Past research has shown that gamblers frequently use the mini-max strategy in multi-line slot mac... more Past research has shown that gamblers frequently use the mini-max strategy in multi-line slot machines, whereby the player places the minimum bet on the maximum number of lines. Through a detailed analysis and explanation of the design of multi-line slot machine games, we show that when using the mini-max strategy, the payback percentage remains unchanged, yet the reinforcement rate is significantly increased. This increase in reinforcement rate is mainly due to spins in which the amount won is less than the amount wagered, which we call losses disguised as wins. We have verified these conclusions by playing an actual slot machine game for 10,000 spins and recording the results. We believe that the high reinforcement rate that results from playing multiple lines on games of this type contributes to their potential addictiveness. We provide three theories for why players use the mini-max strategy and suggest further areas of research.
The personality traits of aggression–hostility, impulsive sensation seeking and neuroticism–anxie... more The personality traits of aggression–hostility, impulsive sensation seeking and neuroticism–anxiety were examined for their ability to predict styles of defense against threat. Students (N= 193) completed the Zuckerman–Kuhlman personality questionnaire (Joireman & Kuhlman, 2004; Zuckerman, 2002) and selected their most likely reactions to a set of human threat scenarios that were developed by Blanchard, Hynd, Minke, Minemoto, and Blanchard (2001). Low aggression–hostility and female sex predicted the tendency to orient away ...
ABSTRACT Problem gamblers often have distorted beliefs about gambling, including illusion of cont... more ABSTRACT Problem gamblers often have distorted beliefs about gambling, including illusion of control and gambler's fallacy. Most multiline slots games allow players to adjust the number of wagered paylines and the amount bet per line, and over time this control may support incorrect conclusions and promote distorted gambling beliefs. We created software to run simulations of a popular multiline slots game and examined the effects of betting on single versus multiple paylines. Simultaneous multiline betting tends to produce a less varied gambling experience because it increases the frequency of legitimate wins and ‘losses disguised as wins’, while decreasing the occurrence of ‘big wins’. It also shortens consecutive series of losing spins and it prolongs the time a typical player takes to exhaust funds. Indirect control over losing streaks may give some players the false impression that they can play skilfully and predict the occurrence of wins. However, applying five different wagering strategies in our simulations showed that none had any real effect on the average percentage of wagers that would be ‘paid back’ to players as prizes. Player control over multiline slots games may lead frequent gamblers to incorrect conclusions that sustain excessive play despite recurring losses.
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or s... more This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.
Pathological Gambling (PG) is the inability to resist recurrent urges to gamble excessively despi... more Pathological Gambling (PG) is the inability to resist recurrent urges to gamble excessively despite harmful consequences to the gambler or others. A cognitive-behavioral Pathways Model of PG suggests individual differences in rash impulsivity and reward sensitivity, together with a cognitive style that promotes poor decision making, as risk factors. These individual differences were examined in a community sample of experienced slot machine players (N = 100), who were classified into Low, Moderate, and Problem gambling groups according to the Problem Gambling Severity Index ). There were significant group differences on rash impulsivity as measured by the Eysenck Impulsivity scale, and on reward sensitivity as measured by the BIS/BAS Drive scale. For cognitive style, there were differences on Actively Openminded Thinking (AOT), but not the Rational Experiential Inventory. Hierarchical regression analyses found that impulsivity and AOT predicted severity of PG, but that AOT mediated the effect of BAS Drive. A thinking style that promotes erroneous cognition may correlate with PG, but individual differences in rash impulsivity and reward-seeking play a more critical role in the etiology of PG. The individual characteristics of Pathological Gamblers are similar to those of people with Substance Use Disorders.
Nonsuicidal Self-Injury (NSSI) is the deliberate inflicting of physical injury to one's ... more Nonsuicidal Self-Injury (NSSI) is the deliberate inflicting of physical injury to one's own body that is not due to accident or conscious attempt at suicide. This study examined NSSI, other excessive or potentially addictive behaviors, and borderline personality features. Undergraduates (N= 151) completed the Deliberate Self Harm Inventory (Gratz, 2001), the NEO PI-R (Costa & McCrae, 1992), and the Shorter PROMIS Questionnaire (SPQ; Christo et al., 2003). The SPQ measures impulsive or compulsively motivated behavior, such as ...
