This study aims to investigate the changes in the mutual recognition between Korea and China from... more This study aims to investigate the changes in the mutual recognition between Korea and China from the late 19th century to the early 20th century, and in the international relationship discerned from here. To discuss these topics, the methodologies of digital humanities based on linguistic big data are used. The objective materials that show the relation and the exchange between modern Korea and China suggest that there had been a constant connection. Based on the frequency and co-occurrence relationship of the term ‘China’ and ‘Jina’, the trend can be divided into three stages. The quarters are 1910 and 1920. Before 1910, the most co-occurred words of ‘China’ and ‘Jina’ were related to history, geography, and academics. After 1920, the most co-occurred words of that related to political and cultural movements in China. Co-occurred words of Japan was related to Japan's political situation and economic exploitation. The results of Chinese database analysis show the change in Korea-China relations since 1830. According to the annual frequency of ‘Joseon’, the trend can be divided into three periods. These three periods are characterized by the traditional regional order, the transition of the East Asian regional order, and the global nationalist and communist movements. Both of two result clearly shows the modern transformation of the regional order in East Asia. In short, the modern text big-data of Korea and China shows meaningful information about the mutual recognition of the two countries in modern era and the change in international relations behind them.
The Society Of Korean Language And Literature, 2021
This study aims to investigate the concept of civilization, which is a key concept that represent... more This study aims to investigate the concept of civilization, which is a key concept that represents a modern transformation of East Asia, and to discuss the relationship between modern Korea and China. Methodologically, a corpus-linguistic approach is adopted to extract and analyze the data such as frequencies, examples, and co-occurred words of ‘civilization’ from each massive corpus. In this study, thus, a quantitative discussion is added into the research scope of civilization, unlike the previous studies, which have only focused on qualitative analysis. This novel approach so-called digital humanities makes it possible to examine the validities of previous researches and discover the fresh points of related discussion. Specifically, it is analyzed comparatively that how the frequencies of civilization changed by year, what the list of high rank co-occurred words is, and what those words’ characteristics are. This kind of discussion shows and confirms the similarities and differences of the concept of civilization between modern Korea and China.
This paper applies the quantitative analysis methodology of corpus linguistics to examine trends ... more This paper applies the quantitative analysis methodology of corpus linguistics to examine trends in literary thought, using data collected from modern magazines, such as Sonyeon, Cheongchun, Changjo, Pyeheo, and Baekjo. The Corpus of Modern Literary Magazines constructed by Hallym Academy of Sciences at Hallym University, was used for this purpose. The analysis mainly focused on the number and the semantic properties of specific keywords, identifying (ir)relevant words in a text and exploring their potential to define text characteristics. The investigation results can be summarized as follows: Baekjo has many keywords which could be associated with romanticism; Baekjo differs from Sonyeon and Cheongchun, which are general-interest magazines with some educative value; and Baekjo is somewhat similar to Changjo and Pyeheo in targeting the literary community.
This paper investigates semantic relation which is captured by the word embedding(Word2vec). As p... more This paper investigates semantic relation which is captured by the word embedding(Word2vec). As precedent researches using this methodology already have reviewed the effectiveness of study on the semantic similarity or relativeness of lexical units, it is focused on that which specific properties could be identified. In particular, not only lexical units but also grammatical units were included in this study as the objects. To sum up, it is hard to say that a certain specific type of relation such as synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, meronymy, or contrastive relation is caught saliently by the word embedding. Rather various types of relations are widely observed since the related words which compose lexical field with target word are extracted under the influence of individual context(especially register). Generally, the results are heavily dependent on the contexts of word usage. Meanwhile, even though it was not enough in terms of grammatical units, there are two small but significant achievements. The first is that the word embedding shows relatively better results in some grammatical categories. And the second is that periphrastic constructions are worthy to be considered equal to single morpheme concerning grammatical function.
The modern term ‘Nangman’ is a transliterated word in the process to translate ‘romanticism’ and ... more The modern term ‘Nangman’ is a transliterated word in the process to translate ‘romanticism’ and ‘romanticist’ into ‘Nangmanjuui’ and ‘Nangmanpa.’ It was introduced into Korea and China after the first creation by Natsume Soseki in 1907. The initial use in Korea was by Paek Dae-jin in TaeSeoMunYeSinBo in 1918, then it had appeared in several types of text such as journals and newspapers. In 1922, it had taken root in the Korean lexical system by being registered in the neologism dictionary, HyeonDaeSinEoSeogUi. ‘Nangman’ and ‘Romang’ are cognate words(paronymy) in contemporary Korean. Their meaning was differentiated; ‘Nangman’ denotes sentimental feelings or atmospheres, and ‘Romang’ denotes dreams or yearnings for something.
This study aims to investigate and establish a methodology for contrasting lexical systems of dia... more This study aims to investigate and establish a methodology for contrasting lexical systems of dialects. It was discussed what kinds of criteria for the sake of cross-classifying could be introduced firstly, and then the trends of researches on dialect vocabulary were reviewed by the results of classification. There are four different criteria; ①start point(directionality) of study(onomasiological vs. semasiological), ②the number of research object(one word vs. multiple words), ③temporal characteristics of study(synchronic vs. diachronic), and ④linguistic level(phonological, morphological, syntactic, lexicological, semantic, or pragmatic study). This research concentrates on the contrast between lexical systems of different dialects. In other words, this takes the stances which ①basically base on onomasiological approach but partially apply semasiological analysis, ②take multiple words as objects of study, ③explore the meaning of words synchronically, and ④contrast the lexical systems. It is a novel and significant study because the contrastive approach to dialects like this is an unfamiliar and neglected research domain. Especially this study does not take for granted standard language as a criterion of comparison for dialect study.
This study aims to examine the basic ideas, utility, background, and methodological development o... more This study aims to examine the basic ideas, utility, background, and methodological development of the semantic map model, and to validate some theoretical issues. The semantic map is a useful tool for visually representing cross-linguistic regularity or universality in the semantic structure of linguistic forms (e.g., morpheme, word, construction, etc.). To compare and contrast the meanings of different linguistic forms employing a semantic map, an internal structure (conceptual map) of a conceptual space is first constructed to characterize the interrelationship among etic concepts, then a semantic range (semantic map) of linguistic forms can be built upon this conceptual map to show the results of emic categorization. This methodology seeks to render outcomes concisely, and there are often questions about the quantitative sufficiency or qualitative reliability of data, as well as about configurational methods and the universal relevance of conceptual maps. Nevertheless, it is hard to deny the power and utility of the semantic map model in contrastive linguistics or in typological studies, since it originates from a long tradition of research into meaning, and it has an intuitive visual clarity. This study also considers the future use of semantic map models and network visualizations which will be based on vast linguistic resources, anticipating how valuable such tools will be for conceptual history research which explores the complex dynamic relationship between language and reality.
