Books by Shaun L Blanchard
Catholic University of America, 2021
anthology of primary sources published with CUA Press 2021.
Catholic University of America Press: Early Modern Catholic Sources, 2021
A collection of hitherto untranslated sources of female and male Catholic Enlighteners from Mexic... more A collection of hitherto untranslated sources of female and male Catholic Enlighteners from Mexico to Poland.
https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-synod-of-pistoia-and-vatican-ii-9780190947798?cc=us&l... more https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-synod-of-pistoia-and-vatican-ii-9780190947798?cc=us&lang=en&
This book sheds further light on the nature of church reform and the roots of the Second Vatican Council (1962-65) through a study of eighteenth-century Catholic reformers who anticipated Vatican II. The most striking of these examples is the Synod of Pistoia (1786), the high-water mark of "late Jansenism." Most of the reforms of the Synod were harshly condemned by Pope Pius VI in the Bull Auctorem fidei (1794), and late Jansenism was totally discredited in the increasingly ultramontane nineteenth-century Catholic Church. Nevertheless, many of the reforms implicit or explicit in the Pistoian agenda - such as an exaltation of the role of bishops, an emphasis on infallibility as a gift to the entire church, religious liberty, a simpler and more comprehensible liturgy that incorporates the vernacular, and the encouragement of lay Bible reading and Christocentric devotions - were officially promulgated at Vatican II. The first chapter describes the nature of Vatican II reform as ressourcement, aggiornamento, and the development of doctrine. The "hermeneutic of reform," proposed by Pope Benedict XVI and approved of by John O'Malley, is put forward as a way past the dead-end of "continuity" and "discontinuity" debates. Chapter two pushes back the story of the roots of Vatican II to the eighteenth century, in which a variety of reform movements, including the Catholic Enlightenment, attempted ressourcement and aggiornamento. The next two chapters investigate the context and reforms enacted by Bishop Scipione de'Ricci (1741-1810) and the Synod of Pistoia, paying special attention to their parallels with Vatican II, and arguing that some of these connections are deeper than mere surface-level affinity. Chapter five considers the reception of Pistoia, shows why these reforms failed, and uses the criteria of Yves Congar to judge them as "true or false reform." The final chapter proves that the Synod was a "ghost" present at the Council. The council fathers struggled with, and ultimately enacted, many of the same ideas. This study complexifies the story of the roots of the Council, the nature of Catholic reform, and the manner in which the contemporary church is continuous and discontinuous with the past.
Articles and Book Chapters by Shaun L Blanchard
In 1791, the Benedictine Charles Walmesley (1722–97), Vicar Apostolic of the Western District, wr... more In 1791, the Benedictine Charles Walmesley (1722–97), Vicar Apostolic of the Western District, wrote to his colleague Bishop Douglass: “We exist indeed in miserable times. We have our share here, and they suffer a great share abroad; but there was a Wo pronounced by the Prophet on this period of the Church.” Given the societal pressures on English Catholics, the upheavals in revolutionary France, and the doctrinal and political strife throughout Catholic Europe, one can understand Bishop Walmesley’s pessimism. But Walmesley’s apocalyptic interpretation of recent struggles – with recalcitrant progressive “Cisalpines” like Joseph Berington, or with news coming out of Pistoia, Austria, and France – was interpreted to fit a narrative of history that Walmesley himself had held for decades. In 1771, Walmesley published, under the pseudonym “Sig. Pastorini” the General History of the Christian Church, his first (and programmatic) apocalyptic work, in which he divided history into seven ages, in an attempt to prophetically interpret the seven Seals, Trumpets, and Vials of the book of Revelation. While the book earned the scorn of “enlightened” Cisalpines like Alexander Geddes, it was widely acclaimed, reprinted, and translated. This essay explores Walmesley’s interpretation of history and prophecy, which I will argue was profoundly shaped by his view of Protestantism, and shows how his apocalypticism impacted his interactions with the progressive Cisalpines, his ideological opponents. These latter, who had a typical “Enlightenment” view of history, had capitulated, in Walmesley’s view, to the poison of the Fifth Age.
This volume demonstrates that the Catholic rhetoric of tradition disguised both novelties and cre... more This volume demonstrates that the Catholic rhetoric of tradition disguised both novelties and creative innovations between 1550 and 1700.