... The simple PG subtype had normal-range scores on all NEO PI-R domain and facets, but the hedo... more ... The simple PG subtype had normal-range scores on all NEO PI-R domain and facets, but the hedonic and demoralized types both had low Dutifulness (C facet) and non-normative scores on four facets that reflect aspects of impulsivity (Whiteside & Lynam, 2001). ...
Health professionals recognize the benefits of moderate physical activity and encourage clients t... more Health professionals recognize the benefits of moderate physical activity and encourage clients to engage in some form of activity on a regular basis. In spite of these recognized benefits, there are growing concerns that some may exercise at levels detrimental to health. The term exercise dependence refers to those individuals whose extreme exercise schedules interfere with their social, occupational, and family lives. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between weekly exercise habits and scores on the Exercise Dependence Questionnaire in a sample of undergraduate students (213 women and 79 men). Overall, participants who reported high activity scored higher than those reporting low activity on subscales measuring interference with family and social life, positive reward, withdrawal, exercise for social reasons, exercise for health reasons, and stereotyped behavior.
Near-misses in slot machines resemble jackpot wins but fall just short. Previous research has dem... more Near-misses in slot machines resemble jackpot wins but fall just short. Previous research has demonstrated that near-misses are behaviorally reinforcing despite the absence of monetary reward. We assessed the hedonic properties of near-misses by measuring the time between outcome delivery and the initiation of the next spin-the postreinforcement pause (PRP) and skin conductance responses (SCRs) for losses, near-misses, and a range of wins (5, 15, 25, 50 or 250 credits) while participants (N = 122) played a slot machine simulator. PRPs and SCRs were compared for 40 low frequency and 22 high frequency slots players who were non-problem gamblers, 37 at risk players, and 23 problem gamblers. For winning outcomes, PRPs and SCRs tracked monotonically with win size such that progressively larger wins were associated with progressively larger PRPs and SCRs. Near-misses with jackpot symbols landing on the first two reels had significantly larger SCRs than regular losses, and other types of near misses. Crucially, PRPs for this kind of near-miss were significantly smaller than all wins, and when non-parametric statistics were used, significantly smaller than regular losses. This pattern of large SCRs and small PRPs suggest that these are highly frustrating outcomes that stimulate appetitive components of the reward system to promote continued gambling.
Near-misses in slot machines resemble jackpot wins but fall just short (e.g. two red sevens on th... more Near-misses in slot machines resemble jackpot wins but fall just short (e.g. two red sevens on the payline and a third just above). These outcomes have been shown to be subjectively arousing outcomes that promote further slot machine play. We assessed the psychophysical responses of 65 participants to wins, losses and near-misses while playing a slot machine simulator. Skin conductance responses were significantly larger for near-misses than either wins or losses. Similarly, heart rate deceleration was significantly larger for near-misses than either wins or losses. These arousal responses were not mediated by players' problem gambling status -near-misses generated large arousal responses even among novice players. We propose that these arousal patterns are due to the frustration of just missing a big win. This research shows the psychophysiological responses triggered by near-misses, and furthers our understanding of how near-misses promote further play.
This review summarizes studies of pathological gambling and personality. Meta-analyses were condu... more This review summarizes studies of pathological gambling and personality. Meta-analyses were conducted on 44 studies that reported personality traits of pathological gamblers (N = 2134) and nonpathological gambling control groups (N = 5321). Effect size estimates were calculated for 128 comparisons and organized according to the factors associated with two integrative accounts of personality. Four of the meta-analyses examined traits that have previously been found to load on the Urgency, Premeditation, Perseverance, and Sensation Seeking aspects of impulsivity . Substantial effects were found for traits associated with Negative Urgency (Cohen's d = .99) and Low Premeditation (d = .84), but not for Low Perseverance or Sensation Seeking. A second set of meta-analyses examined broad domains of personality that have previously been found to load on Negative Affect, Positive Affect, Disagreeable Disinhibition, and Unconscientious Disinhibition . Substantial effects were found for Unconscientious Disinhibition (d = .79), Negative Affect (d = .50), and Disagreeable Disinhibition (d = .50), but not Positive Affect. It was concluded that these individual personality characteristics may be important in the etiology of pathological gambling. The personality profile implicated in the etiology of pathological gambling is similar to that found in a recent meta-analysis of substance use disorders . These results suggest that pathological gambling may be part of a broad cluster of externalizing psychopathology, and also call into question the current classification of pathological gambling as an Impulse Control Disorder in the DSM-IV.
