1. Sayı (2006-Bahar) by THTA Türk Hukuk Tarihi Araştırmaları
Bu makale, Osmanlı dönem Türk s nemasının hukuk düzen n ncelemey amaçlamaktadır. S nema, Batı'da ... more Bu makale, Osmanlı dönem Türk s nemasının hukuk düzen n ncelemey amaçlamaktadır. S nema, Batı'da ortaya çıktıktan hemen sonra Osmanlı mparatorluğu topraklarına g rm şt r. Osmanlı toplumunda s nemanın yayılmasıyla, s nema hakkında hukuk düzenlemeler yapılması ht yacı doğmuştur. Bazı düzenlemeler yapılmış olmasına rağmen, Osmanlı dönem nde s nema hakkında kapsamlı normların yürürlüğe g rmed ğ görülmekted r. Bu arada hükümet, f lm göster mler hakkındak b reysel başvurulara ve taleplere bazı çözümler gel şt rm şt r. Bazı sınırlamalar öngörmes ne rağmen, Osmanlı mparatorluğu s nemayı kategor k olarak yasaklayıcı b r tavır serg lemem şt r. Bu çalışma, Osmanlı arş v belgeler ışığında Osmanlı Türk s nemasının hukuk düzen n ele almaktadır. Anahtar kel meler: Türk s neması, Osmanlı s nema hukuku, Türk s nema hukuku, Türk k tle let ş m hukuku, Türk s nemasında sansür
In this essay, a few concepts and practical rules that governed Ottoman marine system in the 17th... more In this essay, a few concepts and practical rules that governed Ottoman marine system in the 17th and 18th centuries will be briefly explained. This article focuses on the relations among the joint ownership of ships, ship construction, captains (reisler), ship-boys (tayfalar) and ship-owners as well as on those themes that have been least treated until now, such as the division of the profits of a ship’s journey and the ship permit (izn-i sefine). The study makes a research for the first time on a few institutions and concepts, brings forward certain questions and gives some new information regarding the classical marinership in the Ottoman State. The conclusions of the essay are not based on the theoretical knowledge but indeed on the courts registers, hence practice.
A few interesting points about the sea trade and transportation are made available to the readers; new data concerning the topic are given; and a few unreadable or unclear concepts are also brought to the attentions of the researchers.
Key words: Ottoman maritime system, reis (captain), tayfa (crew), izn-i sefine (ship’s permit)
In the Ottoman Empire before the Tanzimat Era there were no general or abstract rules regulating ... more In the Ottoman Empire before the Tanzimat Era there were no general or abstract rules regulating the activities of publishing or printing. The regulations contained in the legal documents of this period were of a specific kind, known in administrative law as an “individual act”. In the Reform Edicts of 1839 and 1856 there were no regulations regarding publishing or printing. In this period, the foundation of a publishing house and the publication of books and other documents again were regulated by individual acts. However, it is noteworthy that certain general rules had begun to appear in these individual examples. There must have been no need at first for a general regulation, due to the fact that the publishing houses and newspapers belonging to the Turks were of not a significant quantity and quality to affect public opinion or to create a political impact, in spite of the process of codification that started with the Tanzimat Edict. Thus, the first general and abstract regulation was put into force by the promulgation of the Law of Publishing in 1857. This was followed by the Copyright Law of 1857, the Penal Law of 1858, the Laws of Publications of 1864 and the Sublime Decree of 1867.
Key words: Publishing house, publishing and printing, Publishing Laws, Copyright Laws, Laws of Publications, the Sublime Decree.
There were many conflicts arising from the ownership of the miri lands between political and soci... more There were many conflicts arising from the ownership of the miri lands between political and social groups before and after the Tanzimat period in the Ottoman Empire. Illegal attempts to obtain ownership of miri lands had disturbed the State for many years. In order to determine the legal status of miri lands, after they had lost their military function, a new Land Code was promulgated in 1858. The Land Code of 1858 was a general code and, except for some small areas (such as Bosnia and Niş), was applied all over the Ottoman Empire. The Land Code consisted of 132 articles. The provisions of the Land Code of 1858 state how, where and to whom this Code applies. The rights and obligations of civilians and officials, as well as the equirements and conditions for using the miri lands, were set out in this Code. Although most historians and political scientists are of a common conviction that the Land Code was not applied, the records of the Sharia and Nizamiye courts from different parts of the Ottoman Empire prove that the Land Code was applied in every part of Anatolia and Rumeli. In short, this article aims to show and prove that the regulations of the Land Code of 1858 were applied in the Ottoman Empire.
Key words: miri land, tanzimat, land code
The procedurallaws of the Ottoman legal system were based on the idea that the function of the ju... more The procedurallaws of the Ottoman legal system were based on the idea that the function of the judiciary, like all other administrative functions. was controlled by the head of the state. The legal status of judges. who were appointed by the head of state. but acted on behalf of the people. was envisaged on the basis of agency. Thus. matters pertaining to their appointment. duties and rights were decided within this framework. From early times on. the judiciary was defined within certain principles: while the judges were. in principle, charged with overlocking all cases. without any delineation. later on certain limitations were imposed, owing to changing circumstances. The right of judging certain individuals and of trying cases which were prone to mistreatment or which involved more than a certain amount of money was taken away from the jurisdiction of the general courts and relegated to the courts of Divan-i Hümayun or Kazasker to facilitate a fa irer trial. As to the place of jurisdiction. it seems that the place where the defendant lived was taken into account. with real estate cases or cases that had special features having different rules applied. However, s ince the rules regarding the duties and jurisdictions of the judges were not immutable according to the exigencies and circumstances of time. applying different rules can be regarded as being within the authority of legislation. Thus. the above developments seem to have emerged in this respect.
The limited documentary sources concerning the birth of the Ottoman state has given rise to certa... more The limited documentary sources concerning the birth of the Ottoman state has given rise to certain speculations. One of these speculations is that the founding elite of this new state at the time when it emerged in the Bthniya region did not be long to followers of Sunni Islam, of which it would later become an integral part from the 15th century on. This essay focuses on the thus far understudied tabakat literature (biographical dictionaries) of the early Ottoman jurists. Confined to the times of Osman, Orhan and Murad I, along with any relevant literature, this article examines, from the point of legal and general history, the extant manuscripts of these first jurists It is concluded that even from the time of Osman, starting with Şeyh Edebali, the ulema who represented classical Islam contributed, in one way or another, to the formation of the Ottoman Empire.
Key words: Ottoman ideology, ulema, the early jurists, Şeyh Edebali.
Türk Hukuk Tarihi Araştırmaları, 2006
The academic degrees in the western learning tradition have a history of more than eight centurie... more The academic degrees in the western learning tradition have a history of more than eight centuries. The earliest doctoral dissertation recorded was submitted in Bologna University towards the middle of the twelfth century, which was in the field of civil law. Throughout the Middle Ages granting licentia docenti in the Western countries remained within the prerogative of Papacy. On the contrary, in the Islamic world “granting ijaza” continued as a “personal” matter between the master and his disciples without there being a formal procedure. In the nineteenth century the degree of “‘alimiyya (scholarschip)” seemed to be used instead of doctorate degree. With the introduction of the law regulating the procedure of granting this degree, the task of the
assessment of the students was not left to the professors; instead an examinational procedure in front of a body of scholars was adopted. In Istanbul, those who complete a four-year program of Darulfunun-i Sultani Hukuk Mektebi would have the right of receiving the title of “Doctor” after passing the required PhD examination. Rupen Ohannes Karakaþyan’s dissertation, which was submitted to the Galatasaray Medrese-i Hukuk-i Şahane, dated Ramazan 1298/July 1881, was, as far as we know, the first PhD dissertation in the field of law. The title of this dissertation, which was about the law of obligations, was “Mecelle madde 804-832, Ariyetin Milel-i Muhtelife ile Tatbiki- Mecelle Articles 804-832: The application of loans according to the various Nations ”. Since in Ottoman lands it was the first PhD dissertation in the modern sense in the field of law, it would be appropriate to put a latinized version of it to the academic world.
Key words: doctoral dissertation, alimiyya, ijaza, Darulfunun-i Sultani Hukuk Mektebi, Galatasaray, Medrese-i Hukuk-i Şahane
2. Sayı (2006-Güz) by THTA Türk Hukuk Tarihi Araştırmaları
Acts of Procedural Law of Bulgarian Shar‘iyya Courts in the Post-Ottoman Period and a Draft Code ... more Acts of Procedural Law of Bulgarian Shar‘iyya Courts in the Post-Ottoman Period and a Draft Code of Civil Procedural Law for the Mufti Courts of Bulgaria (1933-1934) Shar‘iyya Court of Bulgaria, which had been an independent institution in the Ottoman period, was brought within the organization of the Office of Mufti after the Bulgarian Principality was founded. These courts, which existed until 1945, carried on its activities according to the Bulgarian Procedural Act for Civil Laws, the general principles of judicial procedures in Islamic law, Regulations pertinent to the administration of the affairs of Bulgarian Muslims dated 1919 and finally the Marriage and Divorce Act (Münâkehât ve Müfârekât Tâlimatnâmesi) of 1924. Between the years1933 and 1934 a draft code of procedural law was prepared by a commission which included, along with others, the Chief-Mufti (Başmüftü) of Bulgaria, but it was not finalized and never implemented. This paper will first explore the background of this draft code and examine its content.
Formal License to Marry (İzinnama) in Ottoman Family Law
Islamic law does not require any conditi... more Formal License to Marry (İzinnama) in Ottoman Family Law
Islamic law does not require any conditions apart from two witnesses for a marriage contract. However, throughout history, Muslim governments have attached importance to the establishment of the marriage contract under the supervision of the government. In the Ottoman Empire, it was customary for a marriage contract to be established by an imam (the prayer leader of a mosque) or the spiritual leaders of other religions after obtaining an izinnâme (letter of authority) from a qadi (judge). It is seen that this became an official obligation from the middle of the XVIth century. This was also when the asking for permission for marriage from the woman’s curator began. Without
obtaining izinnâme from the qadi, the marriages solemnized were not considered invalid, even so, the courts were forbidden to handle discords relating to such marriages. In the XIXth century, punishment
had been stipulated for those who established a marriage contract and those who had a marriage contract established without getting izinnâme from the qadi. In this last century, the imam or the spiritual leader solemnizing a marriage was ordered to report this marriage to the census administration. Imposing such orders by the rulers for the good of the public was not contrary to Islamic law. In fact, this was thought to provide publicity and ease of provability.
Keywords: marriage, izinname (letter of authority), ilmuhaber (information certificate), curator, marriage by an imam, census record, Sultan’s order, fetwa, Ebussuud, marriage fee.
Trial and Social Structure in the Ottoman Criminal Law of the Classical Period
Ottoman criminal l... more Trial and Social Structure in the Ottoman Criminal Law of the Classical Period
Ottoman criminal law was established and standardized earlier than other legal institutions. However, it was sometimes the case that certain privileged groups had the right of idiosyncratic trial. The Askeri class which comprised of the ulama, the military and high officials, were subject to a different trial procedures in the cases related to their offices due to the assumption that their breaking the law was identified as a opposition tu the Sultans authority. Similarly in the cases of marriage,
inheritance and things related to their community affairs, the non-Muslim Ottoman subjects were tried according to their own community laws. The descendants of the Prophet Muhammad, sayyids and sharifs, too, could resort to the courts specifically designed to deal cases related to their status. Despite all these exceptional special treatments, Ottoman criminal law was mainly based on the rules applicable to all and everywhere. Such tenets of the Ottoman political philosophy as the effective execution of the Sultans authority, the centralization of the power and its implication for the provinces, were only facilitated by this inclusive and universal character of Ottoman criminal law.
Keywords: Criminal law, Ottoman law, special treatment, non-Muslim trials, sayyids and sharifs.
The First Law Dictionaries of Turkey (1870-1928)
In nineteenth century, in the Ottoman Empire, bu... more The First Law Dictionaries of Turkey (1870-1928)
In nineteenth century, in the Ottoman Empire, burocratic centralization ve legislation had been formed. In this process a new literature and terminology based on new laws had been put formed. This study focuses a part of this literature and aims to introduce earliest examples of dictionaires which include terms of legal science in the period of Ottoman-Turk modernization. And the study concerns itself with, the time and the conditions under which these dictionaires first emerged,
their various types both in form and content. In this context, I will give information about legal dictionaires and cite introductions of these books.
