Mechanisms of social connection: From brain to group., 2014
... How social identification processes affect neurophysiological responses Naomi Ellemers Félice... more ... How social identification processes affect neurophysiological responses Naomi Ellemers Félice van Nunspeet Daan Scheepers ... Cognitive, Emotional, and Behavioral Implications Research in support for this view (for overviews see Ellemers, Spears, & Doosje, 1999; ...
... individuals might be more attuned to potential triggers of changes in the status quo, and rea... more ... individuals might be more attuned to potential triggers of changes in the status quo, and react physiologically threatened when they perceive one (Scheepers & Ellemers, 2005). ... number of heartbeats per minute. In line with Sherwood, Allen, Fahrenberg, Kelsey, Lovallo, & Van ...
Being able to adequately process numbers is a key competency in everyday life. Yet, self-reported... more Being able to adequately process numbers is a key competency in everyday life. Yet, self-reported negative affective responses towards numbers are known to deteriorate numerical performance. Here, we investigated how physiological threat responses predict numerical performance. Physiological responses reflect whether individuals evaluate a task as exceeding or matching their resources and in turn experience either threat or challenge, which influences subsequent performance. We hypothesized that, the more individuals respond to a numerical task with physiological threat, the worse they would perform. Results of an experiment with cardiovascular indicators of threat/challenge corroborated this expectation. The findings thereby contribute to our understanding of the physiological mechanism underlying the influence of negative affective responses towards numbers on numerical performance.
In social groups, individuals are often confronted with evaluations of their behaviour by other g... more In social groups, individuals are often confronted with evaluations of their behaviour by other group members and are motivated to adapt their own behaviour accordingly. In two studies we examine emotional responses towards, and perceived coping abilities with, morality vs. competence evaluations individuals receive from other in-group members. In Study 1, we show that evaluations of one's immoral behaviour primarily induce guilt, whereas evaluations of incompetent behaviour raise anger. In Study 2, we elaborate on the psychological process associated with these emotional responses, and demonstrate that evaluations of immorality, compared to incompetence, diminish group members' perceived coping abilities, which in turn intensifies feelings of guilt. However, when anticipating an opportunity to restore one's self-image as a moral group member, perceived coping abilities are increased and the experience of guilt is alleviated. Together these studies demonstrate how group members can overcome their moral misery when restoring their self-image.
Possessing social power has psychological and biological benefits. For example, during task inter... more Possessing social power has psychological and biological benefits. For example, during task interactions, people high in power are more likely to display a benign cardiovascular (CV) response pattern indicative of "challenge" whereas people low in power are more likely to display a maladaptive CV pattern indicative of "threat" (Scheepers et al., 2012). Challenge is marked by high cardiac output (CO) and low total peripheral resistance (TPR), while threat is marked by low CO and high TPR (Blascovich and Mendes, 2010). In the current work we addressed a possible moderator of the power-threat/challenge relationship, namely the stability of power. We examined the influence of the stability of power (roles could or could not change) on CV responses during a dyadic task where one person was the "chief designer" (high power) and one person was the "assistant" (low power). During the task, different CV-measures were taken [CO, TPR, heart rate, pre-ejection period). Whereas participants in the unstable low power condition showed a stronger tendency toward challenge, participants in the unstable high power condition showed a stronger tendency toward threat. Moreover, participants in the stable low power condition showed CV signs of task disengagement. Results are discussed in terms of the importance of contextual variables in shaping the relationship between power and benign/maladaptive physiological responses.