The core deficit in Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) may be a deficiency in execut... more The core deficit in Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) may be a deficiency in executive functions, particularly the processes that are associated with the inhibition of predominant responses. To test this notion in the adult population, healthy undergraduate volunteers and students with ADHD symptoms performed a visual Stop Signal Task (Logan et al. J Exp Psychol: Hum Percept Perform 10:276-291, 1984) while Event-Related brain Potentials were recorded. The two groups did not differ on behavioral measures of performance, but there was a significant difference in the N2-P3 component. These results underline the robustness of an N2-P3 difference between healthy adults and people with ADHD symptoms that have persisted into young adulthood.
All slot machines make money over time, but the payouts to the players can differ. ‘Loose’ machin... more All slot machines make money over time, but the payouts to the players can differ. ‘Loose’ machines pay out more than ‘tight’ machines. Gamblers (n = 1402) at Ontario slots venues were assessed using the Problem Gambling Severity Index. Their beliefs about slots were polled using the Informational Biases Scale. Problem gamblers were more likely than non-problem and at-risk gamblers to endorse the belief that ‘some slot machines keep me from winning because they are programmed to produce fewer wins than normal’. We then showed that after extensive play (60 hours), 9 out of 10 gamblers were able to correctly discriminate a ‘loose’ machine (98% payback) from a ‘tight’ machine (85% payback). Problem gamblers' assertions that there are ‘loose’ and ‘tight’ machines demonstrate a belief rooted in reality. The ability to distinguish ‘loose’ from ‘tight’ machines may be interpreted as a skill by players. Such skill, when overestimated, may lead to erroneous cognitions.
Past research has shown that gamblers frequently use the mini-max strategy in multi-line slot mac... more Past research has shown that gamblers frequently use the mini-max strategy in multi-line slot machines, whereby the player places the minimum bet on the maximum number of lines. Through a detailed analysis and explanation of the design of multi-line slot machine games, we show that when using the mini-max strategy, the payback percentage remains unchanged, yet the reinforcement rate is significantly increased. This increase in reinforcement rate is mainly due to spins in which the amount won is less than the amount wagered, which we call losses disguised as wins. We have verified these conclusions by playing an actual slot machine game for 10,000 spins and recording the results. We believe that the high reinforcement rate that results from playing multiple lines on games of this type contributes to their potential addictiveness. We provide three theories for why players use the mini-max strategy and suggest further areas of research.
The personality traits of aggression–hostility, impulsive sensation seeking and neuroticism–anxie... more The personality traits of aggression–hostility, impulsive sensation seeking and neuroticism–anxiety were examined for their ability to predict styles of defense against threat. Students (N= 193) completed the Zuckerman–Kuhlman personality questionnaire (Joireman & Kuhlman, 2004; Zuckerman, 2002) and selected their most likely reactions to a set of human threat scenarios that were developed by Blanchard, Hynd, Minke, Minemoto, and Blanchard (2001). Low aggression–hostility and female sex predicted the tendency to orient away ...
ABSTRACT Problem gamblers often have distorted beliefs about gambling, including illusion of cont... more ABSTRACT Problem gamblers often have distorted beliefs about gambling, including illusion of control and gambler's fallacy. Most multiline slots games allow players to adjust the number of wagered paylines and the amount bet per line, and over time this control may support incorrect conclusions and promote distorted gambling beliefs. We created software to run simulations of a popular multiline slots game and examined the effects of betting on single versus multiple paylines. Simultaneous multiline betting tends to produce a less varied gambling experience because it increases the frequency of legitimate wins and ‘losses disguised as wins’, while decreasing the occurrence of ‘big wins’. It also shortens consecutive series of losing spins and it prolongs the time a typical player takes to exhaust funds. Indirect control over losing streaks may give some players the false impression that they can play skilfully and predict the occurrence of wins. However, applying five different wagering strategies in our simulations showed that none had any real effect on the average percentage of wagers that would be ‘paid back’ to players as prizes. Player control over multiline slots games may lead frequent gamblers to incorrect conclusions that sustain excessive play despite recurring losses.