This paper aims to investigate various linguistic strategies of counterfactuality in a simple cla... more This paper aims to investigate various linguistic strategies of counterfactuality in a simple clause and their semantic/ grammatical properties. First of all, a typology of counterfactuality in a simple clause was shown and some instances handled in cross-linguistic researches illustrated together. Then, it was particularly examined how counterfactuality appears in a simple clause in Korean. There are three types of counterfactual constructions; dedicated markers and conditional constructions in a level of encoded meaning, and constructions combining irrealis element and past tense marker in a level of pragmatic implicature. Through this inquiry, the two things which are worthy of being commented are confirmed. One is the fact that various constructions, which denote counterfactuality in a different linguistic level(semantic vs. pragmatic), are coexisting in Korean. The other is the fact that every construction is associated with a certain kind of marker involved in potentiality such as modality or irrealis; dedicated markers are concerned with emotive modality, conditional constructions and constructions referring to pretense are related to a domain of irrealis, and there are various markers belonging to a subtype of modality in combined constructions. This result could be interpreted from a perspective that potentiality triggers an implication of quantity as indicated in Van linden and Verstraete(2008).
Linguistic expressions for comparing quantitative differences between two entities can be divid... more Linguistic expressions for comparing quantitative differences between two entities can be divided into comparative and equative constructions, but linguistic expressions for comparing qualitative differences can be divided into similative and simulative constructions. We examined the status of equative constructions and searched the diversity and features of the constructions from the typological perspective. We introduced at first the comparative concept for equative constructions that ‘express situations in which two referents have a gradable property to the same degree’ for the research. Next, we reorganized criteria for the classification of equative constructions and they are ‘mono-clausal vs. bi-clausal,’ ‘intransitive vs. transitive,’ ‘embedding vs. conjoined,’ ‘equative predicate vs. degree marker vs. standard marker,’ ‘unified vs. separate.’ After applying the criteria for Korean, we were able to recognize three types of equative constructions in Korean. Type is the mono-clausal and intransitive construction, type is the mono-clausal and transitive construction using possessive predicate, and type is the bi-clausal and embedding construction. One can divide these types into eight sub-constructions by means of the detail features of each type. These types reveal typological universals in that they are similar to the types found cross-linguistically. There are also differences like the existence of predicative clauses or the distribution of equative standard markers, and they have some significance because they show the speciality and diversity of equative constructions in Korean.
This paper aims to investigate the emotion of ‘FEAR’, analyze its complex properties, and think a... more This paper aims to investigate the emotion of ‘FEAR’, analyze its complex properties, and think about a motivation of grammatical (not lexical) coding. Because the emotion of ‘FEAR’ consists of epistemicity, negativity, futurity, etc., a consideration of these properties can be useful to enhance our understanding of apprehensive forms in languages. Meanwhile, varieties of linguistic coding of ‘FEAR’ and diachronic paths of apprehensive marker are examined by a notable literature on language typology. As a result, it is figured out that there are diverse varieties between mono-clausal and complex clausal strategies. In addition, it can be assumed that ‘-eulla’ and ‘-eulsera’ in Korean were developed from the forms marking epistemic possibility like as some apprehensive forms in other languages. And then, grammatical properties of ‘-eulla’ and ‘-eulsera’ are discussed based on the above-mentioned contents. First, both of them can appear in a main clause and a subordinate clause, but there is a considerable distributional bias, mostly ‘-eulla’ in a main clause, ‘-eulsera’ in a subordinate clause. Second, there is no restriction in terms of stems of predicate(verb, adjective, copular). Third, 1st, 2nd, 3rd person can be a subject in the sentence. Fourth, negative marker ‘-ji mal-’ can not occur with them. Fifth, they are joined together declarative ending ‘-da’ in the context forming reported clause. Lastly, tense marking of the state-of-affairs considered as an object of fear is distinguished between past and non-past.
This paper aims to discuss the types of ambiguity of a sentence and the
significance of co(n)text... more This paper aims to discuss the types of ambiguity of a sentence and the significance of co(n)text. Prior to dealing with the main issue, two different dimensions of a sentence ― locution vs. utterance ― were divided based on whether a sentence is in connection with context or not. And then it was proposed that the types of ambiguity could be classified according to the dimensions of a sentence and the causes of occurrence. In the dimension of locution, there are three types of ambiguity, i.e. lexical (polysemy, homonymy, and anaphora of demonstratives), phrasal (interpretation of reference), and structural ambiguity (modification and conjunction). In the dimension of utterance, on the other hand, five types of ambiguity are subdivided by contextual factors; referents of deictic element, characteristics of information structure, attitudes of participants, scenes of utterance, and sociocultural background knowledges. Thus, it was checked out that ambiguities are made by various causes from different dimensions of a sentence. Especially in the cases that there are insufficient co(n)texual information, it is impossible to distinguish ambiguity from vagueness because there are various factors that can have an effect on the meaning of a sentence. Actually ambiguity and vagueness are relative characteristics depending on degrees of co(n)textual restriction, and there is no absolute criterion to make a clear distinction between two of them.
This study explores the lexical history of ‘觀光(tourism)’ which is one of the modern neologisms. I... more This study explores the lexical history of ‘觀光(tourism)’ which is one of the modern neologisms. It appears that the term, ‘觀光’ was introduced into the Korean lexical system through two distinct periods and paths; the first introduction was by Chinese after the 5th century, the second by Japanese the late 19th century and the early 20th century. While it is uncertain about the exact timing and the content of introduction of ‘觀光’ from Chinese, those from Japanese can be specified. When ‘觀光’ was introduced by Japanese, it entailed only the meaning of the term, ‘觀光’. The meanings from the Japanese was imported by two routes; the one is an individual relation between Hukuzawa Yukichi and Yu Kil-chun, the other one is a socio-political relation between Japan and Korea. Moreover, this study examines cultural change with the usage pattern of the term, ‘觀光’, in modern Korean language as it had taken root in the Korean lexical system. It is based on the usage in [the Dong-A Daily News Corpus] by decades. While ‘觀光’ was regarded as a mere business and a source of income to earn foreign currencies in the 1950s, it became to reveal multifaceted aspects in the 1960s. From the 1970s to the 1990s, the development of tourism resources was a major issue. Especially, the Mt. Kumkang Tour in the 1990s and medical tourism in the 2000s were a main concerns. And also, culture appeared as the most relative word of ‘觀光’ since the 2000s, so it can be seen as an indirect verification that tourism became a kind of established culture in Korean society.
This paper aims at discussing a possibility of establishing negative marker
‘-ji mal-’(-지 말-) in ... more This paper aims at discussing a possibility of establishing negative marker ‘-ji mal-’(-지 말-) in Korean as a prohibitive marker that is a subtype of deontic modality. As is well-known, ‘-ji mal-’ is not only a negative marker used for forming negative sentences, but also a prohibitive marker in the light of various properties. Distributionally, ‘-ji mal-’ is not used only for imperative and hortative sentences. Semantically, it shows various characteristics of deontic modality differs from imperative mood. Typologically, there are a number of cases in order to form negative sentences by using a prohibitive marker, a kind of special negative morpheme or construction. And there are also various instances that a prohibitive marker is grammaticalized from a verb that denotes <cease> or <stop> in the world languages. ‘-ji mal-’ in Korean, then, is applicable to these two typological phenomena.
