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Joshua S Bamford

University of Oxford, Human Sciences, Research Affiliate

University of Jyväskylä, Centre of Excellence in Music, Mind, Body and Brain, Post-Doc

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Joshua grew up in Perth, surrounded by a variety of birds, fish, reptiles, two dogs and his biologist parents. Since graduating from the University of Western Australia, he has been living as an academic nomad around Europe; mostly in Finland, Austria, and the UK. His research interests revolve around the evolution of music and dance. He is currently the Vice-Chair of the SysMus Conference Series council.

He describes himself as a Musician, Psychologist and recreational Ecologist, while also being a Juggler, Blogger, Sword Fighter, and Swing Dancer. Occasionally, Joshua is even paid to be some or all of those things. Regularly appearing on stage, he has a passion for performance, only matched by his love of science.
Supervisors: Petri Toiviainen, Birgitta Burger, Jane Davidson, Emma Cohen, and Bronwyn Tarr

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Papers by Joshua S Bamford

Does singing enhance cooperation more than speaking does? A global experimental Stage 1 Registered Report

The evolution of music, language, and cooperation have been debated since before Darwin. The soci... more The evolution of music, language, and cooperation have been debated since before Darwin. The social bonding hypothesis proposes that these phenomena may be interlinked: musicality may have facilitated the evolution of group cooperation beyond the possibilities of spoken language. Although dozens of experimental studies have shown that synchronised rhythms can promote cooperation, it is unclear whether synchronous singing enhances cooperation relative to spoken language, particularly across diverse societies that differ in their musical/linguistic rhythms and social organisation. Here, we propose a Registered Report to test this hypothesis through a global experiment in diverse languages aiming to collect data from 1500 participants across 50 sites. The social bonding hypothesis predicts that cooperation will increase more after synchronous singing than after spoken (sequential) conversation or (simultaneous) recitation, while alternative hypotheses predict that song will not increase cooperation relative to speech. Regardless of outcome, these results will provide an unprecedented understanding of cross-cultural relationships between music, language, and cooperation.

Love songs and serenades: a theoretical review of music and romantic relationships

Frontiers in psychology, Feb 14, 2024

In this theoretical review, we examine how the roles of music in mate choice and social bonding a... more In this theoretical review, we examine how the roles of music in mate choice and social bonding are expressed in romantic relationships. Darwin's Descent of Man originally proposed the idea that musicality might have evolved as a sexually selected trait. This proposition, coupled with the portrayal of popular musicians as sex symbols and the prevalence of love-themed lyrics in music, suggests a possible link between music and attraction. However, recent scientific exploration of the evolutionary functions of music has predominantly focused on theories of social bonding and group signaling, with limited research addressing the sexual selection hypothesis. We identify two distinct types of music-making for these different functions: music for attraction, which would be virtuosic in nature to display physical and cognitive fitness to potential mates; and music for connection, which would facilitate synchrony between partners and likely engage the same reward mechanisms seen in the general synchronybonding effect, enhancing perceived interpersonal intimacy as a facet of love. Linking these two musical functions to social psychological theories of relationship development and the components of love, we present a model that outlines the potential roles of music in romantic relationships, from initial attraction to ongoing relationship maintenance. In addition to synthesizing the existing literature, our model serves as a roadmap for empirical research aimed at rigorously investigating the possible functions of music for romantic relationships.

Virtual Reality-Assisted Physiotherapy for Visuospatial Neglect Rehabilitation: A Proof-of-Concept Study

arXiv (Cornell University), Dec 18, 2023

Background: Visuospatial neglect (VSN) is a debilitating condition often arising post-stroke, nec... more Background: Visuospatial neglect (VSN) is a debilitating condition often arising post-stroke, necessitating innovative rehabilitation strategies. We propose a virtual reality (VR) task for sensorymotor training in VSN patients, capitalizing on interactive visual and auditory cues to potentially enhance physiotherapy outcomes as well as patient wellbeing. Objectives: The aim in the current study was to (1) develop a VR-based training protocol tailored for VSN patients and (2) evaluate its impact on two individuals with VSN. We investigated the efficacy of visual-audio cues in engaging patients and influencing performance over a series of sessions, alongside assessing goal attainment and patient experience. Methods: A VR task was developed and iteratively refined in collaboration with physiotherapists. An experimental virtual environment was developed featuring a directional visual cue in the form of a ball, and an audio cue. The audio cue preceded the visual cue, serving the purpose of alerting participants to the forthcoming location of the visual stimuli. Participants would then reach and grasp the visual cue to complete the task. Two patients with VSN engaged with the task over 12 sessions, with their performance and feedback recorded. Results: Findings indicate positive patient experiences. Quantitative data shows a downward trend in task completion variability across trials. Moreover, patient feedback reveals that they find the VR task a positive experience, suggesting potential feasibility of the VR approach. Conclusions: The integration of a VR task into VSN physiotherapy shows promising indications, particularly in enhancing patient engagement. The collaboration between developers and clinicians was pivotal in aligning the task with therapeutic goals, underscoring the value of co-design in healthcare technologies. Further research with a larger sample size is essential to substantiate these findings and establish VR's role in VSN rehabilitation. In addition, research focusing on visual impairments and various multimodal disorders may also benefit from utilizing this VR approach.

The Synchrony-Prosociality Link Cannot Be Explained Away as Expectancy Effect: Response to Atwood et al. ()

Open Mind, Dec 31, 2022

Kinetic Cross-Modal Correspondences and Felt (e)Motion in a Novel Set of Musical Stimuli

Music & Science, Dec 31, 2022

Embodied music cognition predicts that our understanding of human-made sounds relates to our expe... more Embodied music cognition predicts that our understanding of human-made sounds relates to our experience of making the same or similar movements and sounds, which involves imitation of the source of visual and auditory information. This embodiment of sound may lead to numerous kinetic cross-modal correspondences (CMCs). This article investigates music experience in participants with a non-professionally trained music background across three musical dimensions: Contour (Ascending, Descending, Flat), Vertical Density (Low, Medium, High), and Note Pattern (Binary, Ternary, Quaternary). In order that stimuli should reflect contemporary musical usage yet be subject to a high degree of experimental control, 27 ten-second digital piano tracks were created in collaboration with a film composer. In Study 1, participants were asked to rate the stimuli for perceived Direction, Rotation, Movement, and Emotional and Physical Involvement. We test the effects of these factors in terms of the following theories: general and vocal embodied responses to music, the Ecological Theory of Rotating Sounds, and the Shared Affective Motion Experience model of emotion induction. Results for Study 1 were consistent with theories of general and vocal embodied responses to music, as well as with theories of embodied emotional contagion in music. Study 1 also revealed potential confounds in the stimuli, which were further investigated in Study 2 with a new set of participants rating the stimuli for perceived Pitch, Loudness, and Speed. Results for Study 2 served to dissociate intrinsic features of the stimuli from CMCs. Taken together, the two studies reveal a range of embodied CMCs. Although there are limitations to a perceptual study such as this, these stimuli stand to benefit future research in further investigating the embodiment of musical motion.