Key words: Law dictionary, Tanzimat, Law school, Turkish Law.
An Analysis of the Kanunnâmes From the Erzurum Province
Ottomans used to make tahrir application... more An Analysis of the Kanunnâmes From the Erzurum Province
Ottomans used to make tahrir applications in order to collect taxes. In tahrir registers, especially at the beginnings the register or at the beginning of the relevant chapters the officials used to put kanunnâmes about the mentioned district. These kanunnâme which were named sanjak kanunnâmes, were acts whose aim was to include all elements who are subjected to pay tax in a sanjak. After Er-zurum became under Ottomans control, in order to determine the people who can be subjected to pay tax, Erzurum's first kanunnâme the 16 th century new sanjak kanunnâmes were formed. In 17 th century, the timar system was fatally damaged and it became impossible to determine the tahrirs. In order to get out of this chaos the timar system gradually changed into iltizam system. With these changes in the system, the tahrir application was largely given up. This change, also affected the nature of Erzurum kanunnâmes. From then on Erzurum kanunnâmes turned into organizational kanunnâmes. This kanunnâme was edited in relation to the incomes of the treasure. In conclusion, in this study, the kanunnâmes including acts towards the determination of the people who are subjected to pay tax in Erzurum will be introduced chronologically and after that they will be evaluated from conceptual, historiographical and methodological points of view.
Key Words: Province, Sanjak, Organization, Kanunnâme, Law, Erzurum.
Crimes Incurring Ta‘zir Punishments in Ottoman Law Until Tanzimat
Tazir is a punishment for the g... more Crimes Incurring Ta‘zir Punishments in Ottoman Law Until Tanzimat
Tazir is a punishment for the guilts excepting the had, kısas and diyet in the Islamic Criminal Law and its amount is not determined before. The most important tazir punishments are death, ferule, imprisonment, exile, counsel, summon, condemnation, menace, isolation, deposing, exposition and the fiscal ones in the Islamic Law. And, Islamic Law is practiced basically in the Criminal Law as in the every field of the law in the Ottoman Empire. If the had and kýsas are defective for the guilt, then the tazir is practiced in the Ottoman Criminal Law. In addition to this, tazir is also came to agenda for the offences against the common convenances, family life and the state administration and the perjury. Some tazir punishments in the Ottoman Criminal Law are similar to the Islamic Criminal Law, like death, imprisonment, exile, counsel and deposing. However, some tazir punishments are the distinctive sides of the Ottoman Criminal Law like servitude and the fixing of the fines according to the revenues of the people.
Key words: Islamic Criminal Law, Ottoman Criminal Law, Tazir.
3. Sayı (2007-Bahar) by THTA Türk Hukuk Tarihi Araştırmaları
It is a well known fact that individual human beings occasionally feel the need to borrow in soci... more It is a well known fact that individual human beings occasionally feel the need to borrow in social life. This state of affairs has let to the emergence of individuals and institutions in every epoch of history professionalizing in the field of lending money on the basis of some interest revenue. However, receiving interest was banned by all monotheist religions. Accordingly, it was observed that the Ottoman Ulema, renown with their strict loyalty to Islamic principles, have banned all forms of interest with clear and unambiguous statements. However, it was also observed that certain deviations from religious teachings (hila-i shari'yye) were legitimized by the Ulema in order to meet the rising borrowing needs of the society. As far as developments in the 18th century are concerned, "muamala-i shari'yye" and "bay bi'l-istiglâl" constituted the most commonly applied forms of such deviations legitimized with religious references. Through these practices, every individual and institution from A to Z could have acquired a surplus income up to but not exceeding 15% of the original amount extended in lending arrangements. It is conceivable that the practice of receiving a surplus on the basis of the lent amount could easily turn into a means of exploitation. On this point, it appears that the Ulema had kept practices such as "muamale-i shari'yye", bay bi'l-istiglâl etc. under control and regulated them to prevent their transformation into means of exploitation.
Key words: Ottoman society, credit, muamela-i shar’iyya, bay bi’l-istiglâl.
Sunni and Shi’i ulama, agree that mut’a was permitted at the beginning of Islam. However, they di... more Sunni and Shi’i ulama, agree that mut’a was permitted at the beginning of Islam. However, they disagree as to the reasons it was permitted.
The Shi’i View: All Shi’i ulama hold that (Nisa, 4/24) verse -especially the words: ‘Such wives as you enjoy (istamta’tum)- refers to the permissibility of mut’a. There are many sayings of the Shi’i Imams and the Companions which indicate that mut’a was permitted up until the time of ‘Umar’s prohibition. As we have already seen, ‘Ali said: ‘If ‘Umar had not prohibited mut’a, no one would commit fornication except the wretched.
The Sunni View: Those Sunnis who hold that the Qur’anic verse (4:23) does indeed refer to the permissibility of mut’a also maintain that the verse was subsequently abrogated (naskh) by other Qur’anic verses. The Sunnis argue that sexual intercourse is forbidden except with one’s wife or a slave by reason of the verse (23:1-6). According to the Prophet’s wife ‘A’isha and others: ‘ Mut’a is forbidden and abrogated in the Qur’an. The Sunni argument continues by pointing out that without question a woman enjoyed through muta is not a slave. Nor is she a wife, for several reasons: inherit, living allowance , waiting period e.c.
In Sunni sources hadith have been transmitted from the Prophet showing that he banned mut’a during his lifetime. In most of the Sunni ‘sound collections’ (sihah), it is related from ‘Ali, Ibn Sabra and Salma b. al-Akwa that they said (summarily) “Prophet of God banned the mut’a of temporary marriage”.
Legal Characteristic of Common Liability for Compensation of Anonymous Destruction of Property in... more Legal Characteristic of Common Liability for Compensation of Anonymous Destruction of Property in Ottoman Law Islamic law recognizes two types of torts towards property: Wrongful appropriation and destruction which is divided into two parts. Wrongful appropriation consists of taking and keeping the property of another, without that person’s permission. Direct destruction consists of the destruction of a thing by a person himself. The person destroying the thing is called the actual doer of the act (mubashir). Indirect destruction consists of being the cause of the destruction of a thing. The person performing such act is called the person causing the destruction (mutesebbib). There is no record in fikh books and modern essays relating to common liability for compensation of anonymous destruction of property. On the other hand, qasama application is not carried out for goods and animals. In spite of this clarity, after Tanzimat period, the Ottoman administrators had some tendency to extend the scope and nature of qasama regulation. To indemnify villager’s damages occurred in arson cases, eight decrees were promulgated between 1867 and 1902. In this essay, the legal characteristic of that kind of common liability for compensation of destruction by an unknown doer will be examined.
Key words: Qasama, tort, destruction
4. Sayı (2007-Güz) by THTA Türk Hukuk Tarihi Araştırmaları
Uploads
1. Sayı (2006-Bahar) by THTA Türk Hukuk Tarihi Araştırmaları
A few interesting points about the sea trade and transportation are made available to the readers; new data concerning the topic are given; and a few unreadable or unclear concepts are also brought to the attentions of the researchers.
Key words: Ottoman maritime system, reis (captain), tayfa (crew), izn-i sefine (ship’s permit)
Key words: Publishing house, publishing and printing, Publishing Laws, Copyright Laws, Laws of Publications, the Sublime Decree.
Key words: miri land, tanzimat, land code
Key words: Ottoman ideology, ulema, the early jurists, Şeyh Edebali.
assessment of the students was not left to the professors; instead an examinational procedure in front of a body of scholars was adopted. In Istanbul, those who complete a four-year program of Darulfunun-i Sultani Hukuk Mektebi would have the right of receiving the title of “Doctor” after passing the required PhD examination. Rupen Ohannes Karakaþyan’s dissertation, which was submitted to the Galatasaray Medrese-i Hukuk-i Şahane, dated Ramazan 1298/July 1881, was, as far as we know, the first PhD dissertation in the field of law. The title of this dissertation, which was about the law of obligations, was “Mecelle madde 804-832, Ariyetin Milel-i Muhtelife ile Tatbiki- Mecelle Articles 804-832: The application of loans according to the various Nations ”. Since in Ottoman lands it was the first PhD dissertation in the modern sense in the field of law, it would be appropriate to put a latinized version of it to the academic world.
Key words: doctoral dissertation, alimiyya, ijaza, Darulfunun-i Sultani Hukuk Mektebi, Galatasaray, Medrese-i Hukuk-i Şahane
2. Sayı (2006-Güz) by THTA Türk Hukuk Tarihi Araştırmaları
Islamic law does not require any conditions apart from two witnesses for a marriage contract. However, throughout history, Muslim governments have attached importance to the establishment of the marriage contract under the supervision of the government. In the Ottoman Empire, it was customary for a marriage contract to be established by an imam (the prayer leader of a mosque) or the spiritual leaders of other religions after obtaining an izinnâme (letter of authority) from a qadi (judge). It is seen that this became an official obligation from the middle of the XVIth century. This was also when the asking for permission for marriage from the woman’s curator began. Without
obtaining izinnâme from the qadi, the marriages solemnized were not considered invalid, even so, the courts were forbidden to handle discords relating to such marriages. In the XIXth century, punishment
had been stipulated for those who established a marriage contract and those who had a marriage contract established without getting izinnâme from the qadi. In this last century, the imam or the spiritual leader solemnizing a marriage was ordered to report this marriage to the census administration. Imposing such orders by the rulers for the good of the public was not contrary to Islamic law. In fact, this was thought to provide publicity and ease of provability.
Keywords: marriage, izinname (letter of authority), ilmuhaber (information certificate), curator, marriage by an imam, census record, Sultan’s order, fetwa, Ebussuud, marriage fee.
Ottoman criminal law was established and standardized earlier than other legal institutions. However, it was sometimes the case that certain privileged groups had the right of idiosyncratic trial. The Askeri class which comprised of the ulama, the military and high officials, were subject to a different trial procedures in the cases related to their offices due to the assumption that their breaking the law was identified as a opposition tu the Sultans authority. Similarly in the cases of marriage,
inheritance and things related to their community affairs, the non-Muslim Ottoman subjects were tried according to their own community laws. The descendants of the Prophet Muhammad, sayyids and sharifs, too, could resort to the courts specifically designed to deal cases related to their status. Despite all these exceptional special treatments, Ottoman criminal law was mainly based on the rules applicable to all and everywhere. Such tenets of the Ottoman political philosophy as the effective execution of the Sultans authority, the centralization of the power and its implication for the provinces, were only facilitated by this inclusive and universal character of Ottoman criminal law.
Keywords: Criminal law, Ottoman law, special treatment, non-Muslim trials, sayyids and sharifs.
In nineteenth century, in the Ottoman Empire, burocratic centralization ve legislation had been formed. In this process a new literature and terminology based on new laws had been put formed. This study focuses a part of this literature and aims to introduce earliest examples of dictionaires which include terms of legal science in the period of Ottoman-Turk modernization. And the study concerns itself with, the time and the conditions under which these dictionaires first emerged,
their various types both in form and content. In this context, I will give information about legal dictionaires and cite introductions of these books.
Key words: Law dictionary, Tanzimat, Law school, Turkish Law.
Ottomans used to make tahrir applications in order to collect taxes. In tahrir registers, especially at the beginnings the register or at the beginning of the relevant chapters the officials used to put kanunnâmes about the mentioned district. These kanunnâme which were named sanjak kanunnâmes, were acts whose aim was to include all elements who are subjected to pay tax in a sanjak. After Er-zurum became under Ottomans control, in order to determine the people who can be subjected to pay tax, Erzurum's first kanunnâme the 16 th century new sanjak kanunnâmes were formed. In 17 th century, the timar system was fatally damaged and it became impossible to determine the tahrirs. In order to get out of this chaos the timar system gradually changed into iltizam system. With these changes in the system, the tahrir application was largely given up. This change, also affected the nature of Erzurum kanunnâmes. From then on Erzurum kanunnâmes turned into organizational kanunnâmes. This kanunnâme was edited in relation to the incomes of the treasure. In conclusion, in this study, the kanunnâmes including acts towards the determination of the people who are subjected to pay tax in Erzurum will be introduced chronologically and after that they will be evaluated from conceptual, historiographical and methodological points of view.
Key Words: Province, Sanjak, Organization, Kanunnâme, Law, Erzurum.