We discussed a necessity of establishing a relation of False Friends and made an attempted to con... more We discussed a necessity of establishing a relation of False Friends and made an attempted to contrast the lexical systems of three East Asian languages under Sinosphere - Korean, Chinese, Japanese - based on the relation. We proposed the term ‘the relation of False Friends’ to refer to a relation of that forms are same or similar but meanings are different. Strictly speaking, since, the term Homonymy is not appropriate for the study of lexical contrast among Chinese words in Korean, Chinese, Japanese. When we were discussing the notion of a relation of False Friends, in this context we checked the term False Friends which linguists has accumulated a lot of outcomes especially on European languages. Next, we examined the significances and problems of the existing research of lexical contrast, suggested an orientation of the contrastive research of Chinese words in Korean, Chinese, Japanese, and made an attempt to contrast the lexical systems of the languages by the Chinese words under the subsystem of [LEARNING].
This paper aims at revealing and distinguishing types of sentence meanings and the synonymous rel... more This paper aims at revealing and distinguishing types of sentence meanings and the synonymous relation of them. First of all, types of sentence meanings are divided into locutionary meaning and uttered meaning, and each can be subdivided into designative meaning and interpretative meaning. Based on these classifications, six synonymous constructions that can mean typical [POSSESSION] in the dimension of locutionary meaning are illustrated and analyzed. In this process, it is verified that the meanings of sentences are not to have a homogeneous value in equivalent levels, but to have various kinds of semantic properties in different levels. Given the types of sentence by meaning, there are two kinds of sentential synonymous relation; between meaning-designating sentences or between meaning-interpreted sentences. Actually, six constructions that denote [POSSESSION] are synonymous in a level of meaning-interpreted sentence, not meaning-designating sentence.
This paper aims at investigating various strategies for expressing a concept of ‘wish’ and desi... more This paper aims at investigating various strategies for expressing a concept of ‘wish’ and designating individual grammatical categories of them. The biggest reason for this discussion is that ‘wish’ was little treated conceptual category in Korean linguistics. There are seven ways that could mean ‘wish’; ①optative interpretation of imperative sentence, ②optative interpretation of hortative sentence, ③use of optative sentence marker ‘-soseo’, ④optative interpretation of counterfactual conditional clause led by connective ending ‘-myeon’, ⑤predicative use of verbs denoting ‘wish’, ⑥use of periphrastic construction denoting ‘wish’, ⑦ use of optative modality adverb ‘jebal, budi, amujjorog, etc.’ with the strategies ①-⑥. The grammatical categories of ①-⑦ are as follows. ① and ② are imperative sentence and hortative sentence as grammatical sentence type. These are interpreted as optative when a situation desired by the speaker is out of controllability of the agent. ‘-soseo’ of ③ is an optative sentence marker, and the whole sentence is optative sentence. In this case, it is imperative mood in terms of a property that is expressed by ‘-(eu)ra’ in the indirect quotation clause. ‘-myeon’ of ④ is connective ending, and the clause led by it is a conditional adverbial clause. In ⑤ and ⑦, verbs and modality adverb of ‘wish’ could be set up as a kind of lexical classes. And ⑥ is desiderative (grammatical) modality that is not necessary and have nothing to do with any speech-act. Finally, it is examined that similarities and differences between five periphrastic constructions.
This paper aims to investigate a lexical field of ‘Dative Verbs’ whose meaning indicates an event... more This paper aims to investigate a lexical field of ‘Dative Verbs’ whose meaning indicates an event of [GIVING], and to contrast those verbs of Korean and Chinese. First of all, we excluded various untypical examples and selected canonical ones, then showed properties of each of them with nine distinctive features; [Officialty], [Goodwill], [Politeness], [Obligation], [Charity], [Move-up], [Move-down], [Money], [Goods]. Taking these results, each verb of Korean and Chinese was contrasted mutually. Finally, we presented a stereovisional picture to show that each of verbs occupies a particular domain which is related to distinctive features. While previous studies for a lexical field displayed a simple flat structure, this article rendered a three dimensional bird´s-eye-view. Because lexical(vocabulary) systems of languages are not in perfectly good order with reference to feature values, but in an asymmetric and imbalanced way, this is a more suitable method for giving an overview of such lexical systems. That is, we demonstrated the effective product that corresponds with reality. This elaboration could be a base for understanding and establishing our knowledge of a cluster of words.
This paper is aimed at discussing the concept and types of periphrastic construction and searchin... more This paper is aimed at discussing the concept and types of periphrastic construction and searching the instances of Korean. The term ‘periphrastic construction’ refers to longer, multi-word expressions in place of single words(‘monolectic forms’), and its extension covers a domain of the continuum of syntax-inflection-derivation. The types of periphrasis are subdivided into categorial periphrasis, substitutive periphrasis, and suppletive periphrasis. Categorial periphrasis refers to polylectic forms of a certain language relative to the monolectic forms of another language. Substitutive periphrasis refers to polylectic forms that are able to replace a monolectic forms of the language. Suppletive periphrasis refers to supplying polylectic forms for the inflectional paradigms that are not formed in the regular way. In chapter 4 of this paper, periphrastic constructions that denote grammatical categories such as case, tense, aspect, voice, modality, negation, clausal conjunction in Korean are illustrated. Studying periphrastic constructions can be an effective way to widen our understanding of the grammatical system of a certain language. Because periphrastic constructions are in the process of grammaticalization, they provide us various examples that are useful to research phenomena of grammaticalization. Exploring common ground and difference among synonymous periphrastic constructions contributes to a study of synonymy.
This study aims to discuss a system of semantic relation of vocabulary and elaborate on the so-ca... more This study aims to discuss a system of semantic relation of vocabulary and elaborate on the so-called “oppositive relation”. While discussing this theme, I attempted to set up a system of semantic relation which is a superordinate concept of a lexical relation, and treated each several subordinate relations in more detail. The semantic relation of vocabulary could fall into internal and external relation of the lexeme. The former which is a derivational relation of polysemous senses could be divided into syn-allosemy and anti-allosemy (enantiosemy). The latter split into syntagmatic and paradigmatic relation. Syntagmatic relation covers synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy and contrastive relation and paradigmatic relation does collocation, non-collocation(selectional restriction), and encapsulated relation. From among these, oppositive relation that includes anti-allosemy and antonymy has been a subject for debate. I discussed precedent studies, and argued that oppositive relation is divided into complementary, contrary, correlative, gradual relation according to a directionality that is an intrinsic property of opposition.
