we wskazanym terminie, dopuszczały zastosowanie samopomocy, jak i domagania się na...
The prosperity of Egyptian civilization has depended on the efficient use of water deriving from ... more The prosperity of Egyptian civilization has depended on the efficient use of water deriving from the Nile throughout its recorded history. Despite the importance of water and irrigation in ancient Egypt, very little is known of its water regulations. The only known legal source related directly to the maintenance of canals that has been preserved is a section of the Dikaiomata – the Alexandrian city law dealing with the construction and improvement of irrigation channels in the surrounding countryside. However, being Greek in origin, it does not seem to correspond to the legal practice that has been in use in Egypt since the earliest times. How water regulations looked like in practice can therefore only be observed by means of practice documents, i.e. papyri from Ptolemaic period. Such papyri recorded the law in action, both in relation to individuals as well as the whole society in the context of water management. These documents and their similarities and differences to the rules contained in Dikaiomata are the subject of the paper.
ZESZYTY NAUKOWE INSTYTUTU ADMINISTRACJI AJD W CZĘSTOCHOWIE. Gubernaculum et Administratio , 2018
The principle expressed in the maxim superficies solo cedit is one of the best known rules of pri... more The principle expressed in the maxim superficies solo cedit is one of the best known rules of private Roman law and also one of those which had an influence on modern European legal systems. In the Roman law, the rule regulated cases of placing fixtures (movable property) on the land (immovable property). According to this rule, when the union of the land and the object is complete, the object belongs to the owner of the land. However, this principle was not in force in other ancient laws that allowed the ownership of separate floors or rooms. These laws, functioning in the Eastern part of the Roman Empire, had their influence on the Roman law, in which some deviations from the principle of superficies solo cedit were recognized in postclassical and Justinian law. Sources from the East, confirming the separate ownership of buildings and floors, as well as the impact of this practice on the Roman law will be subject of this article.
The supply of water across another proprietor’s land is necessary wherever not all users have the... more The supply of water across another proprietor’s land is necessary wherever not all users have the same access to water. In Egypt, where virtually all the land was irrigated by the Nile’s annual ooding, the floodwater was distributed through an elaborate irrigation system of floodplains, so water access was a marginal problem. There are only a few papyri extant with evidence of this phenomenon in Graeco-Roman Egypt, and they are the subject of this article. They clearly indicate that the need to bring water across someone else’s property was limited to land requiring irrigation all year round. is was observed for vineyards, which were irrigated by means of reservoirs and various types of hydraulic devices not located on each plot. Hence to bring water from them over neighbouring properties. is shows how the legal regulations on water were strictly connected with the hydrological conditions of a given area.
Roman wills, drafted per aes et libram, are mainly known from copies written in Greek on papyri. ... more Roman wills, drafted per aes et libram, are mainly known from copies written in Greek on papyri. A will dating back to the 27th March 142 A.D., drafted by Antonius Silvanus, has survived the ravishes of time and thus allows us to understand the idea behind such forms of wills. Indeed, legal texts written by the Roman jurists and dating back to those times do not go into the contents of such wills. Hence, Silvanus’ will is a very important document which gives us an insight into the clauses which were regularly drafted into wills in that epoch. Silvanus’ nal will and testament was written on a tabulae ceratae (a wooden tablet covered with a layer of wax). It was then meticulously closed in order to protect it from forgeries.
Agora was one of the most distinctive elements of Greek and Hellenistic cities, which played many... more Agora was one of the most distinctive elements of Greek and Hellenistic cities, which played many different functions through its history: mainly public, administrative, religious and last but no least, commercial one.
The roles player by agora can be studied also on the basis of the papyri preserved in Egypt. Agora was introduced in this country with the conquest of Alexander the Great. The functions of the Egyptian agora were similar to those known in other parts of the Mediterranean world. We do not have any confirmation of its public function, which is not surprising, as no public assemblies existed in Egypt. In spite of this fact, it performed administrative and juridical roles as the localisation of many important offices and a place where public announcements were made. Agora was also often combined with temples, also typically Egyptian ones, performing a religious function. But its most important role, as is shown by the papyri, was a commercial one – the square was a place where trade with many different products was concentrated, with varied sellers and craftsmen working there as well as numerous shops and stands opening into it.
One of the questions related to the neighbourhood relationships might be the problem of the light... more One of the questions related to the neighbourhood relationships might be the problem of the lighting of buildings, especially in the urban areas with dense architecture. Windows in ancient buildings from Egypt rarely survived to our times and even if they did, they do not inform us about legal issues connected with them. Such information can, however, be obtained from the papyri. They are not numerous but they shed some light on this question. The most important ones are Demotic contracts, which partly consist of examples of agreements, whose subject matter was the establishment of a “light-well”, e.g. a strip of land of a considerably reduced size left between buildings, to which windows of a house were opening. In Greek documentation we do not find similar contracts, but still the papyri in this language contain terms alluding to the function of lighting, especially φωσφόρια. Thanks to all those papyri, we may obtain some information about circumstances in which light could be provided and about its juridical context.
