Simultaneous source testing and boundary line testing were conducted at an operating cotton gin i... more Simultaneous source testing and boundary line testing were conducted at an operating cotton gin in the San Joaquin Valley, California. Results of the simultaneous testing were compared regarding their indication of compliance with air pollution regulations and standards.
Agricultural operations across the United States are encountering difficulties complying with cur... more Agricultural operations across the United States are encountering difficulties complying with current air pollution regulations for particulate matter (PM). PM is currently regulated in terms of particle diameters less than or equal to a nominal 10 µm (PM 10 ); however, current legislation is underway to regulate PM with diameters less than or equal to a nominal 2.5 µm (PM 2.5 ). The goals of this research were to determine the biases and uncertainties associated with current PM 10 and PM 2.5 sampling methods and to determine the extent to which these errors may impact the determination of cotton gin emission factors.
Agricultural operations across the United States are encountering difficulties in complying with ... more Agricultural operations across the United States are encountering difficulties in complying with the current air pollution regulations for particulate matter (PM). Cotton gins are most frequently regulated based on results obtained from dispersion modeling that utilize emission factors from EPA's 1996 AP-42 or emission factors derived from source sampling. PM10 emission factors are typically determined from source sampling based on
This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stac... more This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stack sampling. The impetus behind this project was the urgent need to collect additional cotton gin emissions data to address current regulatory issues. A key component of this study was focused on EPA emission factors for particulate matter with a particle diameter nominally less than or equal to 10 µm (PM 10 ). The 1996 EPA AP-42 emission factors were assigned quality ratings, from A (Excellent) to E (Poor), to assess the quality of the data being referenced.
This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stac... more This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stack sampling. In 2006, EPA finalized and published a more stringent standard for particulate matter with nominal diameter less than or equal to 2.5 µm (PM 2.5 ). This created an urgent need to collect additional cotton gin emissions data to address current regulatory issues, because current EPA AP-42 cotton gin PM 2.5 emission factors did not exist. The objective of this study was the development of PM 2.5 emission factors for cotton gin combined lint cleaning systems based on the EPAapproved stack sampling methodology, Method 201A. The project plan included sampling seven cotton gins across the cotton belt. Key factors for selecting specific cotton gins included: 1) facility location (geographically diverse), 2) industry representative production capacity, 3) typical processing systems, and 4) equipped with properly designed and maintained 1D3D cyclones. Three of the seven gins had 1 st and 2 nd stage lint cleaning systems where the exhaust airstreams were combined. In terms of capacity, the three gins were typical of the industry, averaging 33.6 bales/h during testing. Some test runs were excluded from the test averages because they failed to meet EPA Method 201A test criteria. Also, other test runs included in the analyses had cotton lint fibers that collected in the ≤ 10 µm and/or ≤ 2.5 µm samples. This larger lint material can impact the reported emissions data, but EPA Method 201A does not suggest methods to account for these anomalies. Average measured combined lint cleaning system PM 2.5 emission factor based on the three tests (nine total test runs) was 0.014 kg/227-kg bale (0.030 lb/500-lb bale). The combined lint cleaning system average emission factors for PM 10 and total particulate were 0.128 kg/bale (0.281 lb/bale) and 0.233 kg/bale (0.513 lb/bale), respectively. The combined lint cleaning system PM 2.5 emission rate from test averages ranged from 0.17 to 0.80 kg/h (0.37-1.75 lb/h). System average PM 10 emission factors were higher and system average total particulate emission factors were lower than those currently published in EPA AP-42. The ratios of combined lint cleaning system PM 2.5 to total particulate, PM 2.5 to PM 10 , and PM 10 to total particulate were 5.9, 10.8, and 54.8%, respectively.
Agricultural operations across the United States are encountering difficulties in complying with ... more Agricultural operations across the United States are encountering difficulties in complying with the current air pollution regulations for particulate matter (PM). The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for PM in terms of PM 2.5 , are ambient air concentration limits set by EPA that should not be exceeded. Further, State Air Pollution Regulatory Agencies (SAPRA's) utilize the NAAQS to regulate criteria pollutants emitted by industries by applying the NAAQS as property line concentration limit. The primary NAAQS are health-based standards and therefore, an exceedance implies that it is likely that there will be adverse health effects for the public. Since the proposal of the PM 2.5 regulation, numerous journal articles and technical references have been written to discuss the epidemiological effects, trends, regulation, methods of determining PM 2.5 , etc. A common trend among many of these publications is the use of samplers to collect information on PM 2.5 . All too often, the sampler data are assumed to be an accurate measure of PM 2.5 . The fact is that issues such as sampler uncertainties, environmental conditions, and material characteristics for which the sampler is measuring must be incorporated for accurate sampler measurements. The focus of this manuscript is on the errors associated with the particle size distribution (PSD) characteristics of the material in the air that is being sampled, sampler performance characteristics, the interaction between these two characteristics, and the effect of this interaction on the regulatory process. Theoretical simulations were conducted to determine the range of errors associated with this interaction for the PM 2.5 sampler. Results from these simulations indicated that a source emitting PM characterized by a mass median diameter (MMD) of 20 µm and a geometric standard deviation (GSD) of 1.5 could be forced to comply with a 14 times more stringent regulation than a source emitting PM characterized by a MMD of 10 µm and a GSD of 1.5. Therefore, in order to achieve equal regulation among differing industries, PM 2.5 measurements MUST be based on true concentration measurements.