This paper aims to search periphrastic constructions that denote a progressive aspect in Korean a... more This paper aims to search periphrastic constructions that denote a progressive aspect in Korean and to investigate the properties and differences of these constructions; ① [Verb-고 있-(Pre)FinalEnding], ②[V-고 계시-(P)FE], ③[V-고 앉았-(P)FE], ④[V-고 자빠졌-(P)FE] and ⑤[V-는 중이-(P)FE]. From the point of view of Construction Grammar, internal and external characteristics of these constructions are analyzed. Then the meanings of constituents of each construction are considered as internal characteristics. And Aktionsart(lexical aspect) of preceding verb and grammatical properties such as addressee honorific and sentence type of following ending are considered as external characteristics. Finally, these are visualized by way of semantic map. In summary, ①[V-고 있-(P)FE] is unmarked construction that covers the most wide functional domains. ②[V-고 계시-(P)FE] has a restriction on [-respect] addressee honorific style such as Hage style, Haera style and Hae style in proposative sentence, and is incompatible with Haera style in imperative sentence. ③[V-고 앉았 -(P)FE], ④[V-고 자빠졌-(P)FE] and ⑤[V-는 중이-(P)FE] are not able to co-occur with proposative sentence and imperative sentence without reference to any addressee honorific.
This study aims to investigate the changes in the mutual recognition between Korea and China from... more This study aims to investigate the changes in the mutual recognition between Korea and China from the late 19th century to the early 20th century, and in the international relationship discerned from here. To discuss these topics, the methodologies of digital humanities based on linguistic big data are used. The objective materials that show the relation and the exchange between modern Korea and China suggest that there had been a constant connection. Based on the frequency and co-occurrence relationship of the term ‘China’ and ‘Jina’, the trend can be divided into three stages. The quarters are 1910 and 1920. Before 1910, the most co-occurred words of ‘China’ and ‘Jina’ were related to history, geography, and academics. After 1920, the most co-occurred words of that related to political and cultural movements in China. Co-occurred words of Japan was related to Japan's political situation and economic exploitation. The results of Chinese database analysis show the change in Korea-China relations since 1830. According to the annual frequency of ‘Joseon’, the trend can be divided into three periods. These three periods are characterized by the traditional regional order, the transition of the East Asian regional order, and the global nationalist and communist movements. Both of two result clearly shows the modern transformation of the regional order in East Asia. In short, the modern text big-data of Korea and China shows meaningful information about the mutual recognition of the two countries in modern era and the change in international relations behind them.
The Society Of Korean Language And Literature, 2021
This study aims to investigate the concept of civilization, which is a key concept that represent... more This study aims to investigate the concept of civilization, which is a key concept that represents a modern transformation of East Asia, and to discuss the relationship between modern Korea and China. Methodologically, a corpus-linguistic approach is adopted to extract and analyze the data such as frequencies, examples, and co-occurred words of ‘civilization’ from each massive corpus. In this study, thus, a quantitative discussion is added into the research scope of civilization, unlike the previous studies, which have only focused on qualitative analysis. This novel approach so-called digital humanities makes it possible to examine the validities of previous researches and discover the fresh points of related discussion. Specifically, it is analyzed comparatively that how the frequencies of civilization changed by year, what the list of high rank co-occurred words is, and what those words’ characteristics are. This kind of discussion shows and confirms the similarities and differences of the concept of civilization between modern Korea and China.
This paper applies the quantitative analysis methodology of corpus linguistics to examine trends ... more This paper applies the quantitative analysis methodology of corpus linguistics to examine trends in literary thought, using data collected from modern magazines, such as Sonyeon, Cheongchun, Changjo, Pyeheo, and Baekjo. The Corpus of Modern Literary Magazines constructed by Hallym Academy of Sciences at Hallym University, was used for this purpose. The analysis mainly focused on the number and the semantic properties of specific keywords, identifying (ir)relevant words in a text and exploring their potential to define text characteristics. The investigation results can be summarized as follows: Baekjo has many keywords which could be associated with romanticism; Baekjo differs from Sonyeon and Cheongchun, which are general-interest magazines with some educative value; and Baekjo is somewhat similar to Changjo and Pyeheo in targeting the literary community.
This paper investigates semantic relation which is captured by the word embedding(Word2vec). As p... more This paper investigates semantic relation which is captured by the word embedding(Word2vec). As precedent researches using this methodology already have reviewed the effectiveness of study on the semantic similarity or relativeness of lexical units, it is focused on that which specific properties could be identified. In particular, not only lexical units but also grammatical units were included in this study as the objects. To sum up, it is hard to say that a certain specific type of relation such as synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, meronymy, or contrastive relation is caught saliently by the word embedding. Rather various types of relations are widely observed since the related words which compose lexical field with target word are extracted under the influence of individual context(especially register). Generally, the results are heavily dependent on the contexts of word usage. Meanwhile, even though it was not enough in terms of grammatical units, there are two small but significant achievements. The first is that the word embedding shows relatively better results in some grammatical categories. And the second is that periphrastic constructions are worthy to be considered equal to single morpheme concerning grammatical function.
The modern term ‘Nangman’ is a transliterated word in the process to translate ‘romanticism’ and ... more The modern term ‘Nangman’ is a transliterated word in the process to translate ‘romanticism’ and ‘romanticist’ into ‘Nangmanjuui’ and ‘Nangmanpa.’ It was introduced into Korea and China after the first creation by Natsume Soseki in 1907. The initial use in Korea was by Paek Dae-jin in TaeSeoMunYeSinBo in 1918, then it had appeared in several types of text such as journals and newspapers. In 1922, it had taken root in the Korean lexical system by being registered in the neologism dictionary, HyeonDaeSinEoSeogUi. ‘Nangman’ and ‘Romang’ are cognate words(paronymy) in contemporary Korean. Their meaning was differentiated; ‘Nangman’ denotes sentimental feelings or atmospheres, and ‘Romang’ denotes dreams or yearnings for something.
This study aims to investigate and establish a methodology for contrasting lexical systems of dia... more This study aims to investigate and establish a methodology for contrasting lexical systems of dialects. It was discussed what kinds of criteria for the sake of cross-classifying could be introduced firstly, and then the trends of researches on dialect vocabulary were reviewed by the results of classification. There are four different criteria; ①start point(directionality) of study(onomasiological vs. semasiological), ②the number of research object(one word vs. multiple words), ③temporal characteristics of study(synchronic vs. diachronic), and ④linguistic level(phonological, morphological, syntactic, lexicological, semantic, or pragmatic study). This research concentrates on the contrast between lexical systems of different dialects. In other words, this takes the stances which ①basically base on onomasiological approach but partially apply semasiological analysis, ②take multiple words as objects of study, ③explore the meaning of words synchronically, and ④contrast the lexical systems. It is a novel and significant study because the contrastive approach to dialects like this is an unfamiliar and neglected research domain. Especially this study does not take for granted standard language as a criterion of comparison for dialect study.