Processing fluency for visual synchrony perception

Prior research has found that interpersonal synchrony increases social closeness and cooperation:... more Prior research has found that interpersonal synchrony increases social closeness and cooperation: this is often referred to as the synchrony-bonding effect. Most explanations for this synchrony-bonding effect rely upon higher-order social cognition (e.g. shared goals or selfother merging). Relatively little attention has been given to the perceptual experience of synchrony, and the low-level perceptual mechanisms involved, such as processing fluency. In two pre-registered experiments, we tested the novel hypothesis that synchrony (congruent movement) is easier to process than non-synchrony. In Study 1, no effect of direction congruency on performance was detected. However, Study 2 found a significant effect of speed congruency. This indicates decreased processing load when stimuli are moving at the same speed. We then discuss how these reduced visual stimuli may relate to naturalistic periodic movement. Crucially, the effect observed here does not rely upon social stimuli and may operate at an early stage of perceptual processing. This is an initial step in establishing a novel theory of the synchrony-bonding effect, based upon the principles of processing fluency.

Trait Empathy associated with Agreeableness and rhythmic entrainment in a spontaneous movement to music task: Preliminary exploratory investigations

Musicae Scientiae, Mar 28, 2017

The simulation theory of empathy suggests that we use motor processing to empathise, through mode... more The simulation theory of empathy suggests that we use motor processing to empathise, through modelling the actions of others. Similarly, research into embodied music cognition posits that music, particularly musical rhythm, is perceived as a motor stimulus. In both cases, the human Mirror Neuron System (MNS) is put forward as a potential underlying mechanism. If this is the case, some overlap may exist between the ability to empathise with others, and the ability to perceive rhythm in music. The present study investigated this relationship indirectly, through the study of individual differences in Trait Empathy and rhythmic entrainment. Undergraduate students (N = 237) completed a questionnaire battery including the EQ-Short, BFAS and questions about musical and dance experience. A relationship was observed between Agreeableness on the BFAS and the EQ-Short (r = .554). Tests on a controlled sample of these participants (n = 11) found a relationship between Trait Empathy and performance on a rhythmic entrainment task, involving spontaneous movement to a musical stimulus (r τ =-.686). A novel measure of rhythmic entrainment was used, assessing each participant on the time taken to re-establish entrainment following an abrupt change in tempo. The findings suggest that Empathy and rhythmic entrainment may utilise similar brain regions. These regions may also be associated with the MNS, although neuroimaging data would be required to confirm this. Qualitative observations of the participants' responses to the various musical stimuli were also recorded, and may inform future study. Furthermore, the observed relationship between Agreeableness and Trait Empathy may have implications for how these personality constructs are treated in the literature.

Processing fluency for visual synchrony perception

Synchrony is an important aspect of social behaviour. Prior research has observed a synchrony-bon... more Synchrony is an important aspect of social behaviour. Prior research has observed a synchrony-bonding effect, suggesting that synchronised action may be an efficient way of creating and maintaining social affiliation. However, most of the theories attempting to explain this synchrony-bonding effect rely upon higher-order social cognition. Relatively little attention has been given to the perceptual experience of synchrony, and the low-level perceptual mechanisms involved. One possible mechanism that could explain some of the effects of synchrony is that of processing fluency. In two pre-registered experiments, we test the novel hypothesis that synchrony (congruent movement) is easier to process than non-synchrony. We find an effect of speed congruency, but not direction congruency, on performance in a Flanker task with animated Gabor patches. The stimuli presented here are continuous vectors, best understood as derivatives of the periodic movement seen in naturalistic stimuli. As such, incongruent speed is most likely to be experienced while perceiving non-synchronised periodic movement, suggesting a greater processing load during the perception of that movement. Crucially, the effect observed here does not rely upon social stimuli, and may operate at an early stage of perceptual processing. This is an initial step in establishing a novel theory of the synchrony-bonding effect, based upon the principles of processing fluency.

The evolution of gender dimorphism in the human voice: The role of octave equivalence

Humans exhibit what appears to be a unique vocal property: octave equivalence whereby adult male ... more Humans exhibit what appears to be a unique vocal property: octave equivalence whereby adult male voices are, on average, an octave lower in pitch than those of adult females and children. The evolutionary significance of this seems largely to have escaped notice. While sexual selection might explain why male voices are generally lower, it cannot explain why they should be so much lower than what would be expected for body size, nor why the average difference should be exactly one octave. Nor does a generalised dimorphism convey why precisely tuned octaves feature so commonly in human vocal interaction. The octave features strongly in the organisation of music. A consequence of this characteristic of human pitch perception and production is the capacity to share and respond to vocal pitches (and their instrumental equivalents) as if they are ‘the same’ irrespective of the difference in range, a phenomenon known as octave equivalence. We investigate the nature of octave equivalence from an adaptive perspective and propose a hypothesis for its evolution based on the importance of chorusing for social bonding and pitch-matching in inter-generational exchange.

Turning Heads on the Dance Floor: Synchrony and Social Interaction Using a Silent Disco Paradigm

Music & Science

Music and dance appear to have a social bonding effect, which some have theorized is part of thei... more Music and dance appear to have a social bonding effect, which some have theorized is part of their ultimate evolutionary function. Prior research has also found a social bonding effect of synchronized movement, and it is possible that interpersonal synchrony could be considered the “active ingredient” in the social bonding consequences of music or dance activity. The present study aimed to separate the effects of synchrony from other factors associated with joint experience of dancing by using a “silent disco” manipulation, in which the timing of a musical stimulus was varied within a dyad in a freestyle dance setting. Three conditions were included: synchrony, tempo-shifted (in which the tempo was stretched by 5% for one participant), and phase-shifted (in which the beat was offset by 90 degrees for one participant). It was found that, when participants were listening to music in time with each other, they gave higher subjective ratings of their experience interacting with their pa...