ABSTRACT Purpose – Negotiations can be stressful, yet are unavoidable in many organizations. Memb... more ABSTRACT Purpose – Negotiations can be stressful, yet are unavoidable in many organizations. Members of organizational workgroups for instance need to negotiate about issues such as task division and different ideas on how to complete a project. Until recently little research effort has been directed to understanding negotiators' stress responses. Similarly, little is known about the consequences that these stress responses may have on negotiation outcomes. In this chapter we argue that group members' physiological stress responses are a key determinant of the outcomes of intragroup negotiations.Design/Methodology/Approach – We focus on two distinct physiological responses (i.e., threat and challenge) and argue that relative to threat responses, challenge responses will be related to superior information sharing, information processing, and decision-making quality. Moving beyond a uniform relationship between physiological reactions and negotiators' behaviors and outcomes, we also focus on two moderating characteristics: the relative power of group members, and whether the negotiation is purely task related, or co-occurs with relationship issues. We discuss effects on both the individual and the group level, extend our ideas to other forms of negotiations, and end with practical and theoretical implications.Originality/Value – A better understanding of psychophysiological processes during intragroup negotiations may help to explain when intragroup disagreements help or hinder group outcomes and, therefore, may help to solve the paradox of intragroup conflict.
While prejudice has often been shown to be rooted in experiences of threat, the biological underp... more While prejudice has often been shown to be rooted in experiences of threat, the biological underpinnings of this threat-prejudice association have received less research attention. The present experiment aims to test whether activations of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, due to anticipated interactions with out-group members, predict self-reported prejudice. Moreover, we explore potential moderators of this relationship (i.e., interpersonal similarity; subtle vs. blatant prejudice). Participants anticipated an interaction with an out-group member who was similar or dissimilar to the self. To index HPA activation, cortisol responses to this event were measured. Then, subtle and blatant prejudices were measured via questionnaires. Findings indicated that only when people anticipated an interaction with an out-group member who was dissimilar to the self, their cortisol response to this event significantly predicted subtle (r = .50) and blatant (r = .53) prejudice. These ...
This study examined how the outcomes of joint decision making relate to cardiovascular reactions ... more This study examined how the outcomes of joint decision making relate to cardiovascular reactions when group members disagree about the decision to be taken. A conflict was experimentally induced during a joint decision-making task, while cardiovascular markers of challenge/threat motivational states were assessed following the biopsychosocial model of challenge and threat (BPSM; J. Blascovich, 2008). Results show that individuals were less likely to adjust their initially preferred decision alternative the more they exhibited a cardiovascular pattern indicative of threat (i.e., relatively high total peripheral resistance and low cardiac output) compared to challenge. This finding extends the BPSM by showing a link between threat and rigidity, and emphasizes the importance of psychophysiological processes for studying intragroup conflict and decision making.
We examined whether women (N ¼ 87) who are exposed to blatant discrimination show different respo... more We examined whether women (N ¼ 87) who are exposed to blatant discrimination show different responses depending on whether they are rejected with reference to positively (''this is something for men'') or negatively (''this is nothing for women'') phrased intergroup differentiation. Based on current insights on responses to discrimination, we predicted and found that those who are exposed to negative differentiation will tend to object to those who rejected them, while positive differentiation is more likely to induce efforts to disprove the validity of the rejection. Female participants facing negative differentiation objected against the discriminatory nature of their rejection and showed cardiovascular reactivity more indicative of threat (and less of challenge) than participants in the positive differentiation condition. In addition, positive differentiation caused participants to disprove the validity of these group-based expectations by claiming the possession of relatively more masculine (and less feminine) traits.
We present two studies demonstrating the implications of having different values (vs. instrumenta... more We present two studies demonstrating the implications of having different values (vs. instrumental concerns) in a situation where people take conflicting positions. Study 1 (N=266) examined how people respond to a range of conflict issues that were framed either as referring to conflicting values or as referring to conflicting interests. Study 2 (N= 77) used a more immersive methodology, in which participants were led to consider either their values or interests in taking up a particular position, after which they were presented with a confederate who took up the opposite position. Results of both studies converge to demonstrate that framing a particular conflict issue in terms of values causes people to experience more self-involvement, and to perceive less common ground. This is seen as a potential explanation of why value conflicts tend to more easily escalate than conflicts of interests, but also offers scope for interventions that try to de-escalate and resolve the conflict by emphasizing instrumental rather than value differences.