This study aims to examine the basic ideas, utility, background, and methodological development o... more This study aims to examine the basic ideas, utility, background, and methodological development of the semantic map model, and to validate some theoretical issues. The semantic map is a useful tool for visually representing cross-linguistic regularity or universality in the semantic structure of linguistic forms (e.g., morpheme, word, construction, etc.). To compare and contrast the meanings of different linguistic forms employing a semantic map, an internal structure (conceptual map) of a conceptual space is first constructed to characterize the interrelationship among etic concepts, then a semantic range (semantic map) of linguistic forms can be built upon this conceptual map to show the results of emic categorization. This methodology seeks to render outcomes concisely, and there are often questions about the quantitative sufficiency or qualitative reliability of data, as well as about configurational methods and the universal relevance of conceptual maps. Nevertheless, it is hard to deny the power and utility of the semantic map model in contrastive linguistics or in typological studies, since it originates from a long tradition of research into meaning, and it has an intuitive visual clarity. This study also considers the future use of semantic map models and network visualizations which will be based on vast linguistic resources, anticipating how valuable such tools will be for conceptual history research which explores the complex dynamic relationship between language and reality.
This paper aims to investigate various linguistic strategies of counterfactuality in a simple cla... more This paper aims to investigate various linguistic strategies of counterfactuality in a simple clause and their semantic/ grammatical properties. First of all, a typology of counterfactuality in a simple clause was shown and some instances handled in cross-linguistic researches illustrated together. Then, it was particularly examined how counterfactuality appears in a simple clause in Korean. There are three types of counterfactual constructions; dedicated markers and conditional constructions in a level of encoded meaning, and constructions combining irrealis element and past tense marker in a level of pragmatic implicature. Through this inquiry, the two things which are worthy of being commented are confirmed. One is the fact that various constructions, which denote counterfactuality in a different linguistic level(semantic vs. pragmatic), are coexisting in Korean. The other is the fact that every construction is associated with a certain kind of marker involved in potentiality such as modality or irrealis; dedicated markers are concerned with emotive modality, conditional constructions and constructions referring to pretense are related to a domain of irrealis, and there are various markers belonging to a subtype of modality in combined constructions. This result could be interpreted from a perspective that potentiality triggers an implication of quantity as indicated in Van linden and Verstraete(2008).
Linguistic expressions for comparing quantitative differences between two entities can be divid... more Linguistic expressions for comparing quantitative differences between two entities can be divided into comparative and equative constructions, but linguistic expressions for comparing qualitative differences can be divided into similative and simulative constructions. We examined the status of equative constructions and searched the diversity and features of the constructions from the typological perspective. We introduced at first the comparative concept for equative constructions that ‘express situations in which two referents have a gradable property to the same degree’ for the research. Next, we reorganized criteria for the classification of equative constructions and they are ‘mono-clausal vs. bi-clausal,’ ‘intransitive vs. transitive,’ ‘embedding vs. conjoined,’ ‘equative predicate vs. degree marker vs. standard marker,’ ‘unified vs. separate.’ After applying the criteria for Korean, we were able to recognize three types of equative constructions in Korean. Type is the mono-clausal and intransitive construction, type is the mono-clausal and transitive construction using possessive predicate, and type is the bi-clausal and embedding construction. One can divide these types into eight sub-constructions by means of the detail features of each type. These types reveal typological universals in that they are similar to the types found cross-linguistically. There are also differences like the existence of predicative clauses or the distribution of equative standard markers, and they have some significance because they show the speciality and diversity of equative constructions in Korean.
This paper aims to investigate the emotion of ‘FEAR’, analyze its complex properties, and think a... more This paper aims to investigate the emotion of ‘FEAR’, analyze its complex properties, and think about a motivation of grammatical (not lexical) coding. Because the emotion of ‘FEAR’ consists of epistemicity, negativity, futurity, etc., a consideration of these properties can be useful to enhance our understanding of apprehensive forms in languages. Meanwhile, varieties of linguistic coding of ‘FEAR’ and diachronic paths of apprehensive marker are examined by a notable literature on language typology. As a result, it is figured out that there are diverse varieties between mono-clausal and complex clausal strategies. In addition, it can be assumed that ‘-eulla’ and ‘-eulsera’ in Korean were developed from the forms marking epistemic possibility like as some apprehensive forms in other languages. And then, grammatical properties of ‘-eulla’ and ‘-eulsera’ are discussed based on the above-mentioned contents. First, both of them can appear in a main clause and a subordinate clause, but there is a considerable distributional bias, mostly ‘-eulla’ in a main clause, ‘-eulsera’ in a subordinate clause. Second, there is no restriction in terms of stems of predicate(verb, adjective, copular). Third, 1st, 2nd, 3rd person can be a subject in the sentence. Fourth, negative marker ‘-ji mal-’ can not occur with them. Fifth, they are joined together declarative ending ‘-da’ in the context forming reported clause. Lastly, tense marking of the state-of-affairs considered as an object of fear is distinguished between past and non-past.
This paper aims to discuss the types of ambiguity of a sentence and the
significance of co(n)text... more This paper aims to discuss the types of ambiguity of a sentence and the significance of co(n)text. Prior to dealing with the main issue, two different dimensions of a sentence ― locution vs. utterance ― were divided based on whether a sentence is in connection with context or not. And then it was proposed that the types of ambiguity could be classified according to the dimensions of a sentence and the causes of occurrence. In the dimension of locution, there are three types of ambiguity, i.e. lexical (polysemy, homonymy, and anaphora of demonstratives), phrasal (interpretation of reference), and structural ambiguity (modification and conjunction). In the dimension of utterance, on the other hand, five types of ambiguity are subdivided by contextual factors; referents of deictic element, characteristics of information structure, attitudes of participants, scenes of utterance, and sociocultural background knowledges. Thus, it was checked out that ambiguities are made by various causes from different dimensions of a sentence. Especially in the cases that there are insufficient co(n)texual information, it is impossible to distinguish ambiguity from vagueness because there are various factors that can have an effect on the meaning of a sentence. Actually ambiguity and vagueness are relative characteristics depending on degrees of co(n)textual restriction, and there is no absolute criterion to make a clear distinction between two of them.