The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for particulate matter (PM) in terms of PM 2.5... more The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for particulate matter (PM) in terms of PM 2.5 are ambient air concentration limits set by the EPA to protect public health and well-being. Further, some state air pollution regulatory agencies (SAPRAs) utilize the NAAQS to regulate criteria pollutants emitted by industries by applying the NAAQS as property-line concentration limits. Prior to and since the inclusion of the PM 2.5 standard, numerous journal articles and technical references have been written to discuss the epidemiological effects, trends, regulation, and methods of determining PM 2.5 . A common trend among many of these publications is the use of samplers to collect PM 2.5 concentration data. Often, the sampler data are assumed to be accurate concentration measures of PM 2.5 . The fact is that issues such as sampler uncertainties, environmental conditions, and characteristics of the material that the sampler is measuring must be incorporated for accurate sampler measurements. The focus of this article is on the errors associated with particle size distribution (PSD) characteristics of the material in the air that is being sampled, the PM 2.5 sampler performance characteristics, the interaction between these two characteristics, and the effect of this interaction on the regulatory process. Theoretical simulations were conducted to determine the range of errors associated with this interaction for the PM 2.5 ambient air samplers. Results from the PM 2.5 simulations indicated that a source emitting PM characterized by a mass median diameter (MMD) of 20 mm and a geometric standard deviation (GSD) of 1.5 could be forced to comply with a PM 2.5 standard that is 14 times more stringent than that required for a source emitting PM characterized by an MMD of 10 mm and a GSD of 1.5, and 59 times more stringent than that required for a source emitting PM characterized by an MMD of 5.7 mm and a GSD of 1.5. Therefore, in order to achieve equal regulation among differing industries, PM 2.5 measurements must be based on true concentration measurements.
Cyclones are a common air pollution abatement device for separating particulate matter (PM) from ... more Cyclones are a common air pollution abatement device for separating particulate matter (PM) from air streams in industrial processes. Several mathematical models have been proposed to predict the performance of cyclones as cyclone diameter varies. The objective of this research was to determine the relationship between cyclone diameter and collection efficiency based on empirical data and to compare the results to those of four mathematical models. Tests were performed comparing cyclone collection efficiency of 15.24, 30.48, 60.96, and 91.44 cm (6, 12, 24, and 36 in.) diameter cyclones with poly-disperse PM having an aerodynamic mass median diameter (MMD) near 10 mm. The PM chosen for this study was selected to magnify any differences in cyclone collection efficiency due to differences in cyclone barrel diameter. The mass of PM collected by the cyclones and the mass of PM that penetrated the cyclones was used to determine the collection efficiency of each cyclone. The collection efficiency of cyclones decreased nonlinearly as cyclone diameter increased, with statistically different collection efficiencies observed among the 30.48, 60.96, and 91.44 cm (12, 24, and 36 in.) diameter cyclones. None of the mathematical models analyzed in this article accurately predicted cyclone efficiency.
This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stac... more This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stack sampling. In 2006, EPA finalized and published a more stringent standard for particulate matter with nominal diameter less than or equal to 2.5 µm (PM 2.5 ). This created an urgent need to collect additional cotton gin emissions data to address current regulatory issues, because current EPA AP-42 cotton gin PM 2.5 emission factors did not exist. The objective of this study was the development of PM 2.5 emission factors for cotton gin unloading systems based on the EPAapproved stack sampling methodology, Method 201A. The project plan included sampling seven cotton gins across the cotton belt. Key factors for selecting specific cotton gins included: 1) facility location (geographically diverse), 2) industry representative production capacity, 3) typical processing systems and 4) equipped with properly designed and maintained 1D3D cyclones. Three of the seven gins had unloading systems that used pneumatic conveyance and had exhaust airstreams that were not combined with another system. In terms of capacity, the three gins were typical of the industry, averaging 24.2 bales/h during testing. Average measured unloading system PM 2.5 emission factor based on the three tests (8 total test runs) was 0.022 kg/227-kg bale (0.049 lb/500-lb bale). The unloading system average emission factors for PM 10 and total particulate were 0.071 kg/bale (0.157 lb/bale) and 0.120 kg/bale (0.265 lb/bale), respectively. The unloading system PM 2.5 emission rate from test averages ranged from 0.35 to 0.71 kg/h (0.76-1.56 lb/h). System average PM 10 emission factors were higher and system average total particulate emission factors were lower than those currently published in EPA AP-42. The ratios of unloading system PM 2.5 to total particulate, PM 2.5 to PM 10 , and PM 10 to total particulate were 18.4, 31.0, and 59.4%, respectively. cotton ginning associations across the country and state and federal regulatory agencies, Oklahoma State University and USDA-Agricultural Research Service (ARS) researchers developed a proposal and sampling plan that was initiated in 2008 to address this need for additional data. This report is part of a series that detail cotton gin particulate emissions measured by stack sampling. Each manuscript in the series addresses a specific cotton ginning system. The systems covered in the series include: unloading, 1 st stage seed-cotton cleaning, 2 nd stage seed-cotton cleaning, 3 rd stage seed-cotton cleaning, overflow, 1 st stage lint cleaning, 2 nd stage lint cleaning, combined lint cleaning, cyclone robber, 1 st stage mote, 2 nd stage mote, combined mote, mote cyclone robber, mote cleaner, mote trash, battery condenser, and master trash. This report focuses on PM 2.5 emissions from unloading systems.