Innovation in Early Modern Catholicism reveals that the period between 1550 and 1700 emerged as an intellectually vibrant atmosphere, shaped by the tensions between personal creativity and magisterial authority. The essays explore ideas about grace, physical predetermination, freedom, and probabilism in order to show how the rhetoric of innovation and tradition can be better understood. More importantly, contributors illustrate how disintegrated historiographies, which often excluded Catholicism as a source of innovation, can be overcome. Not only were new systems of metaphysics crafted in the early modern period, but so too was a new conceptual language to deal with the pressing problems of human freedom and grace, natural law, and Marian piety. Overall, the volume shines significant light on hitherto neglected or misunderstood traits in the understanding of early modern Catholic culture.
Re-presenting early modern Catholicism more crucially than any other currently available study, Innovation in Early Modern Catholicism is a useful tool for advanced undergraduates, postgraduates, and scholars in the fields of philosophy, early modern studies, and the history of theology.
1. Introduction: Innovation and Creativity in Early Modern Catholicism
Ulrich L. Lehner
2. The Rhetoric of Innovation and Constancy in Early Modern Catholicism
Ulrich L. Lehner
3. Catholic Theology and Doctrinal Novelty in the Quarrel over Grace: Theological schools, innovations, and pluralism during the Molinism Controversy
Sylvio Hermann De Francheschi
4. Faithfulness and Novelty in Early Modern Thomism: The Dionysian Dimension of Physical Predetermination
Matthew Gaetano
5. The Innovative Character of the Suárezian Project in its Proper Historical Context
Victor M. Salas
6. New Models of Church Government: Innovation in Catholic Ecclesiology, ca. 1600–1800
Shaun Blanchard
7. At the Fringes of the Church: The Ecclesial Status of Heretics and their Baptized Children in Early Modern Ecclesiology
Eric DeMeuse
8. The Invention of Probabilism
Emanuele Colombo
9. Natural Law and Cultural Difference: innovations in Spanish scholasticism
Elisabeth Rain Kincaid
10. Duns Scotus and the Making of Modern Catholic Theology
Trent Pomplun
11. The Invention of Early Modern Mariology
Damien Tricoire
This chapter examines ecclesio-political, theological, and ecclesiastical controversies and devel... more This chapter examines ecclesio-political, theological, and ecclesiastical controversies and developments in the period ca. 1600-1800.
The teaching documents promulgated by the First Vatican Council are often seen as vigorous respon... more The teaching documents promulgated by the First Vatican Council are often seen as vigorous responses to external challenges facing the Catholic Church in the nineteenth-century: from rationalism and fideism to secularization and democratic revolution. Without disputing the clear significance of Vatican I’s immediate context, this essay seeks to highlight the importance of the ultramontane desire for a final, definitive dogmatic victory over a variety of early modern opponents of papalism, including Jansenism, Febronianism, Josephinism, and – of the most perduring weight – Gallicanism. This reexamination will be achieved through an analysis of the conciliar Acta and through employing two interpretive tools. The first is the notion of the “controlling function” of a past teaching document; the second is the notion of conciliar “ghosts” – that is, key movements or events in the church’s collective memory which influenced the drafting of conciliar texts and the subsequent debate over them.
Pastor Aeternus, which proclaimed papal infallibility and the pope’s supreme and universal jurisdiction, was in part a response to contemporary challenges. But the concrete machinery of the modern ultramontane papacy which made such definitions possible was forged in the internecine early modern struggles against Jansenism and various forms of conciliarism, from about 1650 to 1800. By the eve of Vatican I, even some of those with serious hesitations about the prudence of a definition of papal infallibility, such as John Henry Newman, were in substantial agreement with champions of a definition, like Cardinal Manning, regarding which early modern papal teachings could be considered infallible (in documents like Unigenitus and Auctorem fidei). The fact that many contemporary Catholic theologians see only the definitions of 1854 and 1950 as exercises of extraordinary papal infallibility lends added interest to this examination.
My contribution to a roundtable on 150th Anniversary of the First Vatican Council.
"Toward the ... more My contribution to a roundtable on 150th Anniversary of the First Vatican Council.