Tazir is a punishment for the guilts excepting the had, kısas and diyet in the Islamic Criminal Law and its amount is not determined before. The most important tazir punishments are death, ferule, imprisonment, exile, counsel, summon, condemnation, menace, isolation, deposing, exposition and the fiscal ones in the Islamic Law. And, Islamic Law is practiced basically in the Criminal Law as in the every field of the law in the Ottoman Empire. If the had and kýsas are defective for the guilt, then the tazir is practiced in the Ottoman Criminal Law. In addition to this, tazir is also came to agenda for the offences against the common convenances, family life and the state administration and the perjury. Some tazir punishments in the Ottoman Criminal Law are similar to the Islamic Criminal Law, like death, imprisonment, exile, counsel and deposing. However, some tazir punishments are the distinctive sides of the Ottoman Criminal Law like servitude and the fixing of the fines according to the revenues of the people.
Key words: Islamic Criminal Law, Ottoman Criminal Law, Tazir.
3. Sayı (2007-Bahar) by THTA Türk Hukuk Tarihi Araştırmaları
Key words: Ottoman society, credit, muamela-i shar’iyya, bay bi’l-istiglâl.
The Shi’i View: All Shi’i ulama hold that (Nisa, 4/24) verse -especially the words: ‘Such wives as you enjoy (istamta’tum)- refers to the permissibility of mut’a. There are many sayings of the Shi’i Imams and the Companions which indicate that mut’a was permitted up until the time of ‘Umar’s prohibition. As we have already seen, ‘Ali said: ‘If ‘Umar had not prohibited mut’a, no one would commit fornication except the wretched.
The Sunni View: Those Sunnis who hold that the Qur’anic verse (4:23) does indeed refer to the permissibility of mut’a also maintain that the verse was subsequently abrogated (naskh) by other Qur’anic verses. The Sunnis argue that sexual intercourse is forbidden except with one’s wife or a slave by reason of the verse (23:1-6). According to the Prophet’s wife ‘A’isha and others: ‘ Mut’a is forbidden and abrogated in the Qur’an. The Sunni argument continues by pointing out that without question a woman enjoyed through muta is not a slave. Nor is she a wife, for several reasons: inherit, living allowance , waiting period e.c.
In Sunni sources hadith have been transmitted from the Prophet showing that he banned mut’a during his lifetime. In most of the Sunni ‘sound collections’ (sihah), it is related from ‘Ali, Ibn Sabra and Salma b. al-Akwa that they said (summarily) “Prophet of God banned the mut’a of temporary marriage”.
Key words: Qasama, tort, destruction
4. Sayı (2007-Güz) by THTA Türk Hukuk Tarihi Araştırmaları
A few interesting points about the sea trade and transportation are made available to the readers; new data concerning the topic are given; and a few unreadable or unclear concepts are also brought to the attentions of the researchers.
Key words: Ottoman maritime system, reis (captain), tayfa (crew), izn-i sefine (ship’s permit)
Key words: Publishing house, publishing and printing, Publishing Laws, Copyright Laws, Laws of Publications, the Sublime Decree.
Key words: miri land, tanzimat, land code
Key words: Ottoman ideology, ulema, the early jurists, Şeyh Edebali.
assessment of the students was not left to the professors; instead an examinational procedure in front of a body of scholars was adopted. In Istanbul, those who complete a four-year program of Darulfunun-i Sultani Hukuk Mektebi would have the right of receiving the title of “Doctor” after passing the required PhD examination. Rupen Ohannes Karakaþyan’s dissertation, which was submitted to the Galatasaray Medrese-i Hukuk-i Şahane, dated Ramazan 1298/July 1881, was, as far as we know, the first PhD dissertation in the field of law. The title of this dissertation, which was about the law of obligations, was “Mecelle madde 804-832, Ariyetin Milel-i Muhtelife ile Tatbiki- Mecelle Articles 804-832: The application of loans according to the various Nations ”. Since in Ottoman lands it was the first PhD dissertation in the modern sense in the field of law, it would be appropriate to put a latinized version of it to the academic world.
Key words: doctoral dissertation, alimiyya, ijaza, Darulfunun-i Sultani Hukuk Mektebi, Galatasaray, Medrese-i Hukuk-i Şahane
Islamic law does not require any conditions apart from two witnesses for a marriage contract. However, throughout history, Muslim governments have attached importance to the establishment of the marriage contract under the supervision of the government. In the Ottoman Empire, it was customary for a marriage contract to be established by an imam (the prayer leader of a mosque) or the spiritual leaders of other religions after obtaining an izinnâme (letter of authority) from a qadi (judge). It is seen that this became an official obligation from the middle of the XVIth century. This was also when the asking for permission for marriage from the woman’s curator began. Without
obtaining izinnâme from the qadi, the marriages solemnized were not considered invalid, even so, the courts were forbidden to handle discords relating to such marriages. In the XIXth century, punishment
had been stipulated for those who established a marriage contract and those who had a marriage contract established without getting izinnâme from the qadi. In this last century, the imam or the spiritual leader solemnizing a marriage was ordered to report this marriage to the census administration. Imposing such orders by the rulers for the good of the public was not contrary to Islamic law. In fact, this was thought to provide publicity and ease of provability.
Keywords: marriage, izinname (letter of authority), ilmuhaber (information certificate), curator, marriage by an imam, census record, Sultan’s order, fetwa, Ebussuud, marriage fee.
Ottoman criminal law was established and standardized earlier than other legal institutions. However, it was sometimes the case that certain privileged groups had the right of idiosyncratic trial. The Askeri class which comprised of the ulama, the military and high officials, were subject to a different trial procedures in the cases related to their offices due to the assumption that their breaking the law was identified as a opposition tu the Sultans authority. Similarly in the cases of marriage,
inheritance and things related to their community affairs, the non-Muslim Ottoman subjects were tried according to their own community laws. The descendants of the Prophet Muhammad, sayyids and sharifs, too, could resort to the courts specifically designed to deal cases related to their status. Despite all these exceptional special treatments, Ottoman criminal law was mainly based on the rules applicable to all and everywhere. Such tenets of the Ottoman political philosophy as the effective execution of the Sultans authority, the centralization of the power and its implication for the provinces, were only facilitated by this inclusive and universal character of Ottoman criminal law.
Keywords: Criminal law, Ottoman law, special treatment, non-Muslim trials, sayyids and sharifs.
In nineteenth century, in the Ottoman Empire, burocratic centralization ve legislation had been formed. In this process a new literature and terminology based on new laws had been put formed. This study focuses a part of this literature and aims to introduce earliest examples of dictionaires which include terms of legal science in the period of Ottoman-Turk modernization. And the study concerns itself with, the time and the conditions under which these dictionaires first emerged,
their various types both in form and content. In this context, I will give information about legal dictionaires and cite introductions of these books.
Key words: Law dictionary, Tanzimat, Law school, Turkish Law.
Ottomans used to make tahrir applications in order to collect taxes. In tahrir registers, especially at the beginnings the register or at the beginning of the relevant chapters the officials used to put kanunnâmes about the mentioned district. These kanunnâme which were named sanjak kanunnâmes, were acts whose aim was to include all elements who are subjected to pay tax in a sanjak. After Er-zurum became under Ottomans control, in order to determine the people who can be subjected to pay tax, Erzurum's first kanunnâme the 16 th century new sanjak kanunnâmes were formed. In 17 th century, the timar system was fatally damaged and it became impossible to determine the tahrirs. In order to get out of this chaos the timar system gradually changed into iltizam system. With these changes in the system, the tahrir application was largely given up. This change, also affected the nature of Erzurum kanunnâmes. From then on Erzurum kanunnâmes turned into organizational kanunnâmes. This kanunnâme was edited in relation to the incomes of the treasure. In conclusion, in this study, the kanunnâmes including acts towards the determination of the people who are subjected to pay tax in Erzurum will be introduced chronologically and after that they will be evaluated from conceptual, historiographical and methodological points of view.
Key Words: Province, Sanjak, Organization, Kanunnâme, Law, Erzurum.
Tazir is a punishment for the guilts excepting the had, kısas and diyet in the Islamic Criminal Law and its amount is not determined before. The most important tazir punishments are death, ferule, imprisonment, exile, counsel, summon, condemnation, menace, isolation, deposing, exposition and the fiscal ones in the Islamic Law. And, Islamic Law is practiced basically in the Criminal Law as in the every field of the law in the Ottoman Empire. If the had and kýsas are defective for the guilt, then the tazir is practiced in the Ottoman Criminal Law. In addition to this, tazir is also came to agenda for the offences against the common convenances, family life and the state administration and the perjury. Some tazir punishments in the Ottoman Criminal Law are similar to the Islamic Criminal Law, like death, imprisonment, exile, counsel and deposing. However, some tazir punishments are the distinctive sides of the Ottoman Criminal Law like servitude and the fixing of the fines according to the revenues of the people.
Key words: Islamic Criminal Law, Ottoman Criminal Law, Tazir.
Key words: Ottoman society, credit, muamela-i shar’iyya, bay bi’l-istiglâl.
The Shi’i View: All Shi’i ulama hold that (Nisa, 4/24) verse -especially the words: ‘Such wives as you enjoy (istamta’tum)- refers to the permissibility of mut’a. There are many sayings of the Shi’i Imams and the Companions which indicate that mut’a was permitted up until the time of ‘Umar’s prohibition. As we have already seen, ‘Ali said: ‘If ‘Umar had not prohibited mut’a, no one would commit fornication except the wretched.
The Sunni View: Those Sunnis who hold that the Qur’anic verse (4:23) does indeed refer to the permissibility of mut’a also maintain that the verse was subsequently abrogated (naskh) by other Qur’anic verses. The Sunnis argue that sexual intercourse is forbidden except with one’s wife or a slave by reason of the verse (23:1-6). According to the Prophet’s wife ‘A’isha and others: ‘ Mut’a is forbidden and abrogated in the Qur’an. The Sunni argument continues by pointing out that without question a woman enjoyed through muta is not a slave. Nor is she a wife, for several reasons: inherit, living allowance , waiting period e.c.
In Sunni sources hadith have been transmitted from the Prophet showing that he banned mut’a during his lifetime. In most of the Sunni ‘sound collections’ (sihah), it is related from ‘Ali, Ibn Sabra and Salma b. al-Akwa that they said (summarily) “Prophet of God banned the mut’a of temporary marriage”.
Key words: Qasama, tort, destruction
Key words: Physician Liability, the Ottoman Law, Islamic Law, surgery of hernia of the 17th Century, treatment fees,Uskudar court records, the consent bill of patient.
Key words: Fatwa, fatwa collections, mufti, Ottoman law.
Fuat Köprülü is well known as a historian of literature or a historian in general so far. Taking into consideration his works and pioneering role in the field, it is necessary for today’s legal historians to emphasize his legal historian side as well. He wrote several articles and subjects relating to Turkish legal history in EI2 such as fıkh, âmil, âzad and bâc. He also published two journals titled Türk Hukuk ve İktisat Tarihi Mecmuası/Journal of Turkish Legal and Economic History and Türk Hukuk Tarihi Dergisi/Journal of Turkish Legal History. In this essay I will examine his significant contribution to the history of Turkish law.
Key words: Fuad Köprülü, history of Turkish law, Ottoman law.
Relaying on the Weberian theory some prominent classical orientalists argued that Islamic law is a sacred, rigid and idealistic legal system which was not in touch with social life. Unlike the Western legal system, Islamic law was not a rationalist law i.e. it had never a formal rationality. But had only a materialistic rationality in itself. This paper argues that this orientalist judgement is highly disputable. Forasmuch as before the Ottoman era the model shurut literatures and in the Ottoman time sakk treaties were the tools of realizing a formal rationality of procedural law through determining the procedure of documentation of dictated in the law courts. Sakk literature as an independent discipline of law in Ottoman scholarship. Ebu’s-suud who was a leading figure in the field of sakk in Ottoman world wrote in Arabic a highly influential treatises on sakk. The treaties exists in a manuscript form in Sulaymaniye Library. In this paper we will analyze the content of this treatise in order to shed light on the issues discussed by Weber and others regarding the formal rationality/irrationality of Islamic law.
Key words: Ottoman law, sakk, sukuk, shurut, Ebu’s-suud, procedural law, formal rationality.