This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stac... more This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stack sampling. In 2006, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) finalized and published a more stringent standard for particulate matter with nominal diameter less than or equal to 2.5 µm (PM 2.5 ). This created an urgent need to collect additional cotton gin emissions data to address current regulatory issues, because current EPA AP-42 cotton gin PM 2.5 emission factors did not exist. The objective of this study is the development of PM 2.5 emission factors for cotton gin mote trash systems based on the EPAapproved stack sampling methodology, Method 201A. The project plan included sampling seven cotton gins across the Cotton Belt. Two of the seven gins had mote trash systems where the exhaust airstreams were not combined with other major systems. In terms of capacity, the two gins were typical of the industry, averaging 25.1 bales/h during testing. Some test runs were excluded from the test averages because they failed to meet EPA Method 201A Test criteria. Also, other test runs, included in the analyses, had cotton lint fibers that collected in the ≤ 10 µm and/or ≤ 2.5 µm samples. This larger lint material can impact the reported emissions data, but EPA Method 201A does not suggest methods to account for these anomalies. Average measured mote trash system PM 2.5 emission factor based on the two tests (six total test runs) was 0.0011 kg/227-kg bale (0.0024 lb/500-lb bale). The mote trash system emission factors for PM 10 and total particulate were 0.0094 kg/ bale (0.021 lb/bale) and 0.017 kg/bale (0.038 lb/ bale), respectively. The mote trash system PM 2.5 emission rate from test averages ranged from 0.025 to 0.03 kg/h (0.055-0.066 lb/h). System average PM 10 and total particulate emission factors were lower than those currently published in EPA AP-42. The ratios of mote trash system PM 2.5 to total particulate, PM 2.5 to PM 10 , and PM 10 to total particulate were 6.4, 11.7, and 54.5%, respectively.
This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stac... more This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stack sampling. In 2006, EPA finalized and published a more stringent standard for particulate matter with nominal diameter less than or equal to 2.5 µm (PM 2.5 ). This created an urgent need to collect additional cotton gin emissions data to address current regulatory issues, because current EPA AP-42 cotton gin PM 2.5 emission factors did not exist. The objective of this study was the development of PM 2.5 emission factors for cotton gin mote cleaner systems based on the EPAapproved stack sampling methodology, Method 201A. The project plan included sampling seven cotton gins across the cotton belt. Key factors for selecting specific cotton gins included: 1) facility location (geographically diverse), 2) industry representative production capacity, 3) typical processing systems and 4) equipped with properly designed and maintained 1D3D cyclones. Two of the seven gins had mote cleaner systems. The exhaust from one of the mote cleaner systems was combined with the module feeder dust system. The ginning rate of the two gins averaged 35.1 and 47.6 bales/h during testing for the stand alone mote cleaner system and mote cleaner and module feeder dust system, respectively. Some test runs were excluded from the test averages because they failed to meet EPA Method 201A Test criteria. Also, other test runs, included in the analyses, had cotton lint fibers that collected in the ≤ 10 µm and/or ≤ 2.5 µm samples. This larger lint material can impact the reported emissions data, but EPA Method 201A does not suggest methods to account for these anomalies. Average measured mote cleaner system PM 2.5 and total particulate emission factors for the stand alone mote cleaner system were 0.0036 kg/227-kg bale (0.0079 lb/500-lb bale) and 0.065 kg/bale (0.14 lb/bale). The average total particulate emission factor for the stand alone mote cleaner system was lower than those currently published in EPA AP-42 for similar systems. The ratio of mote cleaner system PM 2.5 to total particulate was 5.5%. Average measured PM 2.5 emission factors for the mote cleaner system combined with the module feeder dust system was 0.022 kg/bale (0.050 lb/bale). Point 1 Ø: 2.27 pMd: 28.84 pQs: 0.40619 Input Nd: 0.180 Vn ft/sec: 38.31 pMs: 28.62¯H + 50 °F: 0.386 Closest Nd: 0.180 Delta H: 0.460 Ps in Hg: 30.04¯p min + 50°F: 0.184 V ft/sec min: 25.65 Ø: 24.0 pVs, ft/sec: 38.10¯p max + 50°F: 0.673 V ft/sec max: 49.06 Dwell Time Const. 2.88 Stack Area pSa: 5.24¯H -50 °F: 0.557¯p min: 0.201 Meter Volume: 9.3
This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stac... more This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stack sampling. In 2006, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) finalized and published a more stringent standard for particulate matter with nominal diameter less than or equal to 2.5 µm (PM 2.5 ). This created an urgent need to collect additional cotton gin emissions data to address current regulatory issues, because current EPA AP-42 cotton gin PM 2.5 emission factors did not exist. The objective of this study was the development of PM 2.5 emission factors for cotton gin master trash systems based on the EPAapproved stack sampling methodology, Method 201A. The project plan included sampling seven cotton gins across the Cotton Belt. Five of the seven gins had master trash systems. In terms of capacity, the five gins were typical of the industry, averaging 37.1 bales/h during testing. Some test runs were excluded from the test averages because they failed to meet EPA