"Toward the end of his magisterial study of Catholic ecclesiological struggles spanning 1300 to 1870 CE, Francis Oakley employed a striking image to illustrate the victory of papalism over conciliarism. After Vatican I, the “solitary horseman” left on a desolate “ecclesiological battlefield” many centuries in the making was “none other than the resilient ghost of Bellarmine.” By this image, Oakley meant that Pastor Aeternus’ twin definitions of papal infallibility and jurisdictional supremacy represented the definitive triumph of the ultramontane school, as typified by the counter-reformation Jesuit Cardinal Robert Bellarmine. For Oakley—and in this point he echoed a common interpretation—Vatican I consigned conciliar and constitutionalist Catholic ecclesiologies to “oblivion.”"
Enlightenment-influenced English Catholic priests and laymen, members of the "Cisalpine" movement... more Enlightenment-influenced English Catholic priests and laymen, members of the "Cisalpine" movement, had a significant impact on Archbishop John Carroll (1735-1815), first bishop of Baltimore, and in turn the Church in the United States. Though Carroll had ambivalent relationships with the "Cisalpines" and with that movement's conservative critics, particularly Charles and Robert Plowden, his close friends, the Cisalpine network supported many of the same reforms as Carroll, including religious liberty and liturgical reform, and they were irenic towards Protestants. However, Carroll consistently sought to stay on the sidelines of the "Cisalpine stirs," the controversies pitting the progressive Cisalpines against the conservative party led by the vicars apostolic. Carroll's intense interest and occasional participation in these controversies illuminate important elements of this thought, as do the reasons which he became increasingly critical of the Cisalpines.
This article explores the evocations of the Synod of Pistoia (1786) at Vatican II, arguing that P... more This article explores the evocations of the Synod of Pistoia (1786) at Vatican II, arguing that Pistoia was a “ghost” on the council floor, that is, a key moment in the Church’s collective memory which influenced drafting and debate. This is apparent in Bishop Carli’s evocation of Auctorem fidei (the 1794 Bull condemning Pistoia) during debates surrounding the theology of the episcopacy. This article concludes by arguing that the historical contextualization of Pistoia by figures like Cardinal Silva Henríquez was ultimately successful, as Auctorem fidei did not exert a strong “controlling function” over Vatican II’s ecclesiological debates.
This paper argues that the record of theological dissent at Trent and Vatican I are positive and ... more This paper argues that the record of theological dissent at Trent and Vatican I are positive and fruitful sources of theological reflection on the sensus fidelium. Not only do these “minority” voices (minority in the literal sense of opposing a majority group or opinion) help us to accurately interpret the drafts and final documents of these councils, but these minority figures can sometimes preserve the sensus fidelium through their calls for various concessions from the majority.
First, I revisit Trent’s decree on Scripture (1546). Due to the interventions of two Italians (Nacchianti, the Bishop of Chioggia, and Bonuccio, the General of the Servites), the question of the relationship between scripture and tradition was left open – that is, the “two-source” partim-partim theory was not dogmatically enshrined. This was an important episode wherein a tiny minority gained a critical concession. I argue that this minority intervention bore fruit not only in a final Tridentine document that better echoed the faith of the ages, but also bore fruit centuries later at Vatican II in Dei verbum.
Second, I argue that the minority at Vatican I protected the Church from extreme ultramontanism. This relatively large and intellectually powerful minority, many of them rooted in Gallicanism, played a key role in tempering a dogmatic proclamation that was further balanced and interpreted a century later in Lumen gentium and Christus Dominus.
I conclude by suggesting theologians should look for ways in which the minority at Vatican II could serve future generations of Catholics in unforeseen ways.
In this article, I retrieve the eighteenth-century historian and Catholic reformer Lodovico Murat... more In this article, I retrieve the eighteenth-century historian and Catholic reformer Lodovico Muratori (1672-1750) as a source for contemporary Catholic theology. I argue he is clear forerunner of Vatican II in his Christocentrism, his regulated devotion to Mary and the saints, and his "proto-ecumenism."
This is a pre-review copy of the publication of this essay in Pro Ecclesia 25 (Winter 2016).