A popular theoretical assumption holds that task-related disagreements stimulate critical thinkin... more A popular theoretical assumption holds that task-related disagreements stimulate critical thinking, and thus may improve group decision making. Two recent meta-analyses showed, however, that task conflict can have a positive effect, a negative effect, or no effect at all on decision-making quality (De Dreu & Weingart, 2003; De Wit, Greer, & Jehn, 2012). In two studies, we built upon the suggestion of both meta-analyses that the presence of relationship conflict determines whether a task conflict is positively or negatively related to decision making. We hypothesized and found that the level of perceived relationship conflict during task conflict (Study 1), and the actual presence (vs. absence) of relationship conflict during task conflict (Study 2), increased group members' rigidity in holding onto suboptimal initial preferences during decision making and thus led to poor decisions. In both studies the effect of relationship conflict on decision making was mediated by biased use of information.
Social power can be construed as opportunity (focusing on the possibility of one's own goal achie... more Social power can be construed as opportunity (focusing on the possibility of one's own goal achievement resulting from the control over others' outcomes) or as responsibility (focusing on the implications of one's own actions resulting from the control over others' outcomes). Four experiments tested the impact of different construals of social power on the attraction of power. Due to the salience of the possibility for goal achievement, power construed as opportunity was expected to bemore attractive than power construed as responsibility. This effect was predicted to be particularly pronounced among individuals with a strong promotion orientation, because of their focus on gains and achievements. Results supported these predictions and indicate that future research should take different construals of power into account.
We test the proposition, derived from social identity theory and the subjective group dynamics mo... more We test the proposition, derived from social identity theory and the subjective group dynamics model, that a group member who undermines the in-groupÕs quest for positive status will be perceived as a ''deviant.'' Using a minimal group paradigm, participants (N ¼ 104) were assigned to either a high or a low status group. They were then confronted with an in-group member who claimed that the status differentials were either legitimate or illegitimate. We found that a group member who claimed that the status differences were legitimate in a low status group, or illegitimate in a high status group, was seen as less valuable to the in-group than a more neutral in-group member. Furthermore, such deviants were less likely to be selected for group leadership than neutral group members. Finally, the presence of a deviant undermined the cohesion of the group. The results are discussed in terms of the social functions of deviant rejection for obtaining or preserving positive group distinctiveness.
Mechanisms of social connection: From brain to group., 2014
... How social identification processes affect neurophysiological responses Naomi Ellemers Félice... more ... How social identification processes affect neurophysiological responses Naomi Ellemers Félice van Nunspeet Daan Scheepers ... Cognitive, Emotional, and Behavioral Implications Research in support for this view (for overviews see Ellemers, Spears, & Doosje, 1999; ...
... individuals might be more attuned to potential triggers of changes in the status quo, and rea... more ... individuals might be more attuned to potential triggers of changes in the status quo, and react physiologically threatened when they perceive one (Scheepers & Ellemers, 2005). ... number of heartbeats per minute. In line with Sherwood, Allen, Fahrenberg, Kelsey, Lovallo, & Van ...
Being able to adequately process numbers is a key competency in everyday life. Yet, self-reported... more Being able to adequately process numbers is a key competency in everyday life. Yet, self-reported negative affective responses towards numbers are known to deteriorate numerical performance. Here, we investigated how physiological threat responses predict numerical performance. Physiological responses reflect whether individuals evaluate a task as exceeding or matching their resources and in turn experience either threat or challenge, which influences subsequent performance. We hypothesized that, the more individuals respond to a numerical task with physiological threat, the worse they would perform. Results of an experiment with cardiovascular indicators of threat/challenge corroborated this expectation. The findings thereby contribute to our understanding of the physiological mechanism underlying the influence of negative affective responses towards numbers on numerical performance.
In social groups, individuals are often confronted with evaluations of their behaviour by other g... more In social groups, individuals are often confronted with evaluations of their behaviour by other group members and are motivated to adapt their own behaviour accordingly. In two studies we examine emotional responses towards, and perceived coping abilities with, morality vs. competence evaluations individuals receive from other in-group members. In Study 1, we show that evaluations of one's immoral behaviour primarily induce guilt, whereas evaluations of incompetent behaviour raise anger. In Study 2, we elaborate on the psychological process associated with these emotional responses, and demonstrate that evaluations of immorality, compared to incompetence, diminish group members' perceived coping abilities, which in turn intensifies feelings of guilt. However, when anticipating an opportunity to restore one's self-image as a moral group member, perceived coping abilities are increased and the experience of guilt is alleviated. Together these studies demonstrate how group members can overcome their moral misery when restoring their self-image.