Method 201A test criteria. Also, other test runs, included in the analyses, had cotton lint fibers that collected in the ≤ 10 µm and/or ≤ 2.5 µm samples. This larger lint material can impact the reported emissions data, but EPA Method 201A does not suggest methods to account for these anomalies. Average measured master trash system PM 2.5 emission factor based on the five tests (13 total test runs) was 0.0042 kg/227-kg bale (0.0093 lb/500-lb bale). The master trash system average emission factors for PM 10 and total particulate were 0.036 kg/bale (0.080 lb/bale) and 0.143 kg/bale (0.314 lb/bale), respectively. The master trash system PM 2.5 emission rate from test averages ranged from 0.081 to 0.33 kg/h (0.18-0.73 lb/h). System average PM 10 emission factors were higher and system average total particulate emission factors were lower than those currently published in EPA AP-42. The ratios of master trash system PM 2.5 to total particulate, PM 2.5 to PM 10 , and PM 10 to total particulate were 2.9, 11.5, and 25.5%, respectively.
This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stac... more This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stack sampling. The impetus behind this project was the urgent need to collect cotton gin emissions data to address current regulatory issues. A key component of this study was focused on EPA emission factors for particulate matter with a particle diameter nominally less than or equal to 10 µm (PM 10 ). The 1996 EPA AP-42 emission factors were assigned quality ratings, from A (Excellent) to E (Poor), to assess the quality of the data being referenced. Emission factor quality ratings for cotton gins are extremely low. Also, some commonly used cotton gin systems were not represented or were combined with another system under a single emission factor in AP-42. There were no 1996 EPA AP-42 emission factors published for 2 nd stage mote systems.
This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stac... more This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stack sampling. The impetus behind this project was the urgent need to collect additional cotton gin emissions data to address current regulatory issues. A key component of this study was focused on EPA emission factors for particulate matter with a particle diameter nominally less than or equal to 10 µm (PM 10 ). The 1996 EPA AP-42 emission factors were assigned quality ratings, from A (Excellent) to E (Poor), to assess the quality of the data being referenced.
This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stac... more This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stack sampling. The impetus behind this project was the urgent need to collect additional cotton gin emissions data to address current regulatory issues. A key component of this study was focused on EPA emission factors for particulate matter with a particle diameter nominally less than or equal to 10 µm (PM 10 ). The 1996 EPA AP-42 emission factors were assigned quality ratings, from A (Excellent) to E (Poor), to assess the quality of the data being referenced. Emission factor quality ratings for cotton gins were extremely low. Cotton gin data received these low ratings because they were collected almost exclusively from a single geographical region. The objective of this study was to collect additional PM 10 emission factor data for master trash systems at cotton gins located in regions across the cotton belt based on EPA-approved stack sampling methodology, Method 201A. The project plan included sampling seven cotton gins across the cotton belt. Key factors for selecting specific cotton gins included: 1) facility location, 2) production capacity, 3) processing systems, and 4) abatement technologies. Five of the seven gins had master trash systems. In terms of capacity, the five gins were typical of the industry, averaging 36.2 bales/h during testing. Some test runs were excluded from the test averages because they failed to meet EPA Method 201A test criteria. Also, other test runs, included
This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stac... more This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stack sampling. The impetus behind this project was the urgent need to collect additional cotton gin emissions data to address current regulatory issues. A key component of this study was focused on Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) total particulate emission factors. EPA AP-42 emission factors generally are assigned a rating, from A (excellent) to E (poor), to assess the quality of the data being referenced. Current EPA total particulate emission factor quality ratings for cotton gins are extremely low. Cotton gin data received these low ratings because the data were collected almost exclusively from a single geographical region. The objective of this study was to collect additional total particulate emission factor data for unloading systems from cotton gins located in regions across the cotton belt using EPA-approved stack sampling methodology, Method 17. The project plan included sampling seven cotton gins. Key factors for selecting specific cotton gins included: 1) facility location, 2) production capacity, 3) processing systems, and 4) abatement technologies. Three gins with unloading system exhausts were sampled. The average production rate during testing for the three gins was 24.7 bales/h. The unloading system average total particulate emission factor based on three tests (nine total test runs) was 0.134 kg/227-kg bale (0.296 lb/500-lb bale). This average total particulate emission factor was higher than that currently published in 1996 EPA AP-42, which was 0.13 kg/bale (0.29 lb/bale).