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Books by Shaun L Blanchard
This book sheds further light on the nature of church reform and the roots of the Second Vatican Council (1962-65) through a study of eighteenth-century Catholic reformers who anticipated Vatican II. The most striking of these examples is the Synod of Pistoia (1786), the high-water mark of "late Jansenism." Most of the reforms of the Synod were harshly condemned by Pope Pius VI in the Bull Auctorem fidei (1794), and late Jansenism was totally discredited in the increasingly ultramontane nineteenth-century Catholic Church. Nevertheless, many of the reforms implicit or explicit in the Pistoian agenda - such as an exaltation of the role of bishops, an emphasis on infallibility as a gift to the entire church, religious liberty, a simpler and more comprehensible liturgy that incorporates the vernacular, and the encouragement of lay Bible reading and Christocentric devotions - were officially promulgated at Vatican II. The first chapter describes the nature of Vatican II reform as ressourcement, aggiornamento, and the development of doctrine. The "hermeneutic of reform," proposed by Pope Benedict XVI and approved of by John O'Malley, is put forward as a way past the dead-end of "continuity" and "discontinuity" debates. Chapter two pushes back the story of the roots of Vatican II to the eighteenth century, in which a variety of reform movements, including the Catholic Enlightenment, attempted ressourcement and aggiornamento. The next two chapters investigate the context and reforms enacted by Bishop Scipione de'Ricci (1741-1810) and the Synod of Pistoia, paying special attention to their parallels with Vatican II, and arguing that some of these connections are deeper than mere surface-level affinity. Chapter five considers the reception of Pistoia, shows why these reforms failed, and uses the criteria of Yves Congar to judge them as "true or false reform." The final chapter proves that the Synod was a "ghost" present at the Council. The council fathers struggled with, and ultimately enacted, many of the same ideas. This study complexifies the story of the roots of the Council, the nature of Catholic reform, and the manner in which the contemporary church is continuous and discontinuous with the past.
Articles and Book Chapters by Shaun L Blanchard
Innovation in Early Modern Catholicism reveals that the period between 1550 and 1700 emerged as an intellectually vibrant atmosphere, shaped by the tensions between personal creativity and magisterial authority. The essays explore ideas about grace, physical predetermination, freedom, and probabilism in order to show how the rhetoric of innovation and tradition can be better understood. More importantly, contributors illustrate how disintegrated historiographies, which often excluded Catholicism as a source of innovation, can be overcome. Not only were new systems of metaphysics crafted in the early modern period, but so too was a new conceptual language to deal with the pressing problems of human freedom and grace, natural law, and Marian piety. Overall, the volume shines significant light on hitherto neglected or misunderstood traits in the understanding of early modern Catholic culture.
Re-presenting early modern Catholicism more crucially than any other currently available study, Innovation in Early Modern Catholicism is a useful tool for advanced undergraduates, postgraduates, and scholars in the fields of philosophy, early modern studies, and the history of theology.
1. Introduction: Innovation and Creativity in Early Modern Catholicism
Ulrich L. Lehner
2. The Rhetoric of Innovation and Constancy in Early Modern Catholicism
Ulrich L. Lehner
3. Catholic Theology and Doctrinal Novelty in the Quarrel over Grace: Theological schools, innovations, and pluralism during the Molinism Controversy
Sylvio Hermann De Francheschi
4. Faithfulness and Novelty in Early Modern Thomism: The Dionysian Dimension of Physical Predetermination
Matthew Gaetano
5. The Innovative Character of the Suárezian Project in its Proper Historical Context
Victor M. Salas
6. New Models of Church Government: Innovation in Catholic Ecclesiology, ca. 1600–1800
Shaun Blanchard
7. At the Fringes of the Church: The Ecclesial Status of Heretics and their Baptized Children in Early Modern Ecclesiology
Eric DeMeuse
8. The Invention of Probabilism
Emanuele Colombo
9. Natural Law and Cultural Difference: innovations in Spanish scholasticism
Elisabeth Rain Kincaid
10. Duns Scotus and the Making of Modern Catholic Theology
Trent Pomplun
11. The Invention of Early Modern Mariology
Damien Tricoire
Pastor Aeternus, which proclaimed papal infallibility and the pope’s supreme and universal jurisdiction, was in part a response to contemporary challenges. But the concrete machinery of the modern ultramontane papacy which made such definitions possible was forged in the internecine early modern struggles against Jansenism and various forms of conciliarism, from about 1650 to 1800. By the eve of Vatican I, even some of those with serious hesitations about the prudence of a definition of papal infallibility, such as John Henry Newman, were in substantial agreement with champions of a definition, like Cardinal Manning, regarding which early modern papal teachings could be considered infallible (in documents like Unigenitus and Auctorem fidei). The fact that many contemporary Catholic theologians see only the definitions of 1854 and 1950 as exercises of extraordinary papal infallibility lends added interest to this examination.