Regulations concerning the distance between the buildings can be already found in the law of the ... more Regulations concerning the distance between the buildings can be already found in the law of the XII Tables, which prescribed that 2,5 foots of free space must be left around every house. at space was called ambitus. But most probably, it was the earlier law of Solon in Athens, that served as a model for Romans, and a few centuries later (III BC) was also applied in Dikaiomata – the law of the city of Alexandria in Egypt. As far as the Roman Empire is concerned, we can nd series of constitutions issued by imperators, usually concerning the distance between public buildings, and, as regards the fth century AD, also the distance between private buildings (the most important of them is the constitution of Zenon). This question was an object of interest also for the author of the compilation of local Palestinian laws – Julian of Ascalon, in whose Treatise the problem was regulated in very detailed way. Julian of Ascalon’s Treatise dealt also with the distance between private buildings and many types of workshops.
Problems of vicinity were a subject of regulations starting from the time of classical Greece, bu... more Problems of vicinity were a subject of regulations starting from the time of classical Greece, but the most complete text relating to this question is Julian of Ascalon’s Treatise, a work written at the end of the V or during the VI century in Palestine by an architect known by the name of Julian. One of the aspects regulated by this text, as well as, in a similar way, by Roman law, was the protection of light and of view. In Roman law light was protected by a series of special servitudes: ius altius tollendi aut non tellendi, ius ne luminibus o ciator, servitus luminum and servitus luminis imittendi. An analogy to the latter is also found in the treatise. According to the above sources also the view (prospectus) was protected. In the constitutions of Roman emperors known from the Code of Justinian we nd only protection of the sea view, but Julian also regulated protection of the view on mountains, gardens and public paintings and he probably based his regulations on other unknown constitutions. A subject connected with view and light was the typology of windows. In both texts there existed a legally relevant distinction between panoramic windows and ones that served only for lighting, because the rst could be made only when certain conditions were met, and the second could be constructed only at a certain height.
In densely built-up urban areas access to a property may be a problem, especially if the property... more In densely built-up urban areas access to a property may be a problem, especially if the property is not connected directly to a public network of streets. is was a familiar problem already in ancient times and can be observed in Demotic and Greek papyri from Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt. Despite an abundance of records attesting to the existence of access to property, there are very few documents giving direct evidence for the regulation of access, viz. its establishment or right of use. SB I 6000, dated to the 6th century AD, is one of these rare items, the only extant papyrus exclusively on access to premises. It contains a series of agreements relating to this problem, some on the division of an inherited estate between the members of a family, and others only on access to the property. This document sheds light on an important, but relatively little known legal issue: access to property in non-Roman legal systems.
M. Capasso-P. Davoli-N. Pellé (eds.), Proceedings of the 29th International Congress of Papyrology, Lecce 28 July-3 August 2019, I-II, Lecce 2022., 2022
The town of Per-Hathor, also known under its Greek name Pathyris, was occupied since the Predynas... more The town of Per-Hathor, also known under its Greek name Pathyris, was occupied since the Predynastic Period up to the medieval times. It is well known for its Ptolemaic papyri, ostraka, and inscribed wooden tablets, which enable scholars to attempt reconstructions of the topography and social life in the settlement. What the previous studies lacked were a detail spatial and archaeological data regarding this area. The Gebelein Archaeological Project was initiated in 2013 and one of its aims is to fulfill this void.
Uploads
Papers by Aneta Skalec
Gebelein is located in southern Egypt, ca. 28km southwest from Luxor, and was subject of numerous archaeological works since 1885. Most of them were not published or their results were presented in very limited way.
Several extraordinary tombs were discovered at the Northern Necropolis of Gebelein. Worth mentioning is an Old Kingdom mastaba with burials made not only in its shafts, but also within its walls. The so called Tomb of Unknowns, that of the General Iti II and his wife Neferu, who was local priestess of Hathor, are well known, but their archaeological contexts were until now poorly known. There were also other tombs discovered at the site, which locations were forgotten. Thanks to the current study their locations were re-discovered and archaeological topography and history of the eastern part of the Northern Necropolis of Gebelein was reconstructed.
The cemetery was developing since the predynastic times (4th millennium BCE) and the latest burials are dated to the Greco-Roman Period (332 BCE – 395 AD). The necropolis presents the development of a significant, provincial burial ground of a local elite. An analysis of its history can contribute to the reconstruction of the history of the region. Worth to note features of the cemetery are Nubian influences on local funerary customs, Middle Kingdom tombs re-used during the 1st millennium BCE, and previously not mentioned in publications animal mummies discovered at the site.