Simultaneous source testing and boundary line testing were conducted at an operating cotton gin i... more Simultaneous source testing and boundary line testing were conducted at an operating cotton gin in the San Joaquin Valley, California. Results of the simultaneous testing were compared regarding their indication of compliance with air pollution regulations and standards.
Agricultural operations across the United States are encountering difficulties complying with cur... more Agricultural operations across the United States are encountering difficulties complying with current air pollution regulations for particulate matter (PM). PM is currently regulated in terms of particle diameters less than or equal to a nominal 10 µm (PM 10 ); however, current legislation is underway to regulate PM with diameters less than or equal to a nominal 2.5 µm (PM 2.5 ). The goals of this research were to determine the biases and uncertainties associated with current PM 10 and PM 2.5 sampling methods and to determine the extent to which these errors may impact the determination of cotton gin emission factors.
Agricultural operations across the United States are encountering difficulties in complying with ... more Agricultural operations across the United States are encountering difficulties in complying with the current air pollution regulations for particulate matter (PM). Cotton gins are most frequently regulated based on results obtained from dispersion modeling that utilize emission factors from EPA's 1996 AP-42 or emission factors derived from source sampling. PM10 emission factors are typically determined from source sampling based on
This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stac... more This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stack sampling. The impetus behind this project was the urgent need to collect additional cotton gin emissions data to address current regulatory issues. A key component of this study was focused on EPA emission factors for particulate matter with a particle diameter nominally less than or equal to 10 µm (PM 10 ). The 1996 EPA AP-42 emission factors were assigned quality ratings, from A (Excellent) to E (Poor), to assess the quality of the data being referenced.
This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stac... more This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stack sampling. In 2006, EPA finalized and published a more stringent standard for particulate matter with nominal diameter less than or equal to 2.5 µm (PM 2.5 ). This created an urgent need to collect additional cotton gin emissions data to address current regulatory issues, because current EPA AP-42 cotton gin PM 2.5 emission factors did not exist. The objective of this study was the development of PM 2.5 emission factors for cotton gin combined lint cleaning systems based on the EPAapproved stack sampling methodology, Method 201A. The project plan included sampling seven cotton gins across the cotton belt. Key factors for selecting specific cotton gins included: 1) facility location (geographically diverse), 2) industry representative production capacity, 3) typical processing systems, and 4) equipped with properly designed and maintained 1D3D cyclones. Three of the seven gins had 1 st and 2 nd stage lint cleaning systems where the exhaust airstreams were combined. In terms of capacity, the three gins were typical of the industry, averaging 33.6 bales/h during testing. Some test runs were excluded from the test averages because they failed to meet EPA Method 201A test criteria. Also, other test runs included in the analyses had cotton lint fibers that collected in the ≤ 10 µm and/or ≤ 2.5 µm samples. This larger lint material can impact the reported emissions data, but EPA Method 201A does not suggest methods to account for these anomalies. Average measured combined lint cleaning system PM 2.5 emission factor based on the three tests (nine total test runs) was 0.014 kg/227-kg bale (0.030 lb/500-lb bale). The combined lint cleaning system average emission factors for PM 10 and total particulate were 0.128 kg/bale (0.281 lb/bale) and 0.233 kg/bale (0.513 lb/bale), respectively. The combined lint cleaning system PM 2.5 emission rate from test averages ranged from 0.17 to 0.80 kg/h (0.37-1.75 lb/h). System average PM 10 emission factors were higher and system average total particulate emission factors were lower than those currently published in EPA AP-42. The ratios of combined lint cleaning system PM 2.5 to total particulate, PM 2.5 to PM 10 , and PM 10 to total particulate were 5.9, 10.8, and 54.8%, respectively.
Agricultural operations across the United States are encountering difficulties in complying with ... more Agricultural operations across the United States are encountering difficulties in complying with the current air pollution regulations for particulate matter (PM). The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for PM in terms of PM 2.5 , are ambient air concentration limits set by EPA that should not be exceeded. Further, State Air Pollution Regulatory Agencies (SAPRA's) utilize the NAAQS to regulate criteria pollutants emitted by industries by applying the NAAQS as property line concentration limit. The primary NAAQS are health-based standards and therefore, an exceedance implies that it is likely that there will be adverse health effects for the public. Since the proposal of the PM 2.5 regulation, numerous journal articles and technical references have been written to discuss the epidemiological effects, trends, regulation, methods of determining PM 2.5 , etc. A common trend among many of these publications is the use of samplers to collect information on PM 2.5 . All too often, the sampler data are assumed to be an accurate measure of PM 2.5 . The fact is that issues such as sampler uncertainties, environmental conditions, and material characteristics for which the sampler is measuring must be incorporated for accurate sampler measurements. The focus of this manuscript is on the errors associated with the particle size distribution (PSD) characteristics of the material in the air that is being sampled, sampler performance characteristics, the interaction between these two characteristics, and the effect of this interaction on the regulatory process. Theoretical simulations were conducted to determine the range of errors associated with this interaction for the PM 2.5 sampler. Results from these simulations indicated that a source emitting PM characterized by a mass median diameter (MMD) of 20 µm and a geometric standard deviation (GSD) of 1.5 could be forced to comply with a 14 times more stringent regulation than a source emitting PM characterized by a MMD of 10 µm and a GSD of 1.5. Therefore, in order to achieve equal regulation among differing industries, PM 2.5 measurements MUST be based on true concentration measurements.