Simulating musical rotation, contour and notes: perception of (e)motion in nonmusicians

The meaning of music may rely upon perceived motion (Zuckerkandl, 1971). Recently, the framework ... more The meaning of music may rely upon perceived motion (Zuckerkandl, 1971). Recently, the framework of embodied music cognition, which draws on the discovery of mirror neurons and the theory of embodied simulation (Gallese, 2007), makes the claim that our understanding of human-made sounds draws upon our experience of making the same or similar movements and sounds, which involves imitation of the source of visual and auditory information (Cox, 2011). This paper investigates perceived motion and embodied music experience in non-musicians across three musical dimensions: melodic contour (ascending, descending and flat), melodic complexity (low, medium, high) and, following from Hanson and Huron (2019), note pattern (binary, ternary, quaternary). As part of an initiative to adhere to a high aesthetic standard, 27 ten-second piano tracks were created in collaboration with a film composer. In the computer task, participants rated stimuli on a Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) ranging from 0 to 1...

Author Correction: Cochlear SGN neurons elevate pain thresholds in response to music

Scientific Reports, 2022

In the 'General discussion' section, "The fact that SGNs are most dense in the lower part of the ... more In the 'General discussion' section, "The fact that SGNs are most dense in the lower part of the cochlea may explain why bass instruments are so commonly used to provide the rhythmic accompaniment to music. " now reads: "The fact that SGNs are most dense in the apical part of the cochlea may explain why bass instruments are so commonly used to provide the rhythmic accompaniment to music. " The original Article has been corrected.

Kinetic Cross-Modal Correspondences and Felt (e)Motion in a Novel Set of Musical Stimuli

by Anna Kolesnikov and Joshua S Bamford

Music & Science, 2023

Embodied music cognition predicts that our understanding of human-made sounds relates to our expe... more Embodied music cognition predicts that our understanding of human-made sounds relates to our experience of making the same or similar movements and sounds, which involves imitation of the source of visual and auditory information. This embodiment of sound may lead to numerous kinetic cross-modal correspondences (CMCs). This article investigates music experience in participants with a non-professionally trained music background across three musical dimensions: Contour (Ascending, Descending, Flat), Vertical Density (Low, Medium, High), and Note Pattern (Binary, Ternary, Quaternary). In order that stimuli should reflect contemporary musical usage yet be subject to a high degree of experimental control, 27 ten-second digital piano tracks were created in collaboration with a film composer. In Study 1, participants were asked to rate the stimuli for perceived Direction, Rotation, Movement, and Emotional and Physical Involvement. We test the effects of these factors in terms of the following theories: general and vocal embodied responses to music, the Ecological Theory of Rotating Sounds, and the Shared Affective Motion Experience model of emotion induction. Results for Study 1 were consistent with theories of general and vocal embodied responses to music, as well as with theories of embodied emotional contagion in music. Study 1 also revealed potential confounds in the stimuli, which were further investigated in Study 2 with a new set of participants rating the stimuli for perceived Pitch, Loudness, and Speed. Results for Study 2 served to dissociate intrinsic features of the stimuli from CMCs. Taken together, the two studies reveal a range of embodied CMCs. Although there are limitations to a perceptual study such as this, these stimuli stand to benefit future research in further investigating the embodiment of musical motion.

Love songs and serenades: a theoretical review of music and romantic relationships

by Joshua S Bamford, Julia Vigl, and Matias Hämäläinen

Frontiers in Psychology, 2024

In this theoretical review, we examine how the roles of music in mate choice and social bonding a... more In this theoretical review, we examine how the roles of music in mate choice and social bonding are expressed in romantic relationships. Darwin’s Descent of Man originally proposed the idea that musicality might have evolved as a sexually selected trait. This proposition, coupled with the portrayal of popular musicians as sex symbols and the prevalence of love-themed lyrics in music, suggests a possible link between music and attraction. However, recent scientific exploration of the evolutionary functions of music has predominantly focused on theories of social bonding and group signaling, with limited research addressing the sexual selection hypothesis. We identify two distinct types of music-making for these different functions: music for attraction, which would be virtuosic in nature to display physical and cognitive fitness to potential mates; and music for connection, which would facilitate synchrony between partners and likely engage the same reward mechanisms seen in the general synchrony-bonding effect, enhancing perceived interpersonal intimacy as a facet of love. Linking these two musical functions to social psychological theories of relationship development and the components of love, we present a model that outlines the potential roles of music in romantic relationships, from initial attraction to ongoing relationship maintenance. In addition to synthesizing the existing literature, our model serves as a roadmap for empirical research aimed at rigorously investigating the possible functions of music for romantic relationships.

Kinetic Cross-Modal Correspondences and Felt (e)Motion in a Novel Set of Musical Stimuli

Music & Science, 2023

Embodied music cognition predicts that our understanding of human-made sounds relates to our expe... more Embodied music cognition predicts that our understanding of human-made sounds relates to our experience of making the same or similar movements and sounds, which involves imitation of the source of visual and auditory information. This embodiment of sound may lead to numerous kinetic cross-modal correspondences (CMCs). This article investigates music experience in participants with a non-professionally trained music background across three musical dimensions: Contour (Ascending, Descending, Flat), Vertical Density (Low, Medium, High), and Note Pattern (Binary, Ternary, Quaternary). In order that stimuli should reflect contemporary musical usage yet be subject to a high degree of experimental control, 27 ten-second digital piano tracks were created in collaboration with a film composer. In Study 1, participants were asked to rate the stimuli for perceived Direction, Rotation, Movement, and Emotional and Physical Involvement. We test the effects of these factors in terms of the following theories: general and vocal embodied responses to music, the Ecological Theory of Rotating Sounds, and the Shared Affective Motion Experience model of emotion induction. Results for Study 1 were consistent with theories of general and vocal embodied responses to music, as well as with theories of embodied emotional contagion in music. Study 1 also revealed potential confounds in the stimuli, which were further investigated in Study 2 with a new set of participants rating the stimuli for perceived Pitch, Loudness, and Speed. Results for Study 2 served to dissociate intrinsic features of the stimuli from CMCs. Taken together, the two studies reveal a range of embodied CMCs. Although there are limitations to a perceptual study such as this, these stimuli stand to benefit future research in further investigating the embodiment of musical motion.