This study explores the lexical history of ‘觀光(tourism)’ which is one of the modern neologisms. I... more This study explores the lexical history of ‘觀光(tourism)’ which is one of the modern neologisms. It appears that the term, ‘觀光’ was introduced into the Korean lexical system through two distinct periods and paths; the first introduction was by Chinese after the 5th century, the second by Japanese the late 19th century and the early 20th century. While it is uncertain about the exact timing and the content of introduction of ‘觀光’ from Chinese, those from Japanese can be specified. When ‘觀光’ was introduced by Japanese, it entailed only the meaning of the term, ‘觀光’. The meanings from the Japanese was imported by two routes; the one is an individual relation between Hukuzawa Yukichi and Yu Kil-chun, the other one is a socio-political relation between Japan and Korea. Moreover, this study examines cultural change with the usage pattern of the term, ‘觀光’, in modern Korean language as it had taken root in the Korean lexical system. It is based on the usage in [the Dong-A Daily News Corpus] by decades. While ‘觀光’ was regarded as a mere business and a source of income to earn foreign currencies in the 1950s, it became to reveal multifaceted aspects in the 1960s. From the 1970s to the 1990s, the development of tourism resources was a major issue. Especially, the Mt. Kumkang Tour in the 1990s and medical tourism in the 2000s were a main concerns. And also, culture appeared as the most relative word of ‘觀光’ since the 2000s, so it can be seen as an indirect verification that tourism became a kind of established culture in Korean society.
This paper aims at discussing a possibility of establishing negative marker
‘-ji mal-’(-지 말-) in ... more This paper aims at discussing a possibility of establishing negative marker ‘-ji mal-’(-지 말-) in Korean as a prohibitive marker that is a subtype of deontic modality. As is well-known, ‘-ji mal-’ is not only a negative marker used for forming negative sentences, but also a prohibitive marker in the light of various properties. Distributionally, ‘-ji mal-’ is not used only for imperative and hortative sentences. Semantically, it shows various characteristics of deontic modality differs from imperative mood. Typologically, there are a number of cases in order to form negative sentences by using a prohibitive marker, a kind of special negative morpheme or construction. And there are also various instances that a prohibitive marker is grammaticalized from a verb that denotes <cease> or <stop> in the world languages. ‘-ji mal-’ in Korean, then, is applicable to these two typological phenomena.
We discussed a necessity of establishing a relation of False Friends and made an attempted to con... more We discussed a necessity of establishing a relation of False Friends and made an attempted to contrast the lexical systems of three East Asian languages under Sinosphere - Korean, Chinese, Japanese - based on the relation. We proposed the term ‘the relation of False Friends’ to refer to a relation of that forms are same or similar but meanings are different. Strictly speaking, since, the term Homonymy is not appropriate for the study of lexical contrast among Chinese words in Korean, Chinese, Japanese. When we were discussing the notion of a relation of False Friends, in this context we checked the term False Friends which linguists has accumulated a lot of outcomes especially on European languages. Next, we examined the significances and problems of the existing research of lexical contrast, suggested an orientation of the contrastive research of Chinese words in Korean, Chinese, Japanese, and made an attempt to contrast the lexical systems of the languages by the Chinese words under the subsystem of [LEARNING].
This paper aims at revealing and distinguishing types of sentence meanings and the synonymous rel... more This paper aims at revealing and distinguishing types of sentence meanings and the synonymous relation of them. First of all, types of sentence meanings are divided into locutionary meaning and uttered meaning, and each can be subdivided into designative meaning and interpretative meaning. Based on these classifications, six synonymous constructions that can mean typical [POSSESSION] in the dimension of locutionary meaning are illustrated and analyzed. In this process, it is verified that the meanings of sentences are not to have a homogeneous value in equivalent levels, but to have various kinds of semantic properties in different levels. Given the types of sentence by meaning, there are two kinds of sentential synonymous relation; between meaning-designating sentences or between meaning-interpreted sentences. Actually, six constructions that denote [POSSESSION] are synonymous in a level of meaning-interpreted sentence, not meaning-designating sentence.
This paper aims at investigating various strategies for expressing a concept of ‘wish’ and desi... more This paper aims at investigating various strategies for expressing a concept of ‘wish’ and designating individual grammatical categories of them. The biggest reason for this discussion is that ‘wish’ was little treated conceptual category in Korean linguistics. There are seven ways that could mean ‘wish’; ①optative interpretation of imperative sentence, ②optative interpretation of hortative sentence, ③use of optative sentence marker ‘-soseo’, ④optative interpretation of counterfactual conditional clause led by connective ending ‘-myeon’, ⑤predicative use of verbs denoting ‘wish’, ⑥use of periphrastic construction denoting ‘wish’, ⑦ use of optative modality adverb ‘jebal, budi, amujjorog, etc.’ with the strategies ①-⑥. The grammatical categories of ①-⑦ are as follows. ① and ② are imperative sentence and hortative sentence as grammatical sentence type. These are interpreted as optative when a situation desired by the speaker is out of controllability of the agent. ‘-soseo’ of ③ is an optative sentence marker, and the whole sentence is optative sentence. In this case, it is imperative mood in terms of a property that is expressed by ‘-(eu)ra’ in the indirect quotation clause. ‘-myeon’ of ④ is connective ending, and the clause led by it is a conditional adverbial clause. In ⑤ and ⑦, verbs and modality adverb of ‘wish’ could be set up as a kind of lexical classes. And ⑥ is desiderative (grammatical) modality that is not necessary and have nothing to do with any speech-act. Finally, it is examined that similarities and differences between five periphrastic constructions.
This paper aims to investigate a lexical field of ‘Dative Verbs’ whose meaning indicates an event... more This paper aims to investigate a lexical field of ‘Dative Verbs’ whose meaning indicates an event of [GIVING], and to contrast those verbs of Korean and Chinese. First of all, we excluded various untypical examples and selected canonical ones, then showed properties of each of them with nine distinctive features; [Officialty], [Goodwill], [Politeness], [Obligation], [Charity], [Move-up], [Move-down], [Money], [Goods]. Taking these results, each verb of Korean and Chinese was contrasted mutually. Finally, we presented a stereovisional picture to show that each of verbs occupies a particular domain which is related to distinctive features. While previous studies for a lexical field displayed a simple flat structure, this article rendered a three dimensional bird´s-eye-view. Because lexical(vocabulary) systems of languages are not in perfectly good order with reference to feature values, but in an asymmetric and imbalanced way, this is a more suitable method for giving an overview of such lexical systems. That is, we demonstrated the effective product that corresponds with reality. This elaboration could be a base for understanding and establishing our knowledge of a cluster of words.
This paper is aimed at discussing the concept and types of periphrastic construction and searchin... more This paper is aimed at discussing the concept and types of periphrastic construction and searching the instances of Korean. The term ‘periphrastic construction’ refers to longer, multi-word expressions in place of single words(‘monolectic forms’), and its extension covers a domain of the continuum of syntax-inflection-derivation. The types of periphrasis are subdivided into categorial periphrasis, substitutive periphrasis, and suppletive periphrasis. Categorial periphrasis refers to polylectic forms of a certain language relative to the monolectic forms of another language. Substitutive periphrasis refers to polylectic forms that are able to replace a monolectic forms of the language. Suppletive periphrasis refers to supplying polylectic forms for the inflectional paradigms that are not formed in the regular way. In chapter 4 of this paper, periphrastic constructions that denote grammatical categories such as case, tense, aspect, voice, modality, negation, clausal conjunction in Korean are illustrated. Studying periphrastic constructions can be an effective way to widen our understanding of the grammatical system of a certain language. Because periphrastic constructions are in the process of grammaticalization, they provide us various examples that are useful to research phenomena of grammaticalization. Exploring common ground and difference among synonymous periphrastic constructions contributes to a study of synonymy.