The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for particulate matter (PM) in terms of PM 2.5... more The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for particulate matter (PM) in terms of PM 2.5 are ambient air concentration limits set by the EPA to protect public health and well-being. Further, some state air pollution regulatory agencies (SAPRAs) utilize the NAAQS to regulate criteria pollutants emitted by industries by applying the NAAQS as property-line concentration limits. Prior to and since the inclusion of the PM 2.5 standard, numerous journal articles and technical references have been written to discuss the epidemiological effects, trends, regulation, and methods of determining PM 2.5 . A common trend among many of these publications is the use of samplers to collect PM 2.5 concentration data. Often, the sampler data are assumed to be accurate concentration measures of PM 2.5 . The fact is that issues such as sampler uncertainties, environmental conditions, and characteristics of the material that the sampler is measuring must be incorporated for accurate sampler measurements. The focus of this article is on the errors associated with particle size distribution (PSD) characteristics of the material in the air that is being sampled, the PM 2.5 sampler performance characteristics, the interaction between these two characteristics, and the effect of this interaction on the regulatory process. Theoretical simulations were conducted to determine the range of errors associated with this interaction for the PM 2.5 ambient air samplers. Results from the PM 2.5 simulations indicated that a source emitting PM characterized by a mass median diameter (MMD) of 20 mm and a geometric standard deviation (GSD) of 1.5 could be forced to comply with a PM 2.5 standard that is 14 times more stringent than that required for a source emitting PM characterized by an MMD of 10 mm and a GSD of 1.5, and 59 times more stringent than that required for a source emitting PM characterized by an MMD of 5.7 mm and a GSD of 1.5. Therefore, in order to achieve equal regulation among differing industries, PM 2.5 measurements must be based on true concentration measurements.
Cyclones are a common air pollution abatement device for separating particulate matter (PM) from ... more Cyclones are a common air pollution abatement device for separating particulate matter (PM) from air streams in industrial processes. Several mathematical models have been proposed to predict the performance of cyclones as cyclone diameter varies. The objective of this research was to determine the relationship between cyclone diameter and collection efficiency based on empirical data and to compare the results to those of four mathematical models. Tests were performed comparing cyclone collection efficiency of 15.24, 30.48, 60.96, and 91.44 cm (6, 12, 24, and 36 in.) diameter cyclones with poly-disperse PM having an aerodynamic mass median diameter (MMD) near 10 mm. The PM chosen for this study was selected to magnify any differences in cyclone collection efficiency due to differences in cyclone barrel diameter. The mass of PM collected by the cyclones and the mass of PM that penetrated the cyclones was used to determine the collection efficiency of each cyclone. The collection efficiency of cyclones decreased nonlinearly as cyclone diameter increased, with statistically different collection efficiencies observed among the 30.48, 60.96, and 91.44 cm (12, 24, and 36 in.) diameter cyclones. None of the mathematical models analyzed in this article accurately predicted cyclone efficiency.
This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stac... more This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stack sampling. In 2006, EPA finalized and published a more stringent standard for particulate matter with nominal diameter less than or equal to 2.5 µm (PM 2.5 ). This created an urgent need to collect additional cotton gin emissions data to address current regulatory issues, because current EPA AP-42 cotton gin PM 2.5 emission factors did not exist. The objective of this study was the development of PM 2.5 emission factors for cotton gin unloading systems based on the EPAapproved stack sampling methodology, Method 201A. The project plan included sampling seven cotton gins across the cotton belt. Key factors for selecting specific cotton gins included: 1) facility location (geographically diverse), 2) industry representative production capacity, 3) typical processing systems and 4) equipped with properly designed and maintained 1D3D cyclones. Three of the seven gins had unloading systems that used pneumatic conveyance and had exhaust airstreams that were not combined with another system. In terms of capacity, the three gins were typical of the industry, averaging 24.2 bales/h during testing. Average measured unloading system PM 2.5 emission factor based on the three tests (8 total test runs) was 0.022 kg/227-kg bale (0.049 lb/500-lb bale). The unloading system average emission factors for PM 10 and total particulate were 0.071 kg/bale (0.157 lb/bale) and 0.120 kg/bale (0.265 lb/bale), respectively. The unloading system PM 2.5 emission rate from test averages ranged from 0.35 to 0.71 kg/h (0.76-1.56 lb/h). System average PM 10 emission factors were higher and system average total particulate emission factors were lower than those currently published in EPA AP-42. The ratios of unloading system PM 2.5 to total particulate, PM 2.5 to PM 10 , and PM 10 to total particulate were 18.4, 31.0, and 59.4%, respectively. cotton ginning associations across the country and state and federal regulatory agencies, Oklahoma State University and USDA-Agricultural Research Service (ARS) researchers developed a proposal and sampling plan that was initiated in 2008 to address this need for additional data. This report is part of a series that detail cotton gin particulate emissions measured by stack sampling. Each manuscript in the series addresses a specific cotton ginning system. The systems covered in the series include: unloading, 1 st stage seed-cotton cleaning, 2 nd stage seed-cotton cleaning, 3 rd stage seed-cotton cleaning, overflow, 1 st stage lint cleaning, 2 nd stage lint cleaning, combined lint cleaning, cyclone robber, 1 st stage mote, 2 nd stage mote, combined mote, mote cyclone robber, mote cleaner, mote trash, battery condenser, and master trash. This report focuses on PM 2.5 emissions from unloading systems.