The Synchrony-Prosociality Link Cannot Be Explained Away as Expectancy Effect: Response to Atwood et al. (2022)

Open Mind, 2023

Moving in time to others, as is often observed in dance, music, sports and much of children's pla... more Moving in time to others, as is often observed in dance, music, sports and much of children's play cross-culturally, is thought to make people feel and act more prosocially towards each other. In a recent paper, Atwood et al. (2022) argued that the inferential validity of this link found between synchronous behaviour and prosociality might be mainly due to "expectancy effects generated by a combination of (1) experimenter expectancy, leading to experimenter bias; and (2) participant expectancy (i.e., placebo effects)". Here, we counter these arguments with (1) examples of studies devoid of experimenter expectancy effects that nevertheless demonstrate a positive link between synchrony and prosociality, and (2) insights from the developmental literature that address participant expectancy by showing how expectations formed through lived experiences of synchronous interactions do not necessarily threaten inferential validity. In conclusion, there is already sufficient good-quality evidence showing the positive effects of synchronous behaviours on prosociality beyond what can be explained by experimenter or participant expectation effects.

Turning Heads on the Dance Floor: Synchrony and Social Interaction Using a Silent Disco Paradigm

Music & Science, 2023

Music and dance appear to have a social bonding effect, which some have theorized is part of thei... more Music and dance appear to have a social bonding effect, which some have theorized is part of their ultimate evolutionary function. Prior research has also found a social bonding effect of synchronized movement, and it is possible that interpersonal synchrony could be considered the "active ingredient" in the social bonding consequences of music or dance activity. The present study aimed to separate the effects of synchrony from other factors associated with joint experience of dancing by using a "silent disco" manipulation, in which the timing of a musical stimulus was varied within a dyad in a freestyle dance setting. Three conditions were included: synchrony, tempo-shifted (in which the tempo was stretched by 5% for one participant), and phase-shifted (in which the beat was offset by 90 degrees for one participant). It was found that, when participants were listening to music in time with each other, they gave higher subjective ratings of their experience interacting with their partner. Participants also were observed looking towards each other more in the synchrony condition, compared with the non-synchrony conditions. From this, it appears that sharing time may contribute to the social effects of joint dancing, independent of any other effects associated with sharing space on the dancefloor. Avenues for further research, and possibilities using this "silent disco" paradigm, are discussed.

Cochlear SGN neurons elevate pain thresholds in response to music

Scientific Reports, 2021

The C-tactile (CLTM) peripheral nervous system is involved in social bonding in primates and huma... more The C-tactile (CLTM) peripheral nervous system is involved in social bonding in primates and humans through its capacity to trigger the brain’s endorphin system. Since the mammalian cochlea has an unusually high density of similar neurons (type-II spiral ganglion neurons, SGNs), we hypothesise that their function may have been exploited for social bonding by co-opting head movements in response to music and other rhythmic movements of the head in social contexts. Music provides one of many cultural behavioural mechanisms for ‘virtual grooming’ in that it is used to trigger the endorphin system with many people simultaneously so as to bond both dyadic relationships and large groups. Changes in pain threshold across an activity are a convenient proxy assay for endorphin uptake in the brain, and we use this, in two experiments, to show that pain thresholds are higher when nodding the head than when sitting still.

A Crowd-Sourced Database of Coronamusic: Documenting Online Making and Sharing of Music During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Frontiers in Psychology, 2021

Dancing to the beat of another: An exploration of empathy and entrainment on the social dance floor

Exploritory study to investigate a possible relationship between the Empathy personality trait an... more

Does singing enhance cooperation more than speaking does? A global experimental Stage 1 Registered Report

The evolution of music, language, and cooperation have been debated since before Darwin. The soci... more The evolution of music, language, and cooperation have been debated since before Darwin. The social bonding hypothesis proposes that these phenomena may be interlinked: musicality may have facilitated the evolution of group cooperation beyond the possibilities of spoken language. Although dozens of experimental studies have shown that synchronised rhythms can promote cooperation, it is unclear whether synchronous singing enhances cooperation relative to spoken language, particularly across diverse societies that differ in their musical/linguistic rhythms and social organisation. Here, we propose a Registered Report to test this hypothesis through a global experiment in diverse languages aiming to collect data from 1500 participants across 50 sites. The social bonding hypothesis predicts that cooperation will increase more after synchronous singing than after spoken (sequential) conversation or (simultaneous) recitation, while alternative hypotheses predict that song will not increase cooperation relative to speech. Regardless of outcome, these results will provide an unprecedented understanding of cross-cultural relationships between music, language, and cooperation.

Love songs and serenades: a theoretical review of music and romantic relationships

Frontiers in psychology, Feb 14, 2024

In this theoretical review, we examine how the roles of music in mate choice and social bonding a... more In this theoretical review, we examine how the roles of music in mate choice and social bonding are expressed in romantic relationships. Darwin's Descent of Man originally proposed the idea that musicality might have evolved as a sexually selected trait. This proposition, coupled with the portrayal of popular musicians as sex symbols and the prevalence of love-themed lyrics in music, suggests a possible link between music and attraction. However, recent scientific exploration of the evolutionary functions of music has predominantly focused on theories of social bonding and group signaling, with limited research addressing the sexual selection hypothesis. We identify two distinct types of music-making for these different functions: music for attraction, which would be virtuosic in nature to display physical and cognitive fitness to potential mates; and music for connection, which would facilitate synchrony between partners and likely engage the same reward mechanisms seen in the general synchronybonding effect, enhancing perceived interpersonal intimacy as a facet of love. Linking these two musical functions to social psychological theories of relationship development and the components of love, we present a model that outlines the potential roles of music in romantic relationships, from initial attraction to ongoing relationship maintenance. In addition to synthesizing the existing literature, our model serves as a roadmap for empirical research aimed at rigorously investigating the possible functions of music for romantic relationships.