This study aims to discuss a system of semantic relation of vocabulary and elaborate on the so-ca... more This study aims to discuss a system of semantic relation of vocabulary and elaborate on the so-called “oppositive relation”. While discussing this theme, I attempted to set up a system of semantic relation which is a superordinate concept of a lexical relation, and treated each several subordinate relations in more detail. The semantic relation of vocabulary could fall into internal and external relation of the lexeme. The former which is a derivational relation of polysemous senses could be divided into syn-allosemy and anti-allosemy (enantiosemy). The latter split into syntagmatic and paradigmatic relation. Syntagmatic relation covers synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy and contrastive relation and paradigmatic relation does collocation, non-collocation(selectional restriction), and encapsulated relation. From among these, oppositive relation that includes anti-allosemy and antonymy has been a subject for debate. I discussed precedent studies, and argued that oppositive relation is divided into complementary, contrary, correlative, gradual relation according to a directionality that is an intrinsic property of opposition.
This paper aims to search periphrastic constructions that denote a progressive aspect in Korean a... more This paper aims to search periphrastic constructions that denote a progressive aspect in Korean and to investigate the properties and differences of these constructions; ① [Verb-고 있-(Pre)FinalEnding], ②[V-고 계시-(P)FE], ③[V-고 앉았-(P)FE], ④[V-고 자빠졌-(P)FE] and ⑤[V-는 중이-(P)FE]. From the point of view of Construction Grammar, internal and external characteristics of these constructions are analyzed. Then the meanings of constituents of each construction are considered as internal characteristics. And Aktionsart(lexical aspect) of preceding verb and grammatical properties such as addressee honorific and sentence type of following ending are considered as external characteristics. Finally, these are visualized by way of semantic map. In summary, ①[V-고 있-(P)FE] is unmarked construction that covers the most wide functional domains. ②[V-고 계시-(P)FE] has a restriction on [-respect] addressee honorific style such as Hage style, Haera style and Hae style in proposative sentence, and is incompatible with Haera style in imperative sentence. ③[V-고 앉았 -(P)FE], ④[V-고 자빠졌-(P)FE] and ⑤[V-는 중이-(P)FE] are not able to co-occur with proposative sentence and imperative sentence without reference to any addressee honorific.
Proceedings of the 2019 Pacific Neighborhood Consortium Annual Conference and Joint Meetings (PNC 2019), 2019
This study aims to investigate a concept 'civilization' that is an essential concept that represe... more This study aims to investigate a concept 'civilization' that is an essential concept that represents a modern transformation of East Asia, and to discuss the relationship or similarities and differences between Korea and China. Methodologically, an approach of digital humanities is adopted for extracting and analyzing data from historical materials. Thus the advent, settlement, and change of 'civilization' in Korea and China could be explained and contrasted mutually.
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Papers by Jaehak Do
exploitation. The results of Chinese database analysis show the change in Korea-China relations since 1830. According to the annual frequency of ‘Joseon’, the trend can be divided into three periods. These three periods are characterized by the traditional regional order, the transition of the East Asian regional order, and the global nationalist and communist movements. Both of two result clearly shows the modern transformation of the regional order in East Asia. In short, the modern text big-data
of Korea and China shows meaningful information about the mutual recognition of the two countries in modern era and the change in international relations behind them.
We introduced at first the comparative concept for equative constructions that ‘express situations in which two referents have a gradable property to the same degree’ for the research. Next, we reorganized criteria for the classification of equative constructions and they are ‘mono-clausal vs. bi-clausal,’ ‘intransitive vs. transitive,’ ‘embedding vs. conjoined,’ ‘equative predicate vs. degree marker vs. standard marker,’ ‘unified vs. separate.’
After applying the criteria for Korean, we were able to recognize three types of equative constructions in Korean. Type is the mono-clausal and intransitive construction, type is the mono-clausal and transitive construction using possessive predicate, and type is the bi-clausal and embedding construction. One can divide these types into eight sub-constructions by means of the detail features of each type.
These types reveal typological universals in that they are similar to the types found cross-linguistically. There are also differences like the existence of predicative clauses or the distribution of equative standard markers, and they have some significance because they show the speciality and diversity of equative constructions in Korean.
And then, grammatical properties of ‘-eulla’ and ‘-eulsera’ are discussed based on the above-mentioned contents. First, both of them can appear in a main clause and a subordinate clause, but there is a considerable distributional bias, mostly ‘-eulla’ in a main clause, ‘-eulsera’ in a subordinate clause. Second, there is no restriction in terms of stems of predicate(verb, adjective, copular). Third, 1st, 2nd, 3rd person can be a subject in the sentence. Fourth, negative marker ‘-ji mal-’ can not occur with them. Fifth, they are joined together declarative ending ‘-da’ in the context forming reported clause. Lastly, tense marking of the state-of-affairs considered as an object of fear is distinguished between past and non-past.
significance of co(n)text. Prior to dealing with the main issue, two different dimensions of a sentence ― locution vs. utterance ― were divided based on whether a sentence is in connection with context or not. And then it was proposed that the types of ambiguity could be classified according to the dimensions of a sentence and the causes of occurrence. In the dimension of locution, there are three types of ambiguity, i.e. lexical (polysemy, homonymy, and anaphora of demonstratives), phrasal (interpretation of reference), and structural ambiguity (modification and conjunction). In the dimension of utterance, on the other hand, five types of ambiguity are subdivided by contextual factors; referents of deictic element, characteristics of information structure, attitudes of participants, scenes of utterance, and sociocultural background knowledges. Thus, it was checked out that ambiguities are made by various causes from different dimensions of a sentence. Especially in the cases that there are insufficient co(n)texual information, it is impossible to distinguish ambiguity from vagueness because there are various factors that can have an effect on the meaning of a sentence. Actually ambiguity and vagueness are relative characteristics depending on degrees of co(n)textual restriction, and
there is no absolute criterion to make a clear distinction between two of them.
uncertain about the exact timing and the content of introduction of ‘觀光’ from Chinese, those from Japanese can be specified. When ‘觀光’ was
introduced by Japanese, it entailed only the meaning of the term, ‘觀光’. The meanings from the Japanese was imported by two routes; the one is an individual relation between Hukuzawa Yukichi and Yu Kil-chun, the other one is a socio-political relation between Japan and Korea. Moreover, this study examines cultural change with the usage pattern of the term, ‘觀光’, in modern Korean language as it had taken root in the Korean lexical system. It is based on the usage in [the Dong-A Daily News Corpus] by decades. While ‘觀光’ was regarded as a mere business and a source of income to earn foreign currencies in the 1950s, it became to reveal multifaceted aspects in the 1960s. From the 1970s to the 1990s, the development of tourism resources was a major issue. Especially, the Mt. Kumkang Tour in the 1990s and medical tourism in the 2000s were a main concerns. And also, culture appeared as the most relative word of ‘觀光’ since the 2000s, so it can be seen as an indirect verification that tourism became a kind of established culture in Korean society.