This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stac... more This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stack sampling. In 2006, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) finalized and published a more stringent standard for particulate matter with nominal diameter less than or equal to 2.5 µm (PM 2.5 ). This created an urgent need to collect additional cotton gin emissions data to address current regulatory issues, because current EPA AP-42 cotton gin PM 2.5 emission factors did not exist. The objective of this study is the development of PM 2.5 emission factors for cotton gin mote trash systems based on the EPAapproved stack sampling methodology, Method 201A. The project plan included sampling seven cotton gins across the Cotton Belt. Two of the seven gins had mote trash systems where the exhaust airstreams were not combined with other major systems. In terms of capacity, the two gins were typical of the industry, averaging 25.1 bales/h during testing. Some test runs were excluded from the test averages because they failed to meet EPA Method 201A Test criteria. Also, other test runs, included in the analyses, had cotton lint fibers that collected in the ≤ 10 µm and/or ≤ 2.5 µm samples. This larger lint material can impact the reported emissions data, but EPA Method 201A does not suggest methods to account for these anomalies. Average measured mote trash system PM 2.5 emission factor based on the two tests (six total test runs) was 0.0011 kg/227-kg bale (0.0024 lb/500-lb bale). The mote trash system emission factors for PM 10 and total particulate were 0.0094 kg/ bale (0.021 lb/bale) and 0.017 kg/bale (0.038 lb/ bale), respectively. The mote trash system PM 2.5 emission rate from test averages ranged from 0.025 to 0.03 kg/h (0.055-0.066 lb/h). System average PM 10 and total particulate emission factors were lower than those currently published in EPA AP-42. The ratios of mote trash system PM 2.5 to total particulate, PM 2.5 to PM 10 , and PM 10 to total particulate were 6.4, 11.7, and 54.5%, respectively.
This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stac... more This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stack sampling. In 2006, EPA finalized and published a more stringent standard for particulate matter with nominal diameter less than or equal to 2.5 µm (PM 2.5 ). This created an urgent need to collect additional cotton gin emissions data to address current regulatory issues, because current EPA AP-42 cotton gin PM 2.5 emission factors did not exist. The objective of this study was the development of PM 2.5 emission factors for cotton gin mote cleaner systems based on the EPAapproved stack sampling methodology, Method 201A. The project plan included sampling seven cotton gins across the cotton belt. Key factors for selecting specific cotton gins included: 1) facility location (geographically diverse), 2) industry representative production capacity, 3) typical processing systems and 4) equipped with properly designed and maintained 1D3D cyclones. Two of the seven gins had mote cleaner systems. The exhaust from one of the mote cleaner systems was combined with the module feeder dust system. The ginning rate of the two gins averaged 35.1 and 47.6 bales/h during testing for the stand alone mote cleaner system and mote cleaner and module feeder dust system, respectively. Some test runs were excluded from the test averages because they failed to meet EPA Method 201A Test criteria. Also, other test runs, included in the analyses, had cotton lint fibers that collected in the ≤ 10 µm and/or ≤ 2.5 µm samples. This larger lint material can impact the reported emissions data, but EPA Method 201A does not suggest methods to account for these anomalies. Average measured mote cleaner system PM 2.5 and total particulate emission factors for the stand alone mote cleaner system were 0.0036 kg/227-kg bale (0.0079 lb/500-lb bale) and 0.065 kg/bale (0.14 lb/bale). The average total particulate emission factor for the stand alone mote cleaner system was lower than those currently published in EPA AP-42 for similar systems. The ratio of mote cleaner system PM 2.5 to total particulate was 5.5%. Average measured PM 2.5 emission factors for the mote cleaner system combined with the module feeder dust system was 0.022 kg/bale (0.050 lb/bale). Point 1 Ø: 2.27 pMd: 28.84 pQs: 0.40619 Input Nd: 0.180 Vn ft/sec: 38.31 pMs: 28.62¯H + 50 °F: 0.386 Closest Nd: 0.180 Delta H: 0.460 Ps in Hg: 30.04¯p min + 50°F: 0.184 V ft/sec min: 25.65 Ø: 24.0 pVs, ft/sec: 38.10¯p max + 50°F: 0.673 V ft/sec max: 49.06 Dwell Time Const. 2.88 Stack Area pSa: 5.24¯H -50 °F: 0.557¯p min: 0.201 Meter Volume: 9.3
This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stac... more This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stack sampling. In 2006, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) finalized and published a more stringent standard for particulate matter with nominal diameter less than or equal to 2.5 µm (PM 2.5 ). This created an urgent need to collect additional cotton gin emissions data to address current regulatory issues, because current EPA AP-42 cotton gin PM 2.5 emission factors did not exist. The objective of this study was the development of PM 2.5 emission factors for cotton gin master trash systems based on the EPAapproved stack sampling methodology, Method 201A. The project plan included sampling seven cotton gins across the Cotton Belt. Five of the seven gins had master trash systems. In terms of capacity, the five gins were typical of the industry, averaging 37.1 bales/h during testing. Some test runs were excluded from the test averages because they failed to meet EPA Method 201A test criteria. Also, other test