Virtual Reality-Assisted Physiotherapy for Visuospatial Neglect Rehabilitation: A Proof-of-Concept Study

arXiv (Cornell University), Dec 18, 2023

Background: Visuospatial neglect (VSN) is a debilitating condition often arising post-stroke, nec... more Background: Visuospatial neglect (VSN) is a debilitating condition often arising post-stroke, necessitating innovative rehabilitation strategies. We propose a virtual reality (VR) task for sensorymotor training in VSN patients, capitalizing on interactive visual and auditory cues to potentially enhance physiotherapy outcomes as well as patient wellbeing. Objectives: The aim in the current study was to (1) develop a VR-based training protocol tailored for VSN patients and (2) evaluate its impact on two individuals with VSN. We investigated the efficacy of visual-audio cues in engaging patients and influencing performance over a series of sessions, alongside assessing goal attainment and patient experience. Methods: A VR task was developed and iteratively refined in collaboration with physiotherapists. An experimental virtual environment was developed featuring a directional visual cue in the form of a ball, and an audio cue. The audio cue preceded the visual cue, serving the purpose of alerting participants to the forthcoming location of the visual stimuli. Participants would then reach and grasp the visual cue to complete the task. Two patients with VSN engaged with the task over 12 sessions, with their performance and feedback recorded. Results: Findings indicate positive patient experiences. Quantitative data shows a downward trend in task completion variability across trials. Moreover, patient feedback reveals that they find the VR task a positive experience, suggesting potential feasibility of the VR approach. Conclusions: The integration of a VR task into VSN physiotherapy shows promising indications, particularly in enhancing patient engagement. The collaboration between developers and clinicians was pivotal in aligning the task with therapeutic goals, underscoring the value of co-design in healthcare technologies. Further research with a larger sample size is essential to substantiate these findings and establish VR's role in VSN rehabilitation. In addition, research focusing on visual impairments and various multimodal disorders may also benefit from utilizing this VR approach.

The Synchrony-Prosociality Link Cannot Be Explained Away as Expectancy Effect: Response to Atwood et al. ()

Open Mind, Dec 31, 2022

Kinetic Cross-Modal Correspondences and Felt (e)Motion in a Novel Set of Musical Stimuli

Music & Science, Dec 31, 2022

Embodied music cognition predicts that our understanding of human-made sounds relates to our expe... more Embodied music cognition predicts that our understanding of human-made sounds relates to our experience of making the same or similar movements and sounds, which involves imitation of the source of visual and auditory information. This embodiment of sound may lead to numerous kinetic cross-modal correspondences (CMCs). This article investigates music experience in participants with a non-professionally trained music background across three musical dimensions: Contour (Ascending, Descending, Flat), Vertical Density (Low, Medium, High), and Note Pattern (Binary, Ternary, Quaternary). In order that stimuli should reflect contemporary musical usage yet be subject to a high degree of experimental control, 27 ten-second digital piano tracks were created in collaboration with a film composer. In Study 1, participants were asked to rate the stimuli for perceived Direction, Rotation, Movement, and Emotional and Physical Involvement. We test the effects of these factors in terms of the following theories: general and vocal embodied responses to music, the Ecological Theory of Rotating Sounds, and the Shared Affective Motion Experience model of emotion induction. Results for Study 1 were consistent with theories of general and vocal embodied responses to music, as well as with theories of embodied emotional contagion in music. Study 1 also revealed potential confounds in the stimuli, which were further investigated in Study 2 with a new set of participants rating the stimuli for perceived Pitch, Loudness, and Speed. Results for Study 2 served to dissociate intrinsic features of the stimuli from CMCs. Taken together, the two studies reveal a range of embodied CMCs. Although there are limitations to a perceptual study such as this, these stimuli stand to benefit future research in further investigating the embodiment of musical motion.

Processing fluency for visual synchrony perception

Prior research has found that interpersonal synchrony increases social closeness and cooperation:... more Prior research has found that interpersonal synchrony increases social closeness and cooperation: this is often referred to as the synchrony-bonding effect. Most explanations for this synchrony-bonding effect rely upon higher-order social cognition (e.g. shared goals or selfother merging). Relatively little attention has been given to the perceptual experience of synchrony, and the low-level perceptual mechanisms involved, such as processing fluency. In two pre-registered experiments, we tested the novel hypothesis that synchrony (congruent movement) is easier to process than non-synchrony. In Study 1, no effect of direction congruency on performance was detected. However, Study 2 found a significant effect of speed congruency. This indicates decreased processing load when stimuli are moving at the same speed. We then discuss how these reduced visual stimuli may relate to naturalistic periodic movement. Crucially, the effect observed here does not rely upon social stimuli and may operate at an early stage of perceptual processing. This is an initial step in establishing a novel theory of the synchrony-bonding effect, based upon the principles of processing fluency.

Trait Empathy associated with Agreeableness and rhythmic entrainment in a spontaneous movement to music task: Preliminary exploratory investigations

Musicae Scientiae, Mar 28, 2017

The simulation theory of empathy suggests that we use motor processing to empathise, through mode... more The simulation theory of empathy suggests that we use motor processing to empathise, through modelling the actions of others. Similarly, research into embodied music cognition posits that music, particularly musical rhythm, is perceived as a motor stimulus. In both cases, the human Mirror Neuron System (MNS) is put forward as a potential underlying mechanism. If this is the case, some overlap may exist between the ability to empathise with others, and the ability to perceive rhythm in music. The present study investigated this relationship indirectly, through the study of individual differences in Trait Empathy and rhythmic entrainment. Undergraduate students (N = 237) completed a questionnaire battery including the EQ-Short, BFAS and questions about musical and dance experience. A relationship was observed between Agreeableness on the BFAS and the EQ-Short (r = .554). Tests on a controlled sample of these participants (n = 11) found a relationship between Trait Empathy and performance on a rhythmic entrainment task, involving spontaneous movement to a musical stimulus (r τ =-.686). A novel measure of rhythmic entrainment was used, assessing each participant on the time taken to re-establish entrainment following an abrupt change in tempo. The findings suggest that Empathy and rhythmic entrainment may utilise similar brain regions. These regions may also be associated with the MNS, although neuroimaging data would be required to confirm this. Qualitative observations of the participants' responses to the various musical stimuli were also recorded, and may inform future study. Furthermore, the observed relationship between Agreeableness and Trait Empathy may have implications for how these personality constructs are treated in the literature.