Müsaedat-ı Ecnebiye (the permissions for the foreigners) as well, denote the religious, economic and judicial privileges which was given by the Sultan to the foreigners within the scope of the implementation the principle of the eman. Due to the fact that the system of the Capitulation which was implemented by the Ottomans was extended over a long-drawn-out period of time, it includes very diverse problems within its structure. In this article, following a short analysis on the enmity against the Capitulations which was emerged in the process of the abolition of them, and an analysis on the impacts of this enmity, a literature review and a comprehensive analysis of the ten books about the Capitulations
which were written between 1909 and 1927 is going to endeavored.
Keywords: the Capitulations, the Second Constitutional Period, Literature of Ottoman Law, Legal Reforms
in respect to Ottoman classical period, are investigated. Whether the judicial powers granted to non-muslim religious communities were increased or not, and what kind of cases and disputes they are authorized to settle has to be taken into consideration. This article is mainly based on the leading legal texts and constitutional documents of the19th century Ottoman Empire: such as Edict of Reorganization,
Edict of Reform, and 1876 constitution. In addition to these, lots of fundamental laws issued by State to regulate the establishment of patriarchates and rabbinate, patriarchal berats, and the acts regulating the personal rights of non-muslim subjects have deeply been taken into account. On the other hand it is aimed to reach a conclusion by referring to a legal text containing legal arguments on some specific matters between State and non-muslim religious communities. The differences between the State officials and non muslim religious authorities about the way of interpretation of the existing regulations and the meaning of the provisions of these regulations should be strictly emphasized. It should be stated that Ottoman officials are very sensitive and aware of the meaning of legal terms used in these legal texts. The meaning of legal terms is explained by State by referring to the spiritual and corporal aspects of a legal dispute. Spiritual aspects of a legal matter were settled by non-muslim religious communities, but the corporal or temporal aspects of the same matter were definitely settled by State authorities.
Key Words: Ottoman, Non-muslims, Patriarchate, Rabbinate, Legal case, Judicial power of non-muslim religious communities, Interpretation of laws.
the evidence not found in the actual fatwas were recorded in the line of fatwas, edges of the pages again by other people while their phrases in the books of fıqh and fatwa were protected. Those who made this study were most of the times the fatwa emînis whose contributions to the preparation of fatwas were great. It is also observed in this literature that once nuqul is created for a fatwa collections, then not recording
any more fatwas, the works including only nuquls were produced. We will present information about the making period of fatwa collections including nuqul and the characteristics of their nuquls on the basis of the four fatwa collections accredited by the Fatwahane (Fetâvâ-yı Ali Efendi, Fetâvâ-yı Feyziyye, Behcetü’l-fetâvâ ve Netîcetü’l-fetâvâ) Later on, we will point out what the works regarded as estimable in the field of fıqh in this period were, taking as point of departure the resources most
frequently used in nuquls of these works on the basis of subjects related to family.
Keywords: Fetvâ, Fetvâ mecmuası, Nukûl, Fetâvâ-yı Ali Efendi, Fetâvâ-yı Feyziyye, Behcetü’l-fetâvâ, Netîcetü’l-fetâvâ
One of the most important problems of the modern era is the mutual influence of religion and war each other and the way to achieve peace between them. Many factors made influence on the connection of religion and war in different periods of historical development: for example, nature in very ancient times, the desire to organize politics and community in the middle ages, the civilization in the modern era. I argue that following are the affecting dynamics of relationship between religion and war: the transformations in the historical development of religious beliefs within and occurring changes in the war techniques by passage of time, the external factors affecting the religion and war, man’s anthropological development, consciously or unconsciously false reflection of religious beliefs, and social and cultural aspects of development of humanity. Religion and war connections can arise in four ways: 1) War may be used an approving tool of religious beliefs. 2) War can be an actor to defense of religious belief. 3) Between non-religious war and religious events can be a mutual impact with ethical character. 4) Religion can be used for non-religious goals. So, interreligious dialogue is the best tool of acquiring the peace amongst the various religions.
Key words: Mutual influence of religion and war, interreligious dialogue, the peace amongst the religions, religious war, the relationship of religion and war.
concession, agreement, the unilateral state edicts and some articles of the Ottoman constitution. Some central and peripheral administration of Ottoman Empire blocked or restricted the missionary works. The protestant missionaries defended their activities based on the texts above-mentioned. Although these texts did not justify their activities,
the legal loopholes and the personal initiatives of some Ottoman administrators led these activities increase in number and variety.
Key Words: Ottoman Empire, Missionaries, Evangelism, Bibleland, Capitulation
The Ottoman administrative system, modern administrative legists explain this as déconcentration, can be only mentioned for the normal provinces. Administrative and even political decentralization have dominated in the privileged provinces. Decentralized application enabled the Empire, having wide borders and in which peoples with
different ethnic groups and religions live, to be governed much easily. The privileged provinces, therefore, preserved their adherence long time. Besides, it can be said that this specific administration style which was significant stage for the democratic tradition helped Ottoman State to rule with less turbulence and a long time. Because rural administrators gradually gained autonomous statue, beginning from Sultan Mahmud
II the measures were taken in order to strengthen the central authority and privileged status of some provinces was abolished. On the other hand, political needs caused privileged provinces which continued their existence until the end of the state. In the meanwhile, after the Tanzimat decentralized style prevailed again in the rural administration. It took effect more after the II Mesrutiyet and although the decentralization was
thought of as a measure to prevent the collapse of the state, it was not to be of help.
Key Words: centralisation, decentralisation, déconcentration, semi-dependent provinces, privileged provinces.
Some governments around the world have legalized voluntary euthanasia but generally it remains as a criminal homicide. There are many different religious views on euthanasia, although many moral theologians are critical of the procedure. Jewish thinkers generally
oppose voluntary euthanasia, often vigorously, though there is some backing for voluntary passive euthanasia in limited circumstances. Catholics condemns euthanasia as a “crime against life. Protestants vary widely on their approach to euthanasia. Islam categorically forbids all forms of suicide and any action that may help another to kill themselves.
Key Words: Euthanasia, Islamic Law
Economy and Society, The ISIS Press, Istanbul 2008.
şekillerde istismar edildiği ve emeklerinin sömürüldüğü bir sosyal sorun haline dönüşmüştür.
Anahtar kelimeler: Besleme, çocuklar, koruyucu aile, hizmetçi, ev içi hizmet, icar-ı sağir, tebenni
Key words: Tekâlif-i şer‘iye (sharia taxes), tekâlif-i örfiye (taxes imposed by the Sultan), hamr, wine taxes, arak, hamr emini, hamr taxes, istimare taxes, masdariyye, masdariye emini, Kapıdağı, Bandırma, Erdek
Giving a true legal education is not possible without a historical perspective. It is imperative that law schools keep this fact in mind, if they are willing to stay as scientifi c institutions and to educate law students not as subordinates who obey every command they hear, but as individuals who can think independently and are informed about history. It is obvious that a jurist who is devoid of historical understanding cannot realize that the concept of “law” has a changing character and that it is vulnerable to the manipulations of the followers of certain interests and ideologies. Therefore a jurist who cannot think
critically is potentially a “terrible jurist”. He focuses only on the implementation of the current law, ignoring the essential moral questions like “where are we coming from?” and “where are we going to?” and eventually would not be capable of answering them. A jurist who doesn’t have justice-oriented responses to these questions will have the potential not only to be silent to the unjust acts of authoritarian and dictatorial regimes, but also to support these regimes by becoming their adherent.
Key words: Legal education, law and politics, reasoning of jurists, history-based critical legal thinking, legal history, Roman law
Anahtar kelimeler: Mahkeme, kadı sicilleri, Arapça şer'iye sicilleri, İstanbul kadı defterleri.
Abstract: Basic aim of this article is to help legal historians working on translation of Arabic kadi sicills into Turkish. In addition to that, Arabic written registers's way of content and scope will be presented through the classical period. It's known that using of Arabic registers needs further expertise and lack of guidance in this sphere is clear. The reason for Arabic preference is controversial.
Key words: Kadi court, kadi registers in Arabic, Istanbul kadi registers.
sebeplerine değinilmekte, hukuka eleştirel bakabilen, meselelerin temellerinden haberdar olan, meslek hayatında yeni konulara ve alanlara hızlı bir şekilde nüfuz edebilen hukukçu tipinin tekrar nasıl yetiştirilebileceğine dair çözüm yolları teklif edilmektedir.
Anahtar kelimeler: Hukuk eğitimi, hukuk tarihinin eleştirel işlevi, hukukçu zihniyeti, Roma hukuku, Bologna süreci.
Abstract: In the 19th century the German law achieved worldwide great respect due to excellent scholars in civil law, criminal and constitutional law, legal philosophy and legal history. The most common characteristic of all famous law scholars in the 19th century was their ambitious interest in the fundamentals of law within their working areas. Nowadays, a new generation of lawyers is educated at German Law Schools who has on average no idea about the fundamentals of law. Legal history and legal theory are not everywhere seen as courses which must be represented and thought at the law schools anymore. This article focuses on the historical, scientific and educational background of this trend. In connection with its analyses it provides also concrete solutions in order to make it again possible for German Law Schools to educate lawyers who are well informed about the fundamentals of law, can criticize the legal system and have the ability to orientate themselves successfully for new legal materials.
Key words: Legal education, critical function of legal history, reasoning of jurists, Roman law, Bologna process.
Anahtar kelimeler: mehir, İslamda evlilik, İranlı müslüman karı-koca, mehir sözleşmesi, Alman aile mahkemesi, Alman Yüksek Mahkemesinin mehir kararı
An evaluation on the mahr decision of of Federal Court of Justice in Germany dated 09.12.2009 and numbered XII ZR 107/08
Abstract: The mahr, which is an obligation required by Islamic law, is an amount of
money or other possessions paid by the groom to his prospective bride (The Qur’an 4:4). Thus, it must be stipulated in the Islamic marriage contract. The husband is obliged to pay the mahr amount to his wife. The mahr amount becomes the property of the wife alone. The mahr provides financial independence and security to the wife in the event of her husband’s death or a after they divorce. The husband may pay the mahr before he marries, at the time of marriage, or at a later date, as agreed with his wife. In our case, a married Iranian Muslim couple made a mahr agreement amounting to 15.000.000 Iranian Rial in Tehran. Later, both of them immigrated to Germany and became German citizens. In 2006, they got divorced in Germany. Many Islamic divorce cases are litigated in German family courts. The issue of mahr in the Islamic marriage contracts has become the subject of debate among lawyers and scholars. This article explains how the mahr is classified in Germany courts. The legal classification of the mahr relevant in the context of private international law is difficult. German courts try to give effect to the obligation of a mahr by identifying its function in the marital relationship. The landmark decision of Federal Court of Justice ends all the discussions.
Key words: mahr, Islamic marriage, Iranian muslim couple, mahr agreement, mahr in German family courts, the mahr decision of Federal Court of Justice in Germany.
1814’te Yunan istiklalini gerçekleştirmek maksadıyla Çarlık Rusyasının bir vilayeti olan Odesa’da Ksanthos ve arkadaşlarınca kurulan ilk Yunan cemiyeti Filik-i (Etniki) Eterya’dan sonra, en çok tanınan diğer Rum cemiyeti, 1861’de kurulan Dersaadet Rum Cemiyet-i Edebiyesidir. II.Abdülhamid’in hakimiyeti esnasında da bazı Rum cemiyetleriyle karşılaşılmaktadır. İkinci Meşrutiyetin ardından (1908) çeşitli adlarla, Osmanlı toprakları üzerinde Rumların yaşadığı kasaba ve şehirlerde de birçok Rum cemiyetleri kurulmuştur. Bunlar arasında Keskin Rum Cemiyeti (ve Ankara Rum Cem!yeti) de vardır. II. Meşrutiyetin getirdiği atmosferde yapılan Osmanlı Cemiyetler Kanunu’nun 4. maddesi cemiyetlerin siyaset yapmasını yasaklamıştır. Bu makalede Osmanlı memurlarınca söz konusu 4. maddenin uygulamada nasıl yorumlandığı, 1910’da Keskin’de kurulan Rum Cemiyeti ve bu makalenin sonunda yer verdiğimiz onun nizamnamesi örneğinde ele alınmıştır. O devirde Keskin, Kırşehir mutasarrıflığına tabi bir Anadolu kasabasıydı; bugün ise o, Kırıkkale’nin bir ilçesidir.