"Toward the end of his magisterial study of Catholic ecclesiological struggles spanning 1300 to 1870 CE, Francis Oakley employed a striking image to illustrate the victory of papalism over conciliarism. After Vatican I, the “solitary horseman” left on a desolate “ecclesiological battlefield” many centuries in the making was “none other than the resilient ghost of Bellarmine.” By this image, Oakley meant that Pastor Aeternus’ twin definitions of papal infallibility and jurisdictional supremacy represented the definitive triumph of the ultramontane school, as typified by the counter-reformation Jesuit Cardinal Robert Bellarmine. For Oakley—and in this point he echoed a common interpretation—Vatican I consigned conciliar and constitutionalist Catholic ecclesiologies to “oblivion.”"
First, I revisit Trent’s decree on Scripture (1546). Due to the interventions of two Italians (Nacchianti, the Bishop of Chioggia, and Bonuccio, the General of the Servites), the question of the relationship between scripture and tradition was left open – that is, the “two-source” partim-partim theory was not dogmatically enshrined. This was an important episode wherein a tiny minority gained a critical concession. I argue that this minority intervention bore fruit not only in a final Tridentine document that better echoed the faith of the ages, but also bore fruit centuries later at Vatican II in Dei verbum.
Second, I argue that the minority at Vatican I protected the Church from extreme ultramontanism. This relatively large and intellectually powerful minority, many of them rooted in Gallicanism, played a key role in tempering a dogmatic proclamation that was further balanced and interpreted a century later in Lumen gentium and Christus Dominus.
I conclude by suggesting theologians should look for ways in which the minority at Vatican II could serve future generations of Catholics in unforeseen ways.
This is a pre-review copy of the publication of this essay in Pro Ecclesia 25 (Winter 2016).
This book sheds further light on the nature of church reform and the roots of the Second Vatican Council (1962-65) through a study of eighteenth-century Catholic reformers who anticipated Vatican II. The most striking of these examples is the Synod of Pistoia (1786), the high-water mark of "late Jansenism." Most of the reforms of the Synod were harshly condemned by Pope Pius VI in the Bull Auctorem fidei (1794), and late Jansenism was totally discredited in the increasingly ultramontane nineteenth-century Catholic Church. Nevertheless, many of the reforms implicit or explicit in the Pistoian agenda - such as an exaltation of the role of bishops, an emphasis on infallibility as a gift to the entire church, religious liberty, a simpler and more comprehensible liturgy that incorporates the vernacular, and the encouragement of lay Bible reading and Christocentric devotions - were officially promulgated at Vatican II. The first chapter describes the nature of Vatican II reform as ressourcement, aggiornamento, and the development of doctrine. The "hermeneutic of reform," proposed by Pope Benedict XVI and approved of by John O'Malley, is put forward as a way past the dead-end of "continuity" and "discontinuity" debates. Chapter two pushes back the story of the roots of Vatican II to the eighteenth century, in which a variety of reform movements, including the Catholic Enlightenment, attempted ressourcement and aggiornamento. The next two chapters investigate the context and reforms enacted by Bishop Scipione de'Ricci (1741-1810) and the Synod of Pistoia, paying special attention to their parallels with Vatican II, and arguing that some of these connections are deeper than mere surface-level affinity. Chapter five considers the reception of Pistoia, shows why these reforms failed, and uses the criteria of Yves Congar to judge them as "true or false reform." The final chapter proves that the Synod was a "ghost" present at the Council. The council fathers struggled with, and ultimately enacted, many of the same ideas. This study complexifies the story of the roots of the Council, the nature of Catholic reform, and the manner in which the contemporary church is continuous and discontinuous with the past.
Innovation in Early Modern Catholicism reveals that the period between 1550 and 1700 emerged as an intellectually vibrant atmosphere, shaped by the tensions between personal creativity and magisterial authority. The essays explore ideas about grace, physical predetermination, freedom, and probabilism in order to show how the rhetoric of innovation and tradition can be better understood. More importantly, contributors illustrate how disintegrated historiographies, which often excluded Catholicism as a source of innovation, can be overcome. Not only were new systems of metaphysics crafted in the early modern period, but so too was a new conceptual language to deal with the pressing problems of human freedom and grace, natural law, and Marian piety. Overall, the volume shines significant light on hitherto neglected or misunderstood traits in the understanding of early modern Catholic culture.