Processing fluency for visual synchrony perception

Synchrony is an important aspect of social behaviour. Prior research has observed a synchrony-bon... more Synchrony is an important aspect of social behaviour. Prior research has observed a synchrony-bonding effect, suggesting that synchronised action may be an efficient way of creating and maintaining social affiliation. However, most of the theories attempting to explain this synchrony-bonding effect rely upon higher-order social cognition. Relatively little attention has been given to the perceptual experience of synchrony, and the low-level perceptual mechanisms involved. One possible mechanism that could explain some of the effects of synchrony is that of processing fluency. In two pre-registered experiments, we test the novel hypothesis that synchrony (congruent movement) is easier to process than non-synchrony. We find an effect of speed congruency, but not direction congruency, on performance in a Flanker task with animated Gabor patches. The stimuli presented here are continuous vectors, best understood as derivatives of the periodic movement seen in naturalistic stimuli. As such, incongruent speed is most likely to be experienced while perceiving non-synchronised periodic movement, suggesting a greater processing load during the perception of that movement. Crucially, the effect observed here does not rely upon social stimuli, and may operate at an early stage of perceptual processing. This is an initial step in establishing a novel theory of the synchrony-bonding effect, based upon the principles of processing fluency.

The evolution of gender dimorphism in the human voice: The role of octave equivalence

Humans exhibit what appears to be a unique vocal property: octave equivalence whereby adult male ... more Humans exhibit what appears to be a unique vocal property: octave equivalence whereby adult male voices are, on average, an octave lower in pitch than those of adult females and children. The evolutionary significance of this seems largely to have escaped notice. While sexual selection might explain why male voices are generally lower, it cannot explain why they should be so much lower than what would be expected for body size, nor why the average difference should be exactly one octave. Nor does a generalised dimorphism convey why precisely tuned octaves feature so commonly in human vocal interaction. The octave features strongly in the organisation of music. A consequence of this characteristic of human pitch perception and production is the capacity to share and respond to vocal pitches (and their instrumental equivalents) as if they are ‘the same’ irrespective of the difference in range, a phenomenon known as octave equivalence. We investigate the nature of octave equivalence from an adaptive perspective and propose a hypothesis for its evolution based on the importance of chorusing for social bonding and pitch-matching in inter-generational exchange.

Turning Heads on the Dance Floor: Synchrony and Social Interaction Using a Silent Disco Paradigm

Music & Science

Music and dance appear to have a social bonding effect, which some have theorized is part of thei... more Music and dance appear to have a social bonding effect, which some have theorized is part of their ultimate evolutionary function. Prior research has also found a social bonding effect of synchronized movement, and it is possible that interpersonal synchrony could be considered the “active ingredient” in the social bonding consequences of music or dance activity. The present study aimed to separate the effects of synchrony from other factors associated with joint experience of dancing by using a “silent disco” manipulation, in which the timing of a musical stimulus was varied within a dyad in a freestyle dance setting. Three conditions were included: synchrony, tempo-shifted (in which the tempo was stretched by 5% for one participant), and phase-shifted (in which the beat was offset by 90 degrees for one participant). It was found that, when participants were listening to music in time with each other, they gave higher subjective ratings of their experience interacting with their pa...

Simulating musical rotation, contour and notes: perception of (e)motion in nonmusicians

The meaning of music may rely upon perceived motion (Zuckerkandl, 1971). Recently, the framework ... more The meaning of music may rely upon perceived motion (Zuckerkandl, 1971). Recently, the framework of embodied music cognition, which draws on the discovery of mirror neurons and the theory of embodied simulation (Gallese, 2007), makes the claim that our understanding of human-made sounds draws upon our experience of making the same or similar movements and sounds, which involves imitation of the source of visual and auditory information (Cox, 2011). This paper investigates perceived motion and embodied music experience in non-musicians across three musical dimensions: melodic contour (ascending, descending and flat), melodic complexity (low, medium, high) and, following from Hanson and Huron (2019), note pattern (binary, ternary, quaternary). As part of an initiative to adhere to a high aesthetic standard, 27 ten-second piano tracks were created in collaboration with a film composer. In the computer task, participants rated stimuli on a Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) ranging from 0 to 1...

Author Correction: Cochlear SGN neurons elevate pain thresholds in response to music

Scientific Reports, 2022

In the 'General discussion' section, "The fact that SGNs are most dense in the lower part of the ... more In the 'General discussion' section, "The fact that SGNs are most dense in the lower part of the cochlea may explain why bass instruments are so commonly used to provide the rhythmic accompaniment to music. " now reads: "The fact that SGNs are most dense in the apical part of the cochlea may explain why bass instruments are so commonly used to provide the rhythmic accompaniment to music. " The original Article has been corrected.

Kinetic Cross-Modal Correspondences and Felt (e)Motion in a Novel Set of Musical Stimuli

by Anna Kolesnikov and Joshua S Bamford

Music & Science, 2023

Embodied music cognition predicts that our understanding of human-made sounds relates to our expe... more Embodied music cognition predicts that our understanding of human-made sounds relates to our experience of making the same or similar movements and sounds, which involves imitation of the source of visual and auditory information. This embodiment of sound may lead to numerous kinetic cross-modal correspondences (CMCs). This article investigates music experience in participants with a non-professionally trained music background across three musical dimensions: Contour (Ascending, Descending, Flat), Vertical Density (Low, Medium, High), and Note Pattern (Binary, Ternary, Quaternary). In order that stimuli should reflect contemporary musical usage yet be subject to a high degree of experimental control, 27 ten-second digital piano tracks were created in collaboration with a film composer. In Study 1, participants were asked to rate the stimuli for perceived Direction, Rotation, Movement, and Emotional and Physical Involvement. We test the effects of these factors in terms of the following theories: general and vocal embodied responses to music, the Ecological Theory of Rotating Sounds, and the Shared Affective Motion Experience model of emotion induction. Results for Study 1 were consistent with theories of general and vocal embodied responses to music, as well as with theories of embodied emotional contagion in music. Study 1 also revealed potential confounds in the stimuli, which were further investigated in Study 2 with a new set of participants rating the stimuli for perceived Pitch, Loudness, and Speed. Results for Study 2 served to dissociate intrinsic features of the stimuli from CMCs. Taken together, the two studies reveal a range of embodied CMCs. Although there are limitations to a perceptual study such as this, these stimuli stand to benefit future research in further investigating the embodiment of musical motion.