Anahtar kelimeler: Osmanlı Rum cemiyetleri, Keskin Rum Anamorfosis Cemiyeti, Elenikos Sillogos, 1909 tarihli Osmanlı Cemiyetler Kanunu, Osmanlı Devletinde cemiyetlerin siyaset yasağı.
The Greek Society Dated 1910 in Keskin Town and Prohibition of Formation of a Society Rely on Nationality and Ethnic Principles
Abstract:
The first Greek society was founded by Xanthos and his colleagues in 1814 in Odessa and called Etniki Eterya; then was stablished in 1861 in Istanbul the Greek Dersaadet Cemiyet-i Edebiyesi. There were found some Greek societies during the II. Abdulhamid reign (1876-1908). After the Second Constitutional Monarchy (after 1908), with various names, in the towns and cities on the Ottoman lands inhabited by Greeks founded many Greek societies. Among them, the Greek Association of Keskin (and the Greek Association of Ankara) is also known. In the atmosphere that the second Ottoman Constitution
brought, the Ottoman “Societies Act” (Cemiyetler Kanunu) came into force but its article 4 banned for the societies to enter politics. I tried to display here how the interpretation of Article 4 went in application by Ottoman officials. And I tried to do that in the context of Keskin Greek Anamorfosis Asosasiation founded in 1910 in Keskin and its constitution
(the nizamnama) which is added to this paper. Keskin was a small town in Anatolia subject to Kirsehir mutasarrifligi during that period, and today it is a district of Kirikkale.
Key words: Ottoman Greek societies, Keskin Greek Anamorfosis Association, Elenikos Sillogos, Ottoman Societies Act of 1909, prohibition of entering politics for the Ottoman associations.
Anahtar kelimeler: Ru'yet-hilâl, mahkeme, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu, Ramazan, bayram
Anahtar kelimeler: Türk sineması, Osmanlı sinema hukuku, Türk sinema hukuku, Türk kitle iletişim hukuku, Türk sinemasında sansür
ile “kavramlar” ve “vâkıalar”ın arasında katı ayrımlar yapmak da tarihsel malzemenin mâkul bir şekilde anlaşılmasına engel olmaktadır. Zira bu türden bir ayrım, onların farklı işlevlerinin dikkate alınmamasına, metnin dışındaki gerçeklikle bağlarının kesilmesine ve müzakere süreçlerinde kazanabilecekleri muhtelif anlamların göz ardı edilmesine yol açmaktadır. Benzer şekilde, yalnızca kavramlar üzerinde durarak tarihsel hakikate ya da dilin çizdiği çerçeveyi aşarak onun "arkasında"ki gerçekliğe ulaşmanın mümkün olduğunu düşünmek de yazara göre hatalı bir yaklaşımdır. Bu bölümün son kısmında yazar, tarihyazımı ve edebiyat arasında metot noktasında var olan benzerlikler ile farklılıklara, bu iki yazım türünün hangi kıstaslar eliyle birbirlerinden ayıredilebileceklerine ve bu sahaları yekdiğerinden farklılaştıran metodolojik sınırları ihlâl etmenin beraberinde getireceği sorunlara
değinmektedir. Üçüncü bölümde ise yazar, tarih biliminin bir şubesi olan hukuk tarihinin, hukuk eğitimi veren kurumlar bünyesinde kendine özgü bilimsel bir karakter kazanabilmesi ve bunu koruyabilmesi, hukuksal dogmatizmin gölgesinden kurtularak bağımsız bir yaklaşım tarzı geliştirebilmesi için yerine getirmesi gereken şartların neler olduğuna, hukuk tarihçisini ödevlerine, ulus-merkezli hukuk tarihçiliği döneminin sona erdiği bu zamanda hukuk tarihinin geleceğe yönelik vazifelerine ve bu vazifelerin ifa edilebilmesi için nasıl bir altyapının hazırlanması gerektiğine işaret etmektedir.
Anahtar kelimeler: Hukuk tarihi metodolojisi, tarihyazımı, hukuk tarihçiliğinin bilim tarihi, tarih felsefesi, hukuk eğitimi, Avrupa Hukuk Tarihi, Osmanlı Hukuk Tarihi, Almanya
kitaplarının yanında, on sekizinci yüzyıla ait muteber fetva mecmualarındaki kefalet konulu fetvalardan yararlanılmıştır. Yapılan çalışma sonucunda, hukuksal metinlerle uygulama kaynakları arasındaki ilişkinin zıtlıktan ziyade bir ahengi bünyesinde barındırdığı gözlenmiştir. Kişiler arasındaki hukuksal ilişkilere –uyuşmazlığın tarafları her zaman bu çerçevenin gereklerine uygun davranmasa da– bir teorik çerçeve içinde yaklaşılabileceği görülmüştür. Böyle durumlarda mahkemeye gelen uyuşmazlığın bir teorik çerçeveye atıfla çözülmeye çalışıldığı anlaşılmaktadır. Ancak teori !le uygulama arasında mutlak bir örtüşmenin bulunduğu da söylenemez. Fıkıh kitaplarının kefalet
bahislerinde yer verilen, fakat inceleme konusu yapılan yıllara ait mahkeme kayıtlarında rastlanmayan bazı hususların bulunması, mutlak bir örtüşmeyi engelleyen durumlardır.
Anahtar Sözcükler: mala kefalet sözleşmesi, kefalet, Osmanlı hukuku, fıkıh, on sekizinci yüzyıl.
Anahtar kelimeler: Vakıf, gedik, Tanzimat, İsmail Sıdkı, teşebbüsât-ı şahsiyye
"How to manage Islamic foundations with an appropriate manner to the necessities of our time and to the regime of constitutional monarchy?": On a Pamphlet About the Institution of Islamic Foundation in the Early Twentieth Century The purpose of this study is to offer a transliteration of a pamphlet written about the status of foundations to the researchers interested in this era. The pamphlet was written in by İsmail Sıdkı Bey, the general secretary of Islamic Foundations in the Ottoman Empire. Apart from the transliteration, a small description of the text is given as well. In the first part of this description, the origins of Islamic foundations, their status in Islamic law and Ottoman law are defined. In the second part, the effects of the reforms of Ottoman Tanzimat period on foundations are briefly presented. In the last part, the principal opinions, critics and the suggestions of the writer are compared with the ideology of the time.
Keywords: foundation, gedik, Tanzimat, İsmail Sıdkı, private initiative
Anahtar kelimeler: Kavram, dil, düşünce, kültür, sözlük kavramı, sözlük bilimi, hukuk sözlükler, hukuki düşünce, Türk hukuk düşüncesi, Türk hukuk sözlükleri
The Conceptual World of Contemporary Turkish Legal Thought: A Lexicological Examination As widely accepted that concepts are most important tools showing dimensions of the intellectual world of a culture. The intellectual works written in the language of that culture are the place which we look in order to understand which concepts this culture has. The way through which we grasp the language of a culture is to appeal to the dictionaries written in that language. Specialized dictionaries in this respect are especially important. As a result, we can easily conclude that there is a strong connection between language-thought-culture. Concerning the legal thinking, it is true that the first source we should appeal is also dictionaries. So, the aim of this essay is to try to understand the conceptual world of Turkish thought from the legal perspective by investigating the main legal terms in Turkish legal dictionaries written in Latin.
Keywords: Concept–language–thought–culture–the notion of dictionary–lexicology–legal dictionaries–legal thought–Turkish legal thought–Turkish legal dictionaries
Keywords: Non-muslims, zimmis, legal autonomy, Islamic Law, Ottoman Law, Ottoman Empire
Keywords: Zimmi, Ottoman law, family law, kadi, kadi sicills.
Klasik Dönem Osmanlı Hukuku’nda açık yargılama (aleniyet) ilkesinin geçerli olduğu bilinmektedir. Adil yargılamanın temel ilkelerinden birisi olan aleniyet ilkesine göre yargılama, özellikle duruşmalar halka açık olarak gerçekleştirilir. Başka bir deyişle, halk, duruşma salonuna girme, duruşmayı izleme ve dinleme imkânına sahiptir. Osmanlı mahkemelerinde duruşmaların açık olduğu, sicil-i mahfuz denilen zabıt defterlerinde her kaydın altında şühudü’l-hâl denilen kişilerin isimlerinin yazılı olmasından anlaşılmaktadır. Osmanlı yargılamalarında aleniyet ilkesi, şühudü’l-hâl adı verilen şahitlerle de garanti altına alınmıştır. Halka açık olarak gerçekleşmeyen bir duruşma şaibelidir; bu yüzden, aleniyet ilkesi sanık için bir teminat oluşturmaktadır. Klasik Dönem Osmanlı Devleti’nde yargılamanın halka açık olması ilke haline gelmiş, yargılamada tam bir eşitlik ve tarafsızlık esas alınmıştır.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Aleniyet ilkesi, Osmanlı Hukuku, şühudü’l-hâl, yargılama, mahkeme, adil yargılanma hakkı.
ABSTRACT
It is known that the principle of open trial (publicity) is valid in the classical period Ottoman court. According to the principle of publicity, which is one of the basic principles of a fair trial, the proceedings, in particular the hearings, are held open to the public. In other words, the public has the opportunity to enter the courtroom, monitor and listen to the hearing. Openness of the hearings in the Ottoman courts is understood from the names of the people called “şühudü’l-hâl” are written under each record in the zabit boks called the “sicil-i mahfuz”. In the Ottoman trials, the principle of publicity is guaranteed by witnesses called şühudü’l-hâl. A hearing not publicly made is suspicious; therefore,
the principle of publicity is a guarantee for the defendant. It has become a principle that trial in the Ottoman Empire in classical period have been open to the public, the judiciary was based on complete equality and impartiality.
Key Words: Principle of publicity, The Ottoman Law, şühudü’l-hâl, trial, court, the right to fair trial.
Şer’iye sicilleri, Osmanlı Hukuk Tatbikatını göstermesi bakımından, eşsiz değerde belgelerdir. Biz de bu makalede, Trabzon’un 1816 numaralı, H. 968 (M. 1560-1561) tarihli şer’iye sicil defterinde yer alan kayıtlardan yola çıkarak, vergi hukukuna ilişkin işlemlerde, mahkemenin rolünün ne olduğu sorusunu cevaplamaya çalıştık.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Osmanlı Vergi Hukuku, Şer’iye Sicilleri, Osmanlı Mahkemesi, Trabzon.
ABSTRACT
Ottoman Court Registry are documents of unique value in terms of demonstrating Ottoman law exercises. In this article, we will try to answer the question of the role of the court in the procedures related to tax law, based on the records in the registers the number of 1816 and H. 968 (M. 1560-1561)dated Trabzon.
Key Words: Ottoman Tax Law, Sharia Court Records, Ottoman Courts, Trabzon.
Tarihçi hukuk okulunun, Roma-Germen hukuk dairesinin temellerini inşada ve şekillenmesinde büyük rolü olup ortaya koyduğu teorilerin pratik çıktıları günümüzde de belli ölçüde geçerliliğini korumaktadır. Türkçe hukuk literatüründe zikredilen okul, salt Pandektci hukuk yaklaşımı nazara alınarak tetkik edilmiştir. Bu çalışmada ise tarihçi hukuk okulu hem Pandektci hem de Germenci hukuk yaklaşımları nazara alınarak, yapısal ve teorik bakımından irdelenmiştir. Söz konusu okula mensup Pandektci ve Germenci hukukçular arasında gerçekleşen Volksgeist öğretisine dair tartışmalara ve bununla bağlantılı olan 19. yüzyılda Roma hukukunun, Alman hukuku bakımından kaynak değeri ve konumuna değinilmiştir. Çalışmamızdaki esas gaye tarihçi hukuk okulu bünyesinde yer alan Pandektci ve Germenci özler arasındaki gerilimin, Roma-Germen hukuk dairesinin oluşumundaki rolüne dikkatleri çekmektir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Tarihçi Hukuk Okulu, Pandektci-Germenci Hukuk Yaklaşımları, 19. Yüzyılda Alman Hukuku, Volksgeist Öğretisi.
ABSTRACT
The Historical School of Law played a wide role in the structure and formation of the foundations of the Roman-German legal circle and, to a certain extent, the practical outcomes of the theories it developed remain valid in our times. Although the school mentioned in the Turkish legal literature, it has been studied solely in light of the Pandectist legal approach. As for this study, it explores the structural and theoretical aspects of the Historical School of Law both on the basis of the Pandectist and Germanist approaches. It touches upon the debates over the doctrine of Volksgeist among the Pandectist and Germanist lawyers who belong to the school and, in relation to this, the value of Roman law as a source and the place of it in German law in the 19th century.