Re-presenting early modern Catholicism more crucially than any other currently available study, Innovation in Early Modern Catholicism is a useful tool for advanced undergraduates, postgraduates, and scholars in the fields of philosophy, early modern studies, and the history of theology.
1. Introduction: Innovation and Creativity in Early Modern Catholicism
Ulrich L. Lehner
2. The Rhetoric of Innovation and Constancy in Early Modern Catholicism
Ulrich L. Lehner
3. Catholic Theology and Doctrinal Novelty in the Quarrel over Grace: Theological schools, innovations, and pluralism during the Molinism Controversy
Sylvio Hermann De Francheschi
4. Faithfulness and Novelty in Early Modern Thomism: The Dionysian Dimension of Physical Predetermination
Matthew Gaetano
5. The Innovative Character of the Suárezian Project in its Proper Historical Context
Victor M. Salas
6. New Models of Church Government: Innovation in Catholic Ecclesiology, ca. 1600–1800
Shaun Blanchard
7. At the Fringes of the Church: The Ecclesial Status of Heretics and their Baptized Children in Early Modern Ecclesiology
Eric DeMeuse
8. The Invention of Probabilism
Emanuele Colombo
9. Natural Law and Cultural Difference: innovations in Spanish scholasticism
Elisabeth Rain Kincaid
10. Duns Scotus and the Making of Modern Catholic Theology
Trent Pomplun
11. The Invention of Early Modern Mariology
Damien Tricoire
Pastor Aeternus, which proclaimed papal infallibility and the pope’s supreme and universal jurisdiction, was in part a response to contemporary challenges. But the concrete machinery of the modern ultramontane papacy which made such definitions possible was forged in the internecine early modern struggles against Jansenism and various forms of conciliarism, from about 1650 to 1800. By the eve of Vatican I, even some of those with serious hesitations about the prudence of a definition of papal infallibility, such as John Henry Newman, were in substantial agreement with champions of a definition, like Cardinal Manning, regarding which early modern papal teachings could be considered infallible (in documents like Unigenitus and Auctorem fidei). The fact that many contemporary Catholic theologians see only the definitions of 1854 and 1950 as exercises of extraordinary papal infallibility lends added interest to this examination.
"Toward the end of his magisterial study of Catholic ecclesiological struggles spanning 1300 to 1870 CE, Francis Oakley employed a striking image to illustrate the victory of papalism over conciliarism. After Vatican I, the “solitary horseman” left on a desolate “ecclesiological battlefield” many centuries in the making was “none other than the resilient ghost of Bellarmine.” By this image, Oakley meant that Pastor Aeternus’ twin definitions of papal infallibility and jurisdictional supremacy represented the definitive triumph of the ultramontane school, as typified by the counter-reformation Jesuit Cardinal Robert Bellarmine. For Oakley—and in this point he echoed a common interpretation—Vatican I consigned conciliar and constitutionalist Catholic ecclesiologies to “oblivion.”"
First, I revisit Trent’s decree on Scripture (1546). Due to the interventions of two Italians (Nacchianti, the Bishop of Chioggia, and Bonuccio, the General of the Servites), the question of the relationship between scripture and tradition was left open – that is, the “two-source” partim-partim theory was not dogmatically enshrined. This was an important episode wherein a tiny minority gained a critical concession. I argue that this minority intervention bore fruit not only in a final Tridentine document that better echoed the faith of the ages, but also bore fruit centuries later at Vatican II in Dei verbum.
Second, I argue that the minority at Vatican I protected the Church from extreme ultramontanism. This relatively large and intellectually powerful minority, many of them rooted in Gallicanism, played a key role in tempering a dogmatic proclamation that was further balanced and interpreted a century later in Lumen gentium and Christus Dominus.
I conclude by suggesting theologians should look for ways in which the minority at Vatican II could serve future generations of Catholics in unforeseen ways.
This is a pre-review copy of the publication of this essay in Pro Ecclesia 25 (Winter 2016).