Love songs and serenades: a theoretical review of music and romantic relationships

by Joshua S Bamford, Julia Vigl, and Matias Hämäläinen

Frontiers in Psychology, 2024

In this theoretical review, we examine how the roles of music in mate choice and social bonding a... more In this theoretical review, we examine how the roles of music in mate choice and social bonding are expressed in romantic relationships. Darwin’s Descent of Man originally proposed the idea that musicality might have evolved as a sexually selected trait. This proposition, coupled with the portrayal of popular musicians as sex symbols and the prevalence of love-themed lyrics in music, suggests a possible link between music and attraction. However, recent scientific exploration of the evolutionary functions of music has predominantly focused on theories of social bonding and group signaling, with limited research addressing the sexual selection hypothesis. We identify two distinct types of music-making for these different functions: music for attraction, which would be virtuosic in nature to display physical and cognitive fitness to potential mates; and music for connection, which would facilitate synchrony between partners and likely engage the same reward mechanisms seen in the general synchrony-bonding effect, enhancing perceived interpersonal intimacy as a facet of love. Linking these two musical functions to social psychological theories of relationship development and the components of love, we present a model that outlines the potential roles of music in romantic relationships, from initial attraction to ongoing relationship maintenance. In addition to synthesizing the existing literature, our model serves as a roadmap for empirical research aimed at rigorously investigating the possible functions of music for romantic relationships.

Kinetic Cross-Modal Correspondences and Felt (e)Motion in a Novel Set of Musical Stimuli

Music & Science, 2023

Embodied music cognition predicts that our understanding of human-made sounds relates to our expe... more Embodied music cognition predicts that our understanding of human-made sounds relates to our experience of making the same or similar movements and sounds, which involves imitation of the source of visual and auditory information. This embodiment of sound may lead to numerous kinetic cross-modal correspondences (CMCs). This article investigates music experience in participants with a non-professionally trained music background across three musical dimensions: Contour (Ascending, Descending, Flat), Vertical Density (Low, Medium, High), and Note Pattern (Binary, Ternary, Quaternary). In order that stimuli should reflect contemporary musical usage yet be subject to a high degree of experimental control, 27 ten-second digital piano tracks were created in collaboration with a film composer. In Study 1, participants were asked to rate the stimuli for perceived Direction, Rotation, Movement, and Emotional and Physical Involvement. We test the effects of these factors in terms of the following theories: general and vocal embodied responses to music, the Ecological Theory of Rotating Sounds, and the Shared Affective Motion Experience model of emotion induction. Results for Study 1 were consistent with theories of general and vocal embodied responses to music, as well as with theories of embodied emotional contagion in music. Study 1 also revealed potential confounds in the stimuli, which were further investigated in Study 2 with a new set of participants rating the stimuli for perceived Pitch, Loudness, and Speed. Results for Study 2 served to dissociate intrinsic features of the stimuli from CMCs. Taken together, the two studies reveal a range of embodied CMCs. Although there are limitations to a perceptual study such as this, these stimuli stand to benefit future research in further investigating the embodiment of musical motion.

The Synchrony-Prosociality Link Cannot Be Explained Away as Expectancy Effect: Response to Atwood et al. (2022)

Open Mind, 2023

Moving in time to others, as is often observed in dance, music, sports and much of children's pla... more Moving in time to others, as is often observed in dance, music, sports and much of children's play cross-culturally, is thought to make people feel and act more prosocially towards each other. In a recent paper, Atwood et al. (2022) argued that the inferential validity of this link found between synchronous behaviour and prosociality might be mainly due to "expectancy effects generated by a combination of (1) experimenter expectancy, leading to experimenter bias; and (2) participant expectancy (i.e., placebo effects)". Here, we counter these arguments with (1) examples of studies devoid of experimenter expectancy effects that nevertheless demonstrate a positive link between synchrony and prosociality, and (2) insights from the developmental literature that address participant expectancy by showing how expectations formed through lived experiences of synchronous interactions do not necessarily threaten inferential validity. In conclusion, there is already sufficient good-quality evidence showing the positive effects of synchronous behaviours on prosociality beyond what can be explained by experimenter or participant expectation effects.

Turning Heads on the Dance Floor: Synchrony and Social Interaction Using a Silent Disco Paradigm

Music & Science, 2023

Music and dance appear to have a social bonding effect, which some have theorized is part of thei... more Music and dance appear to have a social bonding effect, which some have theorized is part of their ultimate evolutionary function. Prior research has also found a social bonding effect of synchronized movement, and it is possible that interpersonal synchrony could be considered the "active ingredient" in the social bonding consequences of music or dance activity. The present study aimed to separate the effects of synchrony from other factors associated with joint experience of dancing by using a "silent disco" manipulation, in which the timing of a musical stimulus was varied within a dyad in a freestyle dance setting. Three conditions were included: synchrony, tempo-shifted (in which the tempo was stretched by 5% for one participant), and phase-shifted (in which the beat was offset by 90 degrees for one participant). It was found that, when participants were listening to music in time with each other, they gave higher subjective ratings of their experience interacting with their partner. Participants also were observed looking towards each other more in the synchrony condition, compared with the non-synchrony conditions. From this, it appears that sharing time may contribute to the social effects of joint dancing, independent of any other effects associated with sharing space on the dancefloor. Avenues for further research, and possibilities using this "silent disco" paradigm, are discussed.