The essential purpose of our study is to indicate to the role of the tension between the Pandectist and Germanist elements within the Historical School of Law in the formation of the Roman-German legal circle.
Key Words: The Historical School of Law, Pandectist-Germanist Legal Approach, German
Law in the 19th Century, The Doctrine of Volksgeist.
Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nda mîrî arazinin ferağ, mülk arazinin ise satım (bey‘) yoluyla bedel karşılığında el değiştirdiği görülmektedir. Bu sözleşmelerin yer aldığı şer‘î mahkeme sicillerinde, araziyi devralan kişilerin hakları belirli terimlerle ifade edilmektedir Hukuk dilinin anlaşılması bakımından, bu tip kelime ve terimlerin kullanımının ne şekilde gerçekleştiği, bölgesel farklılıkların mevcut olup olmadığı gibi meselelerin açıklığa kavuşturulması gerekir. Hukukî anlam ifade eden bir terim, hakkın niteliğini belirler, sınırlarını gösterir ve hak sâhibinin neyi yapıp neyi yapamayacağını anlatır. Bu çalışmada 18. yüzyılın ilk yarısında Osmanlı Devleti’nde farklı bölgelerden seçilmiş bey‘ ve ferağ örneklerinden yola çıkarak, toprak üzerindeki mülkiyet ve tasarruf haklarının hangi terimlerle tanımlandığı ve bu terimlerin yere göre değişim gösterip göstermediği üzerinde durulacaktır. Bu bağlamda çalışmada, 18. yüzyıl hakkında sıklıkla tekrar edilen “mîrî arazinin mülke dönüşme süreci” anlatısını sorgulamak da mümkün olacaktır.
Anahtar kelimeler: Osmanlı arazi hukuku, mîrî arazi, mülkiyet, hukuk terminolojisi
ABSTRACT
The transfer of a land in exchange of a price was possible in the Ottoman Empire by two different contracts. While mîrî land was transferred by ferağ, private land was transferred by bey‘ (sale). It is possible to see that the rights obtained by those contracts were defined by certain words in court records. A detailed research about the usage of this terminology might serve to re-define some problems like local differences in practice. A legal term defines the nature and the limits of the rights and it determines the capacity of the owner. This research is mainly focused on the examples of bey‘ and ferağ from the court records of the first half of 18th century in the Ottoman Empire. The definition of
the right, the capacity explained in the court record will be examined by a survey upon different examples. This work would make possible to question the “18th-century process of mîrî land becoming mulk”.
Keywords: Ottoman land law, mîrî land, private property, legal terminology
Bu makalede Tanzimat devri ceza kanunlarından 1840 (1256) tarihli Ceza Kanunnamesi ve bu kanunun eksikliklerini ortadan kaldırmak gayesiyle çıkarılan 1851 (1267) tarihli Kanunu Cedit incelenmektedir. Sistemleri aynı olan her iki kanundan 1840 tarihli Ceza Kanunnamesinde suç genel teorisine ait hiçbir hükme rastlanılmamasına rağmen Kanunu Cedit’te (1267) sınırlı da olsa suç genel teorisiyle ilgili bazı hükümlere yer verilmiştir. İncelenen bu iki kanun her ne kadar bugünün ceza kanunlarıyla mukayese edildiğinde gerek suç sayısının azlığı, gerek cezaya ilişkin hükümlerin noksanlığı ve gerek suç teorisiyle ilgili hükümlerin yetersizliği nedenleriyle ihtiyaçları tatmin etmekten uzak olmakla birlikte, yine de ülkemizde suç ve cezaların kanuniliği, şahsiliği ve cezaların eşitliği prensiplerine yer vermişlerdir.
Anahtar kelimeler: Ceza Kanunnamesi, Kanunu Cedit, Tanzimat Devri Ceza Kanunları
ABSTRACT
In this article, criminal codes of Tanzimat Era, “Ceza Kanunnamesi” (Criminal Code) dated 1840 (1256), and “Kanunu Cedit” dated 1851 (1267) which was enacted in order to eliminate the deficiencies of this code are examined. These two codes have the same systematics however “Ceza Kanunnamesi” (Criminal Code) dated 1840 does not contain any provision about general theory of crime whereas some provisions of general theory of crime, albeit limited, are included in “Kanunu Cedit”. Although these two codes are far from satisfying the needs due to the lack of provisions related to the criminal theory, the lack of provisions related to the criminal theory and the limited quantity of crimes when compared to today’s criminal law, the codes include the principle of legality and personality.
Keywords: Ceza Kanunnamesi (Criminal Code), Kanunu Cedit, Criminal Codes in Tanzimat Era
X. yüzyıldan evvel göçebe Türk devlet ve kavimlerinde yer alan sözlü hukuk kuralları olarak bilinen töre kuralları, göçebe toplum hayatında hemen her konuda önemli bir düzenleyici görevi üstlenmektedir. Bunlar arasında en önemli konuların başında devlet hukuku ile ilgili kurallar yer almaktadır. Taht tevarüs sistemi, kut, orun, görev yetkilendirme, ülüş, ad/unvan alma, vs. gibi devlet hukukunu ilgilendiren kurallar önemli bir yere sahiptir. Devlet töresinin Türk Kağanlığı’nda (Kök Türkler) etkin bir şekilde uygulandığı bilinmektedir. Türk tarihinin en önemli şahsiyetlerinden biri olan Köl Tigin, Türk Kağanlığı’nın ikinci evresinin meşhur hükümdarı Kapgan Kağan zamanından kardeşi Bilge Kağan’ın iktidarı boyunca devletin siyasi tarihinde etkin bir rol oynamıştır. Bu bildiri, Köl Tigin’in yaptığı işler ve önemli görevlerde gösterdiği kahramanlıklardan ötürü devlet töresine göre bir unvan veya yetki almasını gerektirmesine karşın neden bir terfi alamadığı ile ilgili hususları ele almaktadır.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Bilge Kağan, Köl Tigin, Yabgu, Şad, Töre, Ad/Unvan Alma
ABSTRACT
Töre rules, known as unwritten law or customs in nomadic Turkish states and tribes before the 10th century, play an important regulatory role in almost all aspects of nomadic society. One of the most important issues is the rules of state law. Throne monotheism system, kut, orun, task authorization, idealization, name / title, etc. The rules of state law, such as, have an important place. It is known that customs (Töre) are effectively implemented in The Turkic Khaganate. Köl Tigin, one of the most important figures in Turkish history; from the time of the famous ruler of the second phase of the the Turkic Khaganate, Kapgan Kagan, he played an active role in the political history of the state during the rule of his brother Bilge Kagan. This paper examines the reasons why Köl Tigin has received a title or authority according to the state ceremony due to
his work and heroism in important positions, but why he has not received a promotion.
Keywords: Bilge Kagan, Köl Tigin, Yabgu, Şad, Törü, Name / Title
Çalışmamızın konusu, özel kişilerin kendilerine ait arazilerle kurdukları sahih icâreteynli ve mukâtaalı vakıflardaki tasarruf ve intikal hakkı ile mîrî ve mevkuf arazi mutasarrıfının tasarruf ve intikal haklarını karşılaştırmaktır. Bu yapılırken ilgisi olduğu oranda, yani konuyu çok fazla genişletmekten kaçınarak, mirî arazi ve tasarruf konularına yer verilmiştir. Elbette bunlar başlı başına birer kitap konusu olabilecek genişlikte konulardır. Doktrinde özel olarak bu konuları işleyen birçok doyurucu çalışma da vardır.
İslâm hukukundaki vakıf, öncelikle hayır gâyeli bir özel hukuk müessesesi olarak ortaya çıkmıştır. Bununla birlikte devlet de, toplumun ihtiyaçlarını karşılamak için rakabesi devlete (hazineye) ait fakat tasarruf hakkı özel kişilere verilmiş olan arazilerle, mutasarrıfları tarafından vakıf kurulmasını destekleyerek kamunun ihtiyaçlarının giderilmesinde vakıf müessesesini kullanmıştır. Her ne kadar kamu ve özel hukuk ayrımı belirgin değilse de, eskiden hakkında nasslarla açık ve tafsilatlı düzenlemelerin yapıldığı konular günümüzde özel hukuk olarak adlandırılan alana dâhil olmuştur. Bunlar aile ve miras hukuku gibi fertlere ilişkin yönü ağır basan konulardır. Daha çok kamu hukukunu ilgilendiren hususlarda ise, nasslarda ayrıntılı değil de genel hükümler
sevk edildiğinden bunlarda örfî hukuk uygulanabilmiştir. Hukuk tarihimizde vakfı, hem sahih vakıf olarak özel hukukta, hem de gayrisahih vakıf olarak kamu hukukunda görmekteyiz. Sahih vakıflar şer’î hukuka tâbîdir. Gayrisahih vakıflarda mülkiyet unsurundaki eksiklikten dolayı örfî hukuk uygulanır. Ancak yine de örfî hukukun tesisinde şer’î hukuk kâidelerinden yararlanılmıştır. Bu iki alanın birbirinden tam ve keskin bir şekilde ayrıldığı söylenemez. Gayrisahih vakıflarda mevkuf gayrimenkulün kuru mülkiyeti devletin, tasarruf hakkı özel kişilerindir.
Sahih vakıfların akârları ihtiyaç nedeniyle uzun süreli kira akdine konu olmuştur. Bu anlamda şer’î hukukta büyük çaplı tamiratının finansmanı için icâreteynli ve mukâtaalı vakıflar tanımlanmıştır. Bunlarda, kiracı öldükten sonra tasarruf hakları mirasçılarına intikal ederdi. Bu geçişe konu olan hak mülkiyet değil de tasarruf hakkı olduğundan şer’î intikale değil, örfî (âdî) intikal hükümlerine bağlanmıştır (Ömer Hilmi Efendi m: 188). Bunların intikali o dönemde yapılan düzenlemelerle mîrî arazinin tasarruf hakkının intikaline dair hükümlerin kapsamına alınmıştır. 21 Mayıs 1867 “Tevsî-i İntikal Kanunu” ile 6 Mart 1913 tarihli “Emval-i Gayrimenkulenin İntikâlâtı Hakkında Kanun” dönüm noktalarıdır.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Osmanlı Arazi Hukuku, mîrî arazi, kuru mülkiyet, sahih-gayrisahih vakıflar, iki kiralı vakıf (icâreteyn) ve mukâtaalı vakıf, tasarruf hakkı sahibi, hakr, intikal hakkı.
Erkek çocukları ve günümüzde genç ergen olarak tanımlanabilecek erkekler, yetişkin erkekler tarafından dünya tarihinin birçok döneminde ve coğrafyasında cinsel ilgi nesnesi olarak görülmüştür. Erken tarihli hukukî metinlerde yasaklanan ve cezalandırılan bu tür davranış biçimine pederasti denilmektedir. Tek tanrılı dinlerin ortaya çıkışı ile birlikte kutsal kitaplarda lanetlenen ve cinsel olarak yoldan sapma kapsamında değerlendirilen sodomi yahut livata kavramının içine dâhil edilen pederasti, Osmanlı devletinin hukuki metinlerinde de yer almıştır. Gerek merkezi gerekse bölgesel kanunnamelerde oğlan çekme, livata, fiil-i şeni gibi tanımlarla karşımıza çıkan pederasti kavramı, şeyhülislam fetvalarında ise livata, fiil-i şeni gibi tanımlar dâhilinde değerlendirilmiştir. Bu makalede Osmanlı devletinin değişik hukukî metinlerinde yer alan pederasti kavramına karşı ne tür cezalar verdiği incelenecektir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Pederasti, Osmanlı, Hukuk, Kanunname, Fetva.
ABSTRACT
Boys and men, who can be defined as young adolescents, have been seen by adult men as the object of sexual interest in many periods and geography of world history. Such behavior, which was prohibited and punished in early legal texts, is called pederasty.It was also included in the legal texts of the Ottoman state about the pederasty included in the concept of sodomy or liwat , which was cursed in the sacred books and evaluated in the context of sexual deviation. In both the central and regional law codes, the concept of pederasty with the definitions of child abduction, liwat, abominable act, and in the fatwa of the Shaykh al-Islam was evaluated in terms of definitions such as liwat, abominable act. In this article, what kind of punishments against the concept of pederasti in the different legal texts of Ottoman Empire will be examined.