Possessing social power has psychological and biological benefits. For example, during task inter... more Possessing social power has psychological and biological benefits. For example, during task interactions, people high in power are more likely to display a benign cardiovascular (CV) response pattern indicative of "challenge" whereas people low in power are more likely to display a maladaptive CV pattern indicative of "threat" (Scheepers et al., 2012). Challenge is marked by high cardiac output (CO) and low total peripheral resistance (TPR), while threat is marked by low CO and high TPR (Blascovich and Mendes, 2010). In the current work we addressed a possible moderator of the power-threat/challenge relationship, namely the stability of power. We examined the influence of the stability of power (roles could or could not change) on CV responses during a dyadic task where one person was the "chief designer" (high power) and one person was the "assistant" (low power). During the task, different CV-measures were taken [CO, TPR, heart rate, pre-ejection period). Whereas participants in the unstable low power condition showed a stronger tendency toward challenge, participants in the unstable high power condition showed a stronger tendency toward threat. Moreover, participants in the stable low power condition showed CV signs of task disengagement. Results are discussed in terms of the importance of contextual variables in shaping the relationship between power and benign/maladaptive physiological responses.
ABSTRACT Purpose – Negotiations can be stressful, yet are unavoidable in many organizations. Memb... more ABSTRACT Purpose – Negotiations can be stressful, yet are unavoidable in many organizations. Members of organizational workgroups for instance need to negotiate about issues such as task division and different ideas on how to complete a project. Until recently little research effort has been directed to understanding negotiators' stress responses. Similarly, little is known about the consequences that these stress responses may have on negotiation outcomes. In this chapter we argue that group members' physiological stress responses are a key determinant of the outcomes of intragroup negotiations.Design/Methodology/Approach – We focus on two distinct physiological responses (i.e., threat and challenge) and argue that relative to threat responses, challenge responses will be related to superior information sharing, information processing, and decision-making quality. Moving beyond a uniform relationship between physiological reactions and negotiators' behaviors and outcomes, we also focus on two moderating characteristics: the relative power of group members, and whether the negotiation is purely task related, or co-occurs with relationship issues. We discuss effects on both the individual and the group level, extend our ideas to other forms of negotiations, and end with practical and theoretical implications.Originality/Value – A better understanding of psychophysiological processes during intragroup negotiations may help to explain when intragroup disagreements help or hinder group outcomes and, therefore, may help to solve the paradox of intragroup conflict.
While prejudice has often been shown to be rooted in experiences of threat, the biological underp... more While prejudice has often been shown to be rooted in experiences of threat, the biological underpinnings of this threat-prejudice association have received less research attention. The present experiment aims to test whether activations of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, due to anticipated interactions with out-group members, predict self-reported prejudice. Moreover, we explore potential moderators of this relationship (i.e., interpersonal similarity; subtle vs. blatant prejudice). Participants anticipated an interaction with an out-group member who was similar or dissimilar to the self. To index HPA activation, cortisol responses to this event were measured. Then, subtle and blatant prejudices were measured via questionnaires. Findings indicated that only when people anticipated an interaction with an out-group member who was dissimilar to the self, their cortisol response to this event significantly predicted subtle (r = .50) and blatant (r = .53) prejudice. These ...
This study examined how the outcomes of joint decision making relate to cardiovascular reactions ... more This study examined how the outcomes of joint decision making relate to cardiovascular reactions when group members disagree about the decision to be taken. A conflict was experimentally induced during a joint decision-making task, while cardiovascular markers of challenge/threat motivational states were assessed following the biopsychosocial model of challenge and threat (BPSM; J. Blascovich, 2008). Results show that individuals were less likely to adjust their initially preferred decision alternative the more they exhibited a cardiovascular pattern indicative of threat (i.e., relatively high total peripheral resistance and low cardiac output) compared to challenge. This finding extends the BPSM by showing a link between threat and rigidity, and emphasizes the importance of psychophysiological processes for studying intragroup conflict and decision making.