Cochlear SGN neurons elevate pain thresholds in response to music

Scientific Reports, 2021

The C-tactile (CLTM) peripheral nervous system is involved in social bonding in primates and huma... more The C-tactile (CLTM) peripheral nervous system is involved in social bonding in primates and humans through its capacity to trigger the brain’s endorphin system. Since the mammalian cochlea has an unusually high density of similar neurons (type-II spiral ganglion neurons, SGNs), we hypothesise that their function may have been exploited for social bonding by co-opting head movements in response to music and other rhythmic movements of the head in social contexts. Music provides one of many cultural behavioural mechanisms for ‘virtual grooming’ in that it is used to trigger the endorphin system with many people simultaneously so as to bond both dyadic relationships and large groups. Changes in pain threshold across an activity are a convenient proxy assay for endorphin uptake in the brain, and we use this, in two experiments, to show that pain thresholds are higher when nodding the head than when sitting still.

A Crowd-Sourced Database of Coronamusic: Documenting Online Making and Sharing of Music During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Frontiers in Psychology, 2021

Dancing to the beat of another: An exploration of empathy and entrainment on the social dance floor

Exploritory study to investigate a possible relationship between the Empathy personality trait an... more

Are We Dancing to the Same Beat? Empathy and Interpersonal Synchronisation in the Silent Disco

Previous studies have begun to examine the role of movement in music for conveying emotions, whil... more Previous studies have begun to examine the role of movement in music for conveying emotions, while some finger tapping studies have found that synchronisation increases interpersonal affiliation. However, music and movement studies have focused on individuals and comparatively few studies have involved participants in a joint setting. The aim of the proposed research is to examine the importance of synchronisation in a dance setting for building interpersonal affiliation. This is tested using a Silent Disco scenario, in which participants hear the music in slightly different timing to each other. Participants are drawn from the population of a Finnish university, and measured on the Big Five. One of each pair hears the original track, while their partner hears it either: unchanged (the synchronised condition), time-shifted by a quarter beat, or with a slightly stretched tempo. Subjective measures of enjoyment and affiliation were used to compare conditions, revealing that pairs subjectively rated their interaction as better when in the synchronised condition, although there was no effect on subjective enjoyment. Three styles of coping with asynchrony were observed, and these may be explained by personality differences. Furthermore, an association was observed between the Agreeableness trait and giving a positive rating to partner interaction in the Synchronised condition, indicating that high Agreeableness may predispose one to be more attuned to interpersonal synchrony. This study may provide new insights into the role of synchronisation in social dancing as it suggests that shared experiences create a greater sense of affiliation when shared in time.

Moving in Character: a pilot study into Music, Movement and Empathy

Social bonding happens in time: Interpersonal synchronisation in the silent disco

University of Jyväskylä, 2017

Dance is a fundamentally social activity. Studies have begun to examine the role of movement in m... more Dance is a fundamentally social activity. Studies have begun to examine the role of movement in music for conveying emotional states, potentially revealing a useful mechanism for the communication of emotions, while other studies have found that joint synchrony increases interpersonal affiliation. However, music and movement studies have focused on individuals and comparatively few studies have involved multiple simultaneous participants. The aim of the proposed research is to examine the importance of synchrony in a dance setting for building interpersonal affiliation. This was tested using a Silent Disco scenario, in which participants heard the music in slightly different timing to each other. Participants were drawn from the population of a Finnish university, and were able to self-select partners. In a within-subjects design, it was found that pairs experienced a greater sense of interpersonal affiliation while in the synchronous condition than in the asynchronous conditions. Self-reported results were supported by behavioural measurements of interpersonal affiliation. Further analysis found a positive relationship between Trait Agreeableness and self-reported affiliation in the synchronous condition. These findings are discussed in the context of current research around synchrony and social bonding, and provide new insights into the role of synchrony in social dancing or therapeutic settings. It may be concluded that shared experiences are more effective at bringing us together when they are shared in time.

Moving in Character: investigating the relationship between music, movement and empathy

University of Western Australia, Nov 3, 2013

Music is an embodied experience. It has been suggested that a Mirror Neuron System exists in the ... more Music is an embodied experience. It has been suggested that a Mirror Neuron System exists in the Motor Cortex, and is activated when imitating others as well as when listening to music. This Mirror Neuron System may also serve as the underlying physiological mechanism behind empathy. The present study aimed to investigate this relationship through the study of individual differences. Undergraduate students completed a questionnaire battery including the EQ-Short, BFAS and questions about musical and dance experience. Tests on a matched sample of these participants found a relationship between Trait Empathy and performance on a rhythmic entrainment task, involving dancing to a musical stimulus. Qualitative observations and interviews further investigated the relationship between music and dance. Implications are discussed in terms of Music Education and Music Therapy. Furthermore, the findings of the present study are put into an evolutionary context, proposing that the development of empathy may have enabled primitive emotional communication through music and movement, which may then have evolved into the spoken language we have today. It is suggested that empathy is the key trait underpinning all communication. At the core of both music and dance is our ability to empathise.

Social bonding through processing fluency for interpersonal synchronisation

University of Oxford, 2022

It has often been observed that people like each other more after synchronising actions. This is ... more It has often been observed that people like each other more after synchronising actions. This is referred to as the synchrony-bonding effect and it has been observed in a wide variety of settings – from dance to rowing. It has been suggested that music may have evolved alongside human rhythmic abilities in order to support synchronised action to promote social bonding and group cohesion. However, the precise cognitive mechanisms underpinning the synchrony-bonding effect remain opaque.

This thesis aims to bring new insights to the synchrony-bonding effect by testing a novel hypothesis: that the social bonding effects of synchrony arise from processing fluency. To do so, I bring together the general literature on processing fluency as it applies to perceptual preferences and aesthetic judgements, together with existing studies of interpersonal synchrony. I then conduct three empirical studies using novel experimental designs to test the fluency through synchrony hypothesis. Study 1 found that synchrony reduces processing load on a simple visual perception task, when compared with non-synchrony. Study 2 found that synchrony reduces processing load when participating in a rhythmic tapping task, when compared with non-synchrony. Study 3 built upon Study 2 and found that perceived difficulty of a rhythmic tapping task mediated the social bonding effects of synchrony.

These studies reframe synchrony as a means for reducing processing load, which could explain the synchrony-bonding effect as being an effect of processing fluency, rather than of synchrony per se. Thus, the act of synchronising may be considered an act of making oneself easier to process. I discuss these findings in the context of the broader synchrony-bonding literature, consider the implications for the evolution of rhythmic abilities, and attempt to highlight the importance of understanding synchrony in an increasingly de-synchronised world.