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or s... more This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.
Pathological Gambling (PG) is the inability to resist recurrent urges to gamble excessively despi... more Pathological Gambling (PG) is the inability to resist recurrent urges to gamble excessively despite harmful consequences to the gambler or others. A cognitive-behavioral Pathways Model of PG suggests individual differences in rash impulsivity and reward sensitivity, together with a cognitive style that promotes poor decision making, as risk factors. These individual differences were examined in a community sample of experienced slot machine players (N = 100), who were classified into Low, Moderate, and Problem gambling groups according to the Problem Gambling Severity Index ). There were significant group differences on rash impulsivity as measured by the Eysenck Impulsivity scale, and on reward sensitivity as measured by the BIS/BAS Drive scale. For cognitive style, there were differences on Actively Openminded Thinking (AOT), but not the Rational Experiential Inventory. Hierarchical regression analyses found that impulsivity and AOT predicted severity of PG, but that AOT mediated the effect of BAS Drive. A thinking style that promotes erroneous cognition may correlate with PG, but individual differences in rash impulsivity and reward-seeking play a more critical role in the etiology of PG. The individual characteristics of Pathological Gamblers are similar to those of people with Substance Use Disorders.
Nonsuicidal Self-Injury (NSSI) is the deliberate inflicting of physical injury to one's ... more Nonsuicidal Self-Injury (NSSI) is the deliberate inflicting of physical injury to one's own body that is not due to accident or conscious attempt at suicide. This study examined NSSI, other excessive or potentially addictive behaviors, and borderline personality features. Undergraduates (N= 151) completed the Deliberate Self Harm Inventory (Gratz, 2001), the NEO PI-R (Costa & McCrae, 1992), and the Shorter PROMIS Questionnaire (SPQ; Christo et al., 2003). The SPQ measures impulsive or compulsively motivated behavior, such as ...
... The simple PG subtype had normal-range scores on all NEO PI-R domain and facets, but the hedo... more ... The simple PG subtype had normal-range scores on all NEO PI-R domain and facets, but the hedonic and demoralized types both had low Dutifulness (C facet) and non-normative scores on four facets that reflect aspects of impulsivity (Whiteside & Lynam, 2001). ...
Health professionals recognize the benefits of moderate physical activity and encourage clients t... more Health professionals recognize the benefits of moderate physical activity and encourage clients to engage in some form of activity on a regular basis. In spite of these recognized benefits, there are growing concerns that some may exercise at levels detrimental to health. The term exercise dependence refers to those individuals whose extreme exercise schedules interfere with their social, occupational, and family lives. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between weekly exercise habits and scores on the Exercise Dependence Questionnaire in a sample of undergraduate students (213 women and 79 men). Overall, participants who reported high activity scored higher than those reporting low activity on subscales measuring interference with family and social life, positive reward, withdrawal, exercise for social reasons, exercise for health reasons, and stereotyped behavior.
Near-misses in slot machines resemble jackpot wins but fall just short. Previous research has dem... more Near-misses in slot machines resemble jackpot wins but fall just short. Previous research has demonstrated that near-misses are behaviorally reinforcing despite the absence of monetary reward. We assessed the hedonic properties of near-misses by measuring the time between outcome delivery and the initiation of the next spin-the postreinforcement pause (PRP) and skin conductance responses (SCRs) for losses, near-misses, and a range of wins (5, 15, 25, 50 or 250 credits) while participants (N = 122) played a slot machine simulator. PRPs and SCRs were compared for 40 low frequency and 22 high frequency slots players who were non-problem gamblers, 37 at risk players, and 23 problem gamblers. For winning outcomes, PRPs and SCRs tracked monotonically with win size such that progressively larger wins were associated with progressively larger PRPs and SCRs. Near-misses with jackpot symbols landing on the first two reels had significantly larger SCRs than regular losses, and other types of near misses. Crucially, PRPs for this kind of near-miss were significantly smaller than all wins, and when non-parametric statistics were used, significantly smaller than regular losses. This pattern of large SCRs and small PRPs suggest that these are highly frustrating outcomes that stimulate appetitive components of the reward system to promote continued gambling.