runs, included in the analyses, had cotton lint fibers that collected in the ≤ 10 µm and/or ≤ 2.5 µm samples. This larger lint material can impact the reported emissions data, but EPA Method 201A does not suggest methods to account for these anomalies. Average measured master trash system PM 2.5 emission factor based on the five tests (13 total test runs) was 0.0042 kg/227-kg bale (0.0093 lb/500-lb bale). The master trash system average emission factors for PM 10 and total particulate were 0.036 kg/bale (0.080 lb/bale) and 0.143 kg/bale (0.314 lb/bale), respectively. The master trash system PM 2.5 emission rate from test averages ranged from 0.081 to 0.33 kg/h (0.18-0.73 lb/h). System average PM 10 emission factors were higher and system average total particulate emission factors were lower than those currently published in EPA AP-42. The ratios of master trash system PM 2.5 to total particulate, PM 2.5 to PM 10 , and PM 10 to total particulate were 2.9, 11.5, and 25.5%, respectively.
This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stac... more This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stack sampling. The impetus behind this project was the urgent need to collect cotton gin emissions data to address current regulatory issues. A key component of this study was focused on EPA emission factors for particulate matter with a particle diameter nominally less than or equal to 10 µm (PM 10 ). The 1996 EPA AP-42 emission factors were assigned quality ratings, from A (Excellent) to E (Poor), to assess the quality of the data being referenced. Emission factor quality ratings for cotton gins are extremely low. Also, some commonly used cotton gin systems were not represented or were combined with another system under a single emission factor in AP-42. There were no 1996 EPA AP-42 emission factors published for 2 nd stage mote systems.
This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stac... more This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stack sampling. The impetus behind this project was the urgent need to collect additional cotton gin emissions data to address current regulatory issues. A key component of this study was focused on EPA emission factors for particulate matter with a particle diameter nominally less than or equal to 10 µm (PM 10 ). The 1996 EPA AP-42 emission factors were assigned quality ratings, from A (Excellent) to E (Poor), to assess the quality of the data being referenced.
This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stac... more This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stack sampling. The impetus behind this project was the urgent need to collect additional cotton gin emissions data to address current regulatory issues. A key component of this study was focused on EPA emission factors for particulate matter with a particle diameter nominally less than or equal to 10 µm (PM 10 ). The 1996 EPA AP-42 emission factors were assigned quality ratings, from A (Excellent) to E (Poor), to assess the quality of the data being referenced. Emission factor quality ratings for cotton gins were extremely low. Cotton gin data received these low ratings because they were collected almost exclusively from a single geographical region. The objective of this study was to collect additional PM 10 emission factor data for master trash systems at cotton gins located in regions across the cotton belt based on EPA-approved stack sampling methodology, Method 201A. The project plan included sampling seven cotton gins across the cotton belt. Key factors for selecting specific cotton gins included: 1) facility location, 2) production capacity, 3) processing systems, and 4) abatement technologies. Five of the seven gins had master trash systems. In terms of capacity, the five gins were typical of the industry, averaging 36.2 bales/h during testing. Some test runs were excluded from the test averages because they failed to meet EPA Method 201A test criteria. Also, other test runs, included
This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stac... more This report is part of a project to characterize cotton gin emissions from the standpoint of stack sampling. The impetus behind this project was the urgent need to collect additional cotton gin emissions data to address current regulatory issues. A key component of this study was focused on Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) total particulate emission factors. EPA AP-42 emission factors generally are assigned a rating, from A (excellent) to E (poor), to assess the quality of the data being referenced. Current EPA total particulate emission factor quality ratings for cotton gins are extremely low. Cotton gin data received these low ratings because the data were collected almost exclusively from a single geographical region. The objective of this study was to collect additional total particulate emission factor data for unloading systems from cotton gins located in regions across the cotton belt using EPA-approved stack sampling methodology, Method 17. The project plan included sampling seven cotton gins. Key factors for selecting specific cotton gins included: 1) facility location, 2) production capacity, 3) processing systems, and 4) abatement technologies. Three gins with unloading system exhausts were sampled. The average production rate during testing for the three gins was 24.7 bales/h. The unloading system average total particulate emission factor based on three tests (nine total test runs) was 0.134 kg/227-kg bale (0.296 lb/500-lb bale). This average total particulate emission factor was higher than that currently published in 1996 EPA AP-42, which was 0.13 kg/bale (0.29 lb/bale).
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