Keywords: Pederasty, Ottoman, Law, Codex, Fatwa.
Sarraflar Osmanlı finans sisteminin temel finansal aracılarıdır. Kendi sermayelerine ek olarak toplumun muhtelif kesimlerinden işletilmek üzere para toplamakta ve fon ihtiyacı içerisinde bulunan kesimleri finanse etmektedirler. Özellikle, Osmanlı kamu maliyesiyle bağlantılı olarak iltizamın finansmanı ve mültezimlere kefaletleri nedeniyle önemli bir rol üstlenmektedirler. Faaliyetlerinin doğası gereği sarraflar zaman zaman iflas edebilmektedir. Devletin sıkı bir şekilde düzenlemeye tabi tuttuğu sarraflar iflasın sonuçlarından kaçınabilmek için bazı vakalarda mal kaçırma girişimlerinde bulunabilmektedir. Bazı durumlarda sarrafların müşterileri de sarraftan mal kaçırma yoluna gidebilmektedir. Bu çalışmada sarraf iflasları ve mal kaçırma durumlarıyla ilgili düzenlemeler ve hukuki süreçlerin nasıl işlediği örnekler yardımıyla ele alacaktır.
Anahtar kelimeler: Osmanlı finans sistemi, finansal aracılar, sarraflar, iflas, mal kaçırma.
ABSTRACT
Sarrafs are the main financial intermediaries of the Ottoman financial system. In addition to their own capital, they collect deposits from various segments of the society to finance those segments that are in need of financing. In particular, they play an important role in the Ottoman public finance with regard to their role in financing tax farming (iltizam) and underwriting of tax farmers (mültezim). As a natural consequence of their activities, sarrafs could go bankrupt from time to time. Sarrafs, which were strictly regulated by the state, could attempt to hide their assets in order to evade the consequences of bankruptcy.
This study examines the regulations on bankruptcy of sarrafs and hiding of their assets, and explains the legal processes with the help of examples.
Keywords: Ottoman financial system, financial intermediaries, sarrafs, bankruptcy, to hide assets.
Bu yazıda, Kırım Hanlığının başkenti olan Bahçesaray şehri sakinlerinden Ebubekir’in beş akçelik davasını içeren bir hüccet tahlil olunacaktır. Bu dava görünürde nezir müessesesiyle ilişkili olmakla birlikte, arka planda başka birtakım hukuki ve içtimai ilişkileri barındırıyor gibidir. Bu bakımdan, söz konusu hüccet, olayın tüm boyutları göz önünde bulundurularak ele alınacaktır. Böylelikle, hem 18. yüzyılın ilk yarısında Kırım’ın hukuki ve içtimai hayatından bir kesit sunulacak, hem de nezir (adak) müessesesinin farklı hukuki ve içtimai ilişkilerin içerisinde yer alma kabiliyeti vurgulanacaktır. Ayrıca, ikincil düzeyde, ele alınan hüccetin ait olduğu T.C. Cumhurbaşkanlığı Osmanlı Arşivi’nin Bab-ı Defteri Başmuhasebe Nezir Hücceti (D.BŞM.NZR.) fonu hakkında da bilgi aktarımı sağlanacaktır.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Kırım, adak, nezir, hüccet, bahis, rüyet-i hilal, nezir hücceti fonu.
ABSTRACT
In this study, an archival document (hujjat) which includes a five coins worth case of Ebubekir who is an inhabitant of Bahçesaray city (capital of the Crimean Khanate) will be analyzed. In apparently this case is related to vow (nezr). However, it may also include some other social and legal relations. In this respect, the undertaking document will be handled considering all aspects of the incident. Thus an aspect of social and legal life in Crimea in the first half of 18th century will be presented, as well as the capacity of taking part with different social and legal relations of vow (nezr) will be emphasized. On a secondary level, some information about the Bab-ı Defteri Başmuhasebe Nezir Hücceti (D.BŞM.NZR.) classification which is a part of the Ottoman Archive of
Presidency of Turkish Republic will be given.
Keywords: Crimea, vow (nezr), hujjat, betting, seeing the crescent (of Ramadan), the
nezir hücceti classification.
19. ve 20. yüzyıllarda sanayileşme ve sömürgeciliğin hız kazanması uluslararası ticaretin önemini artırdığı kadar devletler arasındaki savaşların da etkilerini büyütmüştür. Bu durum; devletleri, denizlerdeki egemenliklerini koruma adına deniz hukuku sahasında da düzenlemelerde bulunmaya sevk etmiştir. Uluslararası örf-adet kurallarının kodifikasyonu noktasında önem arz eden bu düzenleme ve antlaşmalar bugünkü deniz hukukunu da şekillendirmiş görünmektedir. Bu çalışmada deniz hukuku anlayışlarının nasıl şekillendiği 20. yüzyıl başında Lassa Oppenheim ve Osman Sermed tarafından yazılmış iki eser üzerinden gösterilmeye gayret edilecektir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Deniz Hukuku, Kodifikasyon, Lassa Oppenheim, Osman Sermed.
ABSTRACT
In the 19th and 20th centuries, the acceleration of industrialization and colonialism increased the importance of international trade and widened the effects of wars between states. This also urged states to make arrangements in the field of maritime law to protect their sovereignty over seas. These arrangements and conventions that are important in the codification of the international customary rules, seem to have shaped the current maritime law. In this study, how maritime law is shaped will be shown through two works written by Lassa Oppenheim and Osman Sermed at the beginning of the 20th century.
Keywords: Maritime Law, Codification, Lassa Oppenheim, Osman Sermed.
Osmanlı Devleti’nde anonim şirket tipinde şirketlerin kurulmasına yönelik ilk girişimler Tanzimat Fermanı’nın ilanından itibaren başlamıştır. Bu tipte faaliyete geçen ilk şirket ise 1851 yılında kurulan Şirket-i Hayriye’dir. Adı geçen şirketin kurulduğu 1851 yılı aynı zamanda Kanunname-i Ticaret’in yürürlüğe girdiği yıldır. Kanunname’de şirket tiplerine ilişkin kısımlar yer almakla birlikte hükmi şahsiyet kavramının henüz benimsenmemesi sonucunda şirketlere ilişkin düzenlemeler yetersiz kalmıştır. Sözkonusu eksikliklerin tamamlanabilmesi için uzun bir sürenin geçmesi gerekmiştir. Şirketlere ilişkin düzenlemelerin eksikliğine rağmen anonim şirket kurma girişimleri eksik olmamıştır. Bu girişimlerin büyük çoğunluğunu ise bankalar oluşturmaktadır. Anonim şirket tipinde banka kurma girişimleri Kanunname-i Ticaret’in anonim şirket hukukuna ilişkin eksikliklerin giderilmesine ve bu şirket kültürünün yerleşmesine büyük katkısı olmuştur. Çalışmanın amacı anonim şirket hukuk ve kültürünün ilk oluşum devresinde bankacılık kuruluşlarının katkısını ortaya koyabilmektir. Çalışmanın hazırlanmasında gerek girişim aşamasında kalan gerekse faaliyete geçen bankalara ait Osmanlı Arşivinde tespit edilen nizamname, nizamname taslakları ve layihalardan yararlanılacaktır.
Anahtar kelimeler: şirketler hukuku tarihi (Osmanlı’da), Kanunname-i Ticaret (1851), anonim şirketler, bankalar, Şirket-i Hayriye.
ABSTRACT
First attempts to found joint stock companies in the Ottoman Empire started following the announcement of Rescript of Tanzimat. The first joint stock company to start its operations is Şirket-i Hayriye established in 1851. The year of institution of the mentioned company is also the year in which Commercial Code (Kanunname-i Ticaret) was promulgated. Although there are articles regarding the establishment of joint stock companies, failure to bestow legal personality on the joint stock company resulted in an insufficient framework in the Code. A long period of waiting was needed before deficiencies in the Code were completed. In spite of deficiencies there was no lack of attempt to establish joint stock companies. Most of those attempts to establish joint stock companies are aimed at banks. Those attempts to establish banks as joint stock companies helped greatly to make up the aforementioned deficiencies and to promote a cultural environment conducive to joint stock companies. The purpose of this study is to depict the positive role of banking institutions in the early stages of formation of joint stock company legal framework and culture. In the study, an extensive use of joint stock internal governance rules, draft governance rules and regulations of both operational and attempted joint stock banking companies found in the Ottoman Archives is made.
Keywords: history of corporate law (in the Ottoman Empire), Commercial Code (1851), joint stock companies, banks, Şirket-i Hayriye.
Bünyesinde birçok farklı etnik ve dinî menşeden halkı barındıran Osmanlı Devleti’nde, herhangi bir ayırım yapılmaksızın, tebaaya “hak arama” serbestisinin tanınmış olması, toplumsal dokunun sıhhatine hizmet etmiş önemli bir husustur. Osmanlı Arşivi’nde sayıları kabarık hacimler tutan vesikalar, tıpkı Müslümanlar gibi gayrimüslim (zimmî) tebaanın da karşılaştıkları sorunlarla alakalı olarak hak arama imkânından yararlandıklarını göstermektedir. Bu araştırmada, söz konusu hakkın kullanımının bürokratik işleyişinin yanı sıra, başlıca hangi meselelerin İstanbul’a taşındığı ve bunların nasıl karşılık bulduğu gibi hususlar, örnekleme seçilen belgelere istinaden tartışılacaktır. Araştırmanın birincil kaynakları, gayrimüslim tebaa tarafından Divân-ı Hümâyun’a sunulmuş ve hâlihazırda Osmanlı Arşivi’ndeki çeşitli fonlarda mevcut bulunan dilekçelerden (arzuhâl) ibarettir. 17. yüzyıl sonları ve 18. yüzyılın ilk çeyreğine ait olan bu belgelerin tarih aralığı, aynı zamanda araştırmanın zaman sınırını oluşturmaktadır.
Anahtar kelimeler: Osmanlı Devleti, Divân-ı Hümâyun, gayrimüslim (zimmî), hak arama, arzuhâl.
ABSTRACT
The citizens of the Ottoman Empire, even whose ethnic structure and religious beliefs were different, had the right to seek rights without any discrimination. This situation helped the state’s social structure to be healthy. The documents and records in the Ottoman Archive show that just like muslims, non-muslim (zimmî) people have also used the opportunity to seek rights. In this research, issues such as in addition to
the bureaucratic process on the use of the justice-seeking culture, the main problems were carried to Istanbul and how they were answered by Ottoman Goverment will be discussed with the help of sample documents. The primary sources of the research are the petitions (arzuhâl) these are still in the Ottoman Archives, submitted to the
Supreme Court (Divân-ı Hümâyun) by non-muslim people. The date range of the research is from the late 17th to the first quarter of the 18th century.
Keywords: The Ottoman State, Supreme Court, non-muslim (zimmî), justice-seeking,
petition (arzuhâl).
Mi’yar-ı Adalet, Ömer Hilmi tarafından 1884 yılında telif edilmiş, Hanefi fıkıh ve Osmanlı dönemi fetva kitaplarının sistemli bir özeti olup kişilere karşı işlenen suçları konu almaktadır. Kuduri, Dürer ve Gurer, Tahtavi tercümeleri gibi kitaplardaki Türkçe ifadelerle neredeyse birebir aynı cümleler içermektedir. Bu eserin resmî bir hukuk kaynağı olma niteliği yoksa da, cinayet davalarında şer’iye mahkemesi hâkimleri için yararlı bir el kitabı olduğunda şüphe yoktur. Ayrıca, bazı ihtilaflı konularda uygulanacak kuralları ve tatbik şekillerini tayin etmesi açısından da dönemine ışık tutmaktadır.Anahtar kelimeler: İslam ceza hukuku, cinayet, kısas, diyet, taziren katl.
ABSTRACT
Mi’yar-ı adalet was accommodated by Ömer Hilmi in 1884 and it is a systematic summary of the Ottoman fatwa books and is about crimes commited against people. It contains identical sentences with Turkish words in the books such as Kuduri, Dürer and Gurer, Tahtavi translations. Although this work doesn’t possess a quality of offical law basis, there is no doubt that it is a benefical hand book for the judges of religious court in murder cases. Also, it sheds light to the term for the purposes of settling application shapes and rules being carried in some disputed subjects.