Near-misses in slot machines resemble jackpot wins but fall just short (e.g. two red sevens on th... more Near-misses in slot machines resemble jackpot wins but fall just short (e.g. two red sevens on the payline and a third just above). These outcomes have been shown to be subjectively arousing outcomes that promote further slot machine play. We assessed the psychophysical responses of 65 participants to wins, losses and near-misses while playing a slot machine simulator. Skin conductance responses were significantly larger for near-misses than either wins or losses. Similarly, heart rate deceleration was significantly larger for near-misses than either wins or losses. These arousal responses were not mediated by players' problem gambling status -near-misses generated large arousal responses even among novice players. We propose that these arousal patterns are due to the frustration of just missing a big win. This research shows the psychophysiological responses triggered by near-misses, and furthers our understanding of how near-misses promote further play.
This review summarizes studies of pathological gambling and personality. Meta-analyses were condu... more This review summarizes studies of pathological gambling and personality. Meta-analyses were conducted on 44 studies that reported personality traits of pathological gamblers (N = 2134) and nonpathological gambling control groups (N = 5321). Effect size estimates were calculated for 128 comparisons and organized according to the factors associated with two integrative accounts of personality. Four of the meta-analyses examined traits that have previously been found to load on the Urgency, Premeditation, Perseverance, and Sensation Seeking aspects of impulsivity . Substantial effects were found for traits associated with Negative Urgency (Cohen's d = .99) and Low Premeditation (d = .84), but not for Low Perseverance or Sensation Seeking. A second set of meta-analyses examined broad domains of personality that have previously been found to load on Negative Affect, Positive Affect, Disagreeable Disinhibition, and Unconscientious Disinhibition . Substantial effects were found for Unconscientious Disinhibition (d = .79), Negative Affect (d = .50), and Disagreeable Disinhibition (d = .50), but not Positive Affect. It was concluded that these individual personality characteristics may be important in the etiology of pathological gambling. The personality profile implicated in the etiology of pathological gambling is similar to that found in a recent meta-analysis of substance use disorders . These results suggest that pathological gambling may be part of a broad cluster of externalizing psychopathology, and also call into question the current classification of pathological gambling as an Impulse Control Disorder in the DSM-IV.
The core deficit in Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) may be a deficiency in execut... more The core deficit in Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) may be a deficiency in executive functions, particularly the processes that are associated with the inhibition of predominant responses. To test this notion in the adult population, healthy undergraduate volunteers and students with ADHD symptoms performed a visual Stop Signal Task (Logan et al. J Exp Psychol: Hum Percept Perform 10:276-291, 1984) while Event-Related brain Potentials were recorded. The two groups did not differ on behavioral measures of performance, but there was a significant difference in the N2-P3 component. These results underline the robustness of an N2-P3 difference between healthy adults and people with ADHD symptoms that have persisted into young adulthood.
All slot machines make money over time, but the payouts to the players can differ. ‘Loose’ machin... more All slot machines make money over time, but the payouts to the players can differ. ‘Loose’ machines pay out more than ‘tight’ machines. Gamblers (n = 1402) at Ontario slots venues were assessed using the Problem Gambling Severity Index. Their beliefs about slots were polled using the Informational Biases Scale. Problem gamblers were more likely than non-problem and at-risk gamblers to endorse the belief that ‘some slot machines keep me from winning because they are programmed to produce fewer wins than normal’. We then showed that after extensive play (60 hours), 9 out of 10 gamblers were able to correctly discriminate a ‘loose’ machine (98% payback) from a ‘tight’ machine (85% payback). Problem gamblers' assertions that there are ‘loose’ and ‘tight’ machines demonstrate a belief rooted in reality. The ability to distinguish ‘loose’ from ‘tight’ machines may be interpreted as a skill by players. Such skill, when overestimated, may lead to erroneous cognitions.
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