‘-ji mal-’(-지 말-) in Korean as a prohibitive marker that is a subtype of
deontic modality. As is well-known, ‘-ji mal-’ is not only a negative marker
used for forming negative sentences, but also a prohibitive marker in the light
of various properties. Distributionally, ‘-ji mal-’ is not used only for imperative
and hortative sentences. Semantically, it shows various characteristics of
deontic modality differs from imperative mood. Typologically, there are a
number of cases in order to form negative sentences by using a prohibitive
marker, a kind of special negative morpheme or construction. And there are
also various instances that a prohibitive marker is grammaticalized from a verb
that denotes <cease> or <stop> in the world languages. ‘-ji mal-’ in Korean, then,
is applicable to these two typological phenomena.
existing research of lexical contrast, suggested an orientation of the contrastive research of Chinese words in Korean, Chinese, Japanese, and made an attempt to contrast the lexical systems of the languages by the Chinese words under the subsystem of [LEARNING].
there are two kinds of sentential synonymous relation; between
meaning-designating sentences or between meaning-interpreted sentences. Actually, six constructions that denote [POSSESSION] are synonymous in a level of meaning-interpreted sentence, not meaning-designating sentence.
exploitation. The results of Chinese database analysis show the change in Korea-China relations since 1830. According to the annual frequency of ‘Joseon’, the trend can be divided into three periods. These three periods are characterized by the traditional regional order, the transition of the East Asian regional order, and the global nationalist and communist movements. Both of two result clearly shows the modern transformation of the regional order in East Asia. In short, the modern text big-data
of Korea and China shows meaningful information about the mutual recognition of the two countries in modern era and the change in international relations behind them.
We introduced at first the comparative concept for equative constructions that ‘express situations in which two referents have a gradable property to the same degree’ for the research. Next, we reorganized criteria for the classification of equative constructions and they are ‘mono-clausal vs. bi-clausal,’ ‘intransitive vs. transitive,’ ‘embedding vs. conjoined,’ ‘equative predicate vs. degree marker vs. standard marker,’ ‘unified vs. separate.’
After applying the criteria for Korean, we were able to recognize three types of equative constructions in Korean. Type is the mono-clausal and intransitive construction, type is the mono-clausal and transitive construction using possessive predicate, and type is the bi-clausal and embedding construction. One can divide these types into eight sub-constructions by means of the detail features of each type.
These types reveal typological universals in that they are similar to the types found cross-linguistically. There are also differences like the existence of predicative clauses or the distribution of equative standard markers, and they have some significance because they show the speciality and diversity of equative constructions in Korean.
And then, grammatical properties of ‘-eulla’ and ‘-eulsera’ are discussed based on the above-mentioned contents. First, both of them can appear in a main clause and a subordinate clause, but there is a considerable distributional bias, mostly ‘-eulla’ in a main clause, ‘-eulsera’ in a subordinate clause. Second, there is no restriction in terms of stems of predicate(verb, adjective, copular). Third, 1st, 2nd, 3rd person can be a subject in the sentence. Fourth, negative marker ‘-ji mal-’ can not occur with them. Fifth, they are joined together declarative ending ‘-da’ in the context forming reported clause. Lastly, tense marking of the state-of-affairs considered as an object of fear is distinguished between past and non-past.
significance of co(n)text. Prior to dealing with the main issue, two different dimensions of a sentence ― locution vs. utterance ― were divided based on whether a sentence is in connection with context or not. And then it was proposed that the types of ambiguity could be classified according to the dimensions of a sentence and the causes of occurrence. In the dimension of locution, there are three types of ambiguity, i.e. lexical (polysemy, homonymy, and anaphora of demonstratives), phrasal (interpretation of reference), and structural ambiguity (modification and conjunction). In the dimension of utterance, on the other hand, five types of ambiguity are subdivided by contextual factors; referents of deictic element, characteristics of information structure, attitudes of participants, scenes of utterance, and sociocultural background knowledges. Thus, it was checked out that ambiguities are made by various causes from different dimensions of a sentence. Especially in the cases that there are insufficient co(n)texual information, it is impossible to distinguish ambiguity from vagueness because there are various factors that can have an effect on the meaning of a sentence. Actually ambiguity and vagueness are relative characteristics depending on degrees of co(n)textual restriction, and
there is no absolute criterion to make a clear distinction between two of them.
uncertain about the exact timing and the content of introduction of ‘觀光’ from Chinese, those from Japanese can be specified. When ‘觀光’ was
introduced by Japanese, it entailed only the meaning of the term, ‘觀光’. The meanings from the Japanese was imported by two routes; the one is an individual relation between Hukuzawa Yukichi and Yu Kil-chun, the other one is a socio-political relation between Japan and Korea. Moreover, this study examines cultural change with the usage pattern of the term, ‘觀光’, in modern Korean language as it had taken root in the Korean lexical system. It is based on the usage in [the Dong-A Daily News Corpus] by decades. While ‘觀光’ was regarded as a mere business and a source of income to earn foreign currencies in the 1950s, it became to reveal multifaceted aspects in the 1960s. From the 1970s to the 1990s, the development of tourism resources was a major issue. Especially, the Mt. Kumkang Tour in the 1990s and medical tourism in the 2000s were a main concerns. And also, culture appeared as the most relative word of ‘觀光’ since the 2000s, so it can be seen as an indirect verification that tourism became a kind of established culture in Korean society.
‘-ji mal-’(-지 말-) in Korean as a prohibitive marker that is a subtype of
deontic modality. As is well-known, ‘-ji mal-’ is not only a negative marker
used for forming negative sentences, but also a prohibitive marker in the light
of various properties. Distributionally, ‘-ji mal-’ is not used only for imperative
and hortative sentences. Semantically, it shows various characteristics of
deontic modality differs from imperative mood. Typologically, there are a
number of cases in order to form negative sentences by using a prohibitive
marker, a kind of special negative morpheme or construction. And there are
also various instances that a prohibitive marker is grammaticalized from a verb
that denotes <cease> or <stop> in the world languages. ‘-ji mal-’ in Korean, then,
is applicable to these two typological phenomena.
existing research of lexical contrast, suggested an orientation of the contrastive research of Chinese words in Korean, Chinese, Japanese, and made an attempt to contrast the lexical systems of the languages by the Chinese words under the subsystem of [LEARNING].
there are two kinds of sentential synonymous relation; between
meaning-designating sentences or between meaning-interpreted sentences. Actually, six constructions that denote [POSSESSION] are synonymous in a level of meaning-interpreted sentence, not meaning-designating sentence.