Keywords: Islam criminal law, murder, talion, blood money, taziren katl.
Soybağı, çocuk ile ana babası arasındaki genetik bağı ifade eder. Bu nedenle tüm top-lumlarda olduğu gibi Roma toplumunda da soybağının kurulması, esas olarak kan bağı yoluyla olur. Çocuğun anası ile soybağının kurulması doğum yoluyla; babası ile soybağı-nın kurulması, ana ve baba arasında ius civile'ye göre geçerli bir evlilik bulunması ya da mahkemece verilecek bir babalık hükmü ya da legitimatio adı verilen Roma hukukuna özgü bir yol ile olur. Çocuk ile ana babası arasında soybağının kurulması, Roma hukukun-da derhal hısımlık ilişkisi oluşturmaz. Hısımlık ilişkisinin kurulması için çocuğun, baba patria potestas'ı altında olması şarttır. Soybağı ve hısımlık, çocuk ile aile babası arasında karşılıklı reverentia (saygı yükümlülüğü), karşılıklı bakım yükümlülüğü ve karşılıklı miras yükümlülüğü gibi hukuki sonuçlar meydana getirir.
Anahtar kelimeler: Soybağı, hısımlık, babalık davası, evlenme, legitimatio.
ABSTRACT
Genealogy refers to the genetic bond between the child and his parents. For this reason, as in all societies, the establishment of the genealogy in Roman society is mainly through blood. The birth of the child's mother and the motherhood through birth; the establishment of a paternity with his father, the existence of a valid marriage between the mother and father according to the local civilians, or the provision of a paternity to be given by the court or a way specific to Roman law called legitimatio. The establishment of a genealogy between the child and his parents does not immediately constitute a kinship relation in Roman law. In order to establish the relationship of kinship, the child must be under the patria potestas. Paternity and kinship have legal consequences, such as mutual reverentia between the child and the family, the obligation of mutual care and the obligation of mutual inheritance.
Keywords: Paternité, kinship relation, paternity case, marriage, legitimatio.
Bu çalışmanın kapsamını, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu döneminde hazırlanan ve ülke ormancılık tarihinin ilk kapsamlı düzenlemesi sayılabilecek, “Memâlik-i Mahrûsede Olan Ormanların Tanzim ve Tesviyesine Dair Lâyiha-i Mütercemedir” isimli kanun taslağı oluşturmaktadır. Taslak, 12 Temmuz 1840 tarihinde, Meclis-i Vâlâ’da görüşülmüş ve 24 Temmuz 1840 tarihli Padişah iradesiyle onaylanarak, ülke mevzuatının ormancılıkla ilgili bilinen ilk ve en kapsamlı düzenlemesi halini almıştır.
Bu çalışmanın amacı, Osmanlı Türkçesiyle kanun taslağı olarak yazılmış bir belgeyi günümüz Türkçesine çevirerek, daha geniş bir kullanıcının yararlanmasına açmak ve günümüz ormancılık uygulamalarına olan etkisi ile ormancılık tarihi içerisindeki yerini tartışmaktır. 22 maddeden oluşan belgenin incelenmesi sonucunda, halen uygulanan pek çok ormancılık uygulamasının ilk hukuki düzenlemesinin bu belgeyle ortaya konduğu, bu nedenle incelenen belgenin Türkiye ormancılığının en kapsamlı ilk hukuki düzenlemesi olarak kabul edilmesi gerektiği ortaya çıkmaktadır. Belgenin içeriği ve Ahmet Şükrü Bey’in ilk orman müdürü olarak atanması birlikte yorumlandığında, Türkiye’nin en köklü ve yetkili ormancılık kurumu olan Orman Genel Müdürlüğü’nün,
yaygın bilinenin aksine, 1839 yılında değil, 1840 yılında kurulduğunun kabul edilmesi
gerektiği anlaşılmaktadır.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Ormancılık tarihi, Ormancılık mevzuatı, Orman Genel Müdürlüğü,
Ormanlardan yararlanma.
ABSTRACT
The scope of the study consists of the first forest act titled as “The translation of the
Draft Act on the Regulation and Management of Forests in the Ottoman Country”. The
act was accepted as the first comprehensive forest regulation in Turkish history. The
bill was negotiated by Meclis-i Vâlâ, responsible council in that time on 12 July 1840 and approved by Sultan on 24 July 1840, so that the first comprehensive act of forest legislation was generated in Turkish forestry history.
The aim of this study is to translate the original document written in Ottoman letters
and old Turkish language to serve a wide range of audience and discuss its effects on
current forestry practices, while defining its relevance in the history of Turkish forestry.
Provided that first legal regulation of several forestry practices was introduced with
this law consisting of 22 articles, our study reveals that it should be accepted as the first comprehensive act for Turkish forestry. Considering the content of the law and the
assignment of Mr. Ahmet Şükrü as the first Forest Director in the country at the same
year, in contrast to general agreement on the establishment date of General Directorate of Forestry as 1839, it must be accepted as 1840.
Keywords: Forestry history, Forestry legislation, General Directorate of Forestry, Forest
utilization.
1868’de Selanik’te dünyaya gelen Abdurrahman Âdil, Osmanlı Devleti’nin son dönemlerinin önemli yazarlarından ve gazetecilerinden biridir. Mekteb-i Hukuk-i Şahane’den mezun olduktan sonra dava vekilliği yapmıştır. Bunun yanında birçok hukuki eser telif etmiş, çeşitli mecmualar çıkarmış ve ömrünün sonuna kadar birçok gazetede yazı yazmıştır. Mahkeme-i Temyiz, onun neşrettiği mühim eserlerden biridir. Bu çalışmada Abdurrahman Âdil’in hayatı, eserleri ve onun Mahkeme-i Temyiz eseri tetkik edilecektir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Abdurrahman Âdil, Mahkeme-i Temyiz, yargı yolları, hukuka uygunluk denetimi
ABSTRACT
Abdurrahman Adil, who was born in Thessaloniki in 1868, is one of the important writers and journalists of the last period of the Ottoman Empire. After graduating from Mekteb-i Hukuk-i Şahane, he had worked as an attorney. Besides, he had published many legal studies, he had issued various periodicals and written many papers and columns in the newspaper until the end of his life. His book named “Mahkeme-i Temyiz” (the Court of Cassation) is considered as one of the most important studies that he had published. In this study, the life of Abdurrahman Adil, his works and his book named Mahkeme-i Temyiz will be examined.
Keywords: Abdurrahman Adil, Mahkeme-i Temyiz, judicial remedy, legal compliance audit
Tanzimat Dönemi’ndeki resepsiyon hareketleriyle birlikte yayımlanan Ticaret Kanunu Zeyli 98. maddesinde ve Osmanlı Muhakeme-i Hukukiyye Kanunu’nun 111. maddesinde kökeni Roma hukukunda ceza koşuluna dayanan uygulama yer almaktaydı. Bu maddelere göre, sözleşmede taraflardan birinin taahhüdünü ifa etmediği takdirde, diğer tarafa tazmin olarak belirli miktar meblağı vermesi beyan ve şart kılınmışsa, ondan fazla ve eksik verilmesi caiz olmazdı. Bu nedenle aslında Tanzimat’tan 818 sayılı Borçlar Kanunu’nun kabulüne kadar olan dönemde de, söz konusu maddelerle Roma hukuku esaslarına dayalı ceza koşulu kavramı kabul edilmişti. İşte bu çalışmada söz konusu maddelerin neyi ifade ettiği açıklanarak, Roma hukukundaki görünümü olan ceza koşulu kavramı üzerinde durulacaktır.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Türk Hukuk Tarihi, Roma hukuku, ceza koşulu, stipulatio poenae.
ABSTRACT
There were applications rooted in the penal clause of Roman Law in the Article 98 of Appendix to the Imperial Law of Commerce and the Article 111 of Interim Law of Civil Procedures, which were issued with the reception movements in Tanzimat Reform Era. According to these articles, if it was stated and stipulated that when one of the parties
of the contract did not fulfill his/her commitment, he/she had to give some amount of money to other party as compensation, it would be illicit to give more or less than that amount. For this reason, in fact, the concept of penal clause based on Roman Law was accepted with the mentioned articles in the period between the Tanzimat Reform Era
and the acceptance of the Code of Obligations No. 818. In this study, I will explain what is expressed by the mentioned articles and explore the concept of penal clause, which is appearance of these articles in the Roman Law.
Keywords: Turkish history of law, Roman law, penalty clause, stipulatio poenae.
Araştırmamıza konu makale, Ebü’l-ulâ Mardin tarafından yazılmış ve Eylül 1338’de (M. Eylül 1922/H. Muharrem 1341) Dârülfünûn Hukuk Fakültesi Mecmuâsı’nda yayınlanan “Mukâtaa-i Kadîmeli Vakıfların Sûret-i Tevârüs ve İntikâli”dir. 1920’lerin başlarında, 1913 tarihli Tevsî-i İntikal Kanunu’nun 8’inci maddesi, sahih mukâtaalı vakıfların müsakkafâtını da örfî miras hukukuna tâbî kılacak şekilde yanlış bir uygulamaya konu olmuştu. Bu makalede mukâtaa sözleşmesinin amacına ve kanunlara aykırı olan bu uygulamanın, mülkiyet ve vakıf hukukunu nasıl olumsuz bir mecrâya sürüklediği vurgulanmış ve hukukî delillerle ispatlanmıştır. Konu her ne kadar mukâtaa-i kadîmeli vakıflarla sınırlı da olsa, yazar aynı zamanda vakıfların eski kurallarını, dayanaklarını ve amaçlarını da değerlendirmekte ve böylece okuyucuya tarihsel bir perspektif de sunmaktadır. Bu bağlamda yazar ayrıca Ömer Hilmi Efendi’nin vakıf hakkında yazılan temel eserine atıflar yaparak, makalenin yazıldığı dönemdeki uygulamayla bu kadîm hükümler arasında oluşan çelişkiyi ortaya koymaktadır.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Osmanlı Arazi Hukuku, Mîrî Arazi, Mukâtaalı Vakıf, Mukâtaa-i Kadîmeli Vakıfların Tevârüs ve İntikali.
ABSTRACT
The article which we determined as the subject of our research was written by Ebü’l-ulâ Mardin and published at “Dârülfünûn Hukuk Fakültesi Mecmuâsı”, in September 1338 (M. September 1922/H. Muharrem 1341). The headline of this article is “Inheritance and Succession of the Waqfs with Muqâtaa-i Qadîme”. This paper examines the question of how negative narratives can be dragged in the early 1920s because of the inaccuracies in practice and the rules of inheritance in the “waqfs with muqâtaa-i qadîme”, in other words, because of a practice contrary to the law. The subject of the article is the inheritance and transfer rules applied to them but not the definition of waqfs with muqâtaa-i qadîme. At the same time, however, the writer is also evaluating the waqf institutuion; its old rules and their aims thus presenting a historical perspective to the reader. In this context, it deals with Ömer Hilmi Efendi’s waqfs and reveals the contradiction between the practice of writing the article. The author searched for the answer to the question
“even though the public land (arazi-i emîriyye) and public waqf land (arazi-i mevkûfe) are mentioned in the Law on Extension-Transfer, how is it possible to apply this law to a building built on a Muqâtaa land and on a Muqâtaa-i Qadîme land.
Keywords: Ottoman Land Law, Public Waqf Land, Waqf with Muqâtaa, Inheritance and Succession of the Waqfs with Muqâtaa-i Qadîme.
Vakfın ne olduğuna ilişkin farklı disiplinlerde muhtelif açıklamalar yapılmakla birlikte, birden fazla disiplini nazara alarak vakıf fenomenine yaklaşan bir bakışa ihtiyaç duyulmaktadır. Gerek tarihsel gerekse coğrafi farklılıkların bu bakışın dikkatinden kaçmaması elzemdir. Ancak böylesi bir “büyük” tartışmanın akabinde vakfın anlam katmanlarına dair bir fikir ortaya çıkabilecektir. Bu makalenin amacı, söz konusu ihtiyacı vurgulamaktır. Dolayısıyla vakıf hakkında ilk elden edinilebilecek bilgileri tekrarlamak yerine, bütünsel bir perspektiften bakılarak anlam ayrımları konusunda bir çerçeve teklif edilmektedir. Öncelikle modern öncesi dönemde fıkıh ve modern dönemde hukuk bilimi perspektiflerinden vakfa