The present volume focuses on Greek documents of the Patermouthis’ archive (Syene, late 5th -early 7th century), involving many soldiers of the garrison of Syene as contracting parties but also as scribes and subscribers. These documents, already studied by scholars because of their interesting content, are exhaustively analysed here in terms of their material and formal aspects, with particular attention to the choices made regarding handwriting, format, layout, and the use of signs and symbols. Firstly, an introduction sets forth the methodological premises of the two authors’ work, situating it within the context of ERC NOTAE, of which it is a result; two main sections follow. The first section, dedicated to palaeography, analyses the handwriting of the documents’ drafters within the wider context of Byzantine cursive production during an important transitional phase in the history of Greek handwriting; graphic analysis leads also to identifying which and how many individuals were involved in the different sections of documents. In addition, the section analyses the level of literacy of the various subscribers and attempts to reconstruct the network of individuals involved in producing documents at Syene. The second section, dedicated to diplomatics, analyses the architecture of documents, following the order of the sections presented in a cheirographon, which is virtually the only type of document to appear in this archive. It lays stress on the format and layout of the documents and the role of signs and symbols (including blank spaces) in the organisation and management of the page, taking also into account the implications of these strategies as regards the creation and reading of documents. The two approaches applied here (paleographical and diplomatic) are in constant dialogue with one another, and constant reference is made also to documents coming from other places in Egypt and elsewhere in the late antique Mediterranean.
The roles player by agora can be studied also on the basis of the papyri preserved in Egypt. Agora was introduced in this country with the conquest of Alexander the Great. The functions of the Egyptian agora were similar to those known in other parts of the Mediterranean world. We do not have any confirmation of its public function, which is not surprising, as no public assemblies existed in Egypt. In spite of this fact, it performed administrative and juridical roles as the localisation of many important offices and a place where public announcements were made. Agora was also often combined with temples, also typically Egyptian ones, performing a religious function. But its most important role, as is shown by the papyri, was a commercial one – the square was a place where trade with many different products was concentrated, with varied sellers and craftsmen working there as well as numerous shops and stands opening into it.
Gebelein is located in southern Egypt, ca. 28km southwest from Luxor, and was subject of numerous archaeological works since 1885. Most of them were not published or their results were presented in very limited way.
Several extraordinary tombs were discovered at the Northern Necropolis of Gebelein. Worth mentioning is an Old Kingdom mastaba with burials made not only in its shafts, but also within its walls. The so called Tomb of Unknowns, that of the General Iti II and his wife Neferu, who was local priestess of Hathor, are well known, but their archaeological contexts were until now poorly known. There were also other tombs discovered at the site, which locations were forgotten. Thanks to the current study their locations were re-discovered and archaeological topography and history of the eastern part of the Northern Necropolis of Gebelein was reconstructed.
The cemetery was developing since the predynastic times (4th millennium BCE) and the latest burials are dated to the Greco-Roman Period (332 BCE – 395 AD). The necropolis presents the development of a significant, provincial burial ground of a local elite. An analysis of its history can contribute to the reconstruction of the history of the region. Worth to note features of the cemetery are Nubian influences on local funerary customs, Middle Kingdom tombs re-used during the 1st millennium BCE, and previously not mentioned in publications animal mummies discovered at the site.
The present volume focuses on Greek documents of the Patermouthis’ archive (Syene, late 5th -early 7th century), involving many soldiers of the garrison of Syene as contracting parties but also as scribes and subscribers. These documents, already studied by scholars because of their interesting content, are exhaustively analysed here in terms of their material and formal aspects, with particular attention to the choices made regarding handwriting, format, layout, and the use of signs and symbols. Firstly, an introduction sets forth the methodological premises of the two authors’ work, situating it within the context of ERC NOTAE, of which it is a result; two main sections follow. The first section, dedicated to palaeography, analyses the handwriting of the documents’ drafters within the wider context of Byzantine cursive production during an important transitional phase in the history of Greek handwriting; graphic analysis leads also to identifying which and how many individuals were involved in the different sections of documents. In addition, the section analyses the level of literacy of the various subscribers and attempts to reconstruct the network of individuals involved in producing documents at Syene. The second section, dedicated to diplomatics, analyses the architecture of documents, following the order of the sections presented in a cheirographon, which is virtually the only type of document to appear in this archive. It lays stress on the format and layout of the documents and the role of signs and symbols (including blank spaces) in the organisation and management of the page, taking also into account the implications of these strategies as regards the creation and reading of documents. The two approaches applied here (paleographical and diplomatic) are in constant dialogue with one another, and constant reference is made also to documents coming from other places in Egypt and elsewhere in the late antique Mediterranean.
The roles player by agora can be studied also on the basis of the papyri preserved in Egypt. Agora was introduced in this country with the conquest of Alexander the Great. The functions of the Egyptian agora were similar to those known in other parts of the Mediterranean world. We do not have any confirmation of its public function, which is not surprising, as no public assemblies existed in Egypt. In spite of this fact, it performed administrative and juridical roles as the localisation of many important offices and a place where public announcements were made. Agora was also often combined with temples, also typically Egyptian ones, performing a religious function. But its most important role, as is shown by the papyri, was a commercial one – the square was a place where trade with many different products was concentrated, with varied sellers and craftsmen working there as well as numerous shops and stands opening into it.