We examined whether women (N ¼ 87) who are exposed to blatant discrimination show different respo... more We examined whether women (N ¼ 87) who are exposed to blatant discrimination show different responses depending on whether they are rejected with reference to positively (''this is something for men'') or negatively (''this is nothing for women'') phrased intergroup differentiation. Based on current insights on responses to discrimination, we predicted and found that those who are exposed to negative differentiation will tend to object to those who rejected them, while positive differentiation is more likely to induce efforts to disprove the validity of the rejection. Female participants facing negative differentiation objected against the discriminatory nature of their rejection and showed cardiovascular reactivity more indicative of threat (and less of challenge) than participants in the positive differentiation condition. In addition, positive differentiation caused participants to disprove the validity of these group-based expectations by claiming the possession of relatively more masculine (and less feminine) traits.
We present two studies demonstrating the implications of having different values (vs. instrumenta... more We present two studies demonstrating the implications of having different values (vs. instrumental concerns) in a situation where people take conflicting positions. Study 1 (N=266) examined how people respond to a range of conflict issues that were framed either as referring to conflicting values or as referring to conflicting interests. Study 2 (N= 77) used a more immersive methodology, in which participants were led to consider either their values or interests in taking up a particular position, after which they were presented with a confederate who took up the opposite position. Results of both studies converge to demonstrate that framing a particular conflict issue in terms of values causes people to experience more self-involvement, and to perceive less common ground. This is seen as a potential explanation of why value conflicts tend to more easily escalate than conflicts of interests, but also offers scope for interventions that try to de-escalate and resolve the conflict by emphasizing instrumental rather than value differences.
A popular theoretical assumption holds that task-related disagreements stimulate critical thinkin... more A popular theoretical assumption holds that task-related disagreements stimulate critical thinking, and thus may improve group decision making. Two recent meta-analyses showed, however, that task conflict can have a positive effect, a negative effect, or no effect at all on decision-making quality (De Dreu & Weingart, 2003; De Wit, Greer, & Jehn, 2012). In two studies, we built upon the suggestion of both meta-analyses that the presence of relationship conflict determines whether a task conflict is positively or negatively related to decision making. We hypothesized and found that the level of perceived relationship conflict during task conflict (Study 1), and the actual presence (vs. absence) of relationship conflict during task conflict (Study 2), increased group members' rigidity in holding onto suboptimal initial preferences during decision making and thus led to poor decisions. In both studies the effect of relationship conflict on decision making was mediated by biased use of information.
Social power can be construed as opportunity (focusing on the possibility of one's own goal achie... more Social power can be construed as opportunity (focusing on the possibility of one's own goal achievement resulting from the control over others' outcomes) or as responsibility (focusing on the implications of one's own actions resulting from the control over others' outcomes). Four experiments tested the impact of different construals of social power on the attraction of power. Due to the salience of the possibility for goal achievement, power construed as opportunity was expected to bemore attractive than power construed as responsibility. This effect was predicted to be particularly pronounced among individuals with a strong promotion orientation, because of their focus on gains and achievements. Results supported these predictions and indicate that future research should take different construals of power into account.
We test the proposition, derived from social identity theory and the subjective group dynamics mo... more We test the proposition, derived from social identity theory and the subjective group dynamics model, that a group member who undermines the in-groupÕs quest for positive status will be perceived as a ''deviant.'' Using a minimal group paradigm, participants (N ¼ 104) were assigned to either a high or a low status group. They were then confronted with an in-group member who claimed that the status differentials were either legitimate or illegitimate. We found that a group member who claimed that the status differences were legitimate in a low status group, or illegitimate in a high status group, was seen as less valuable to the in-group than a more neutral in-group member. Furthermore, such deviants were less likely to be selected for group leadership than neutral group members. Finally, the presence of a deviant undermined the cohesion of the group. The results are discussed in terms of the social functions of deviant rejection for obtaining or preserving positive group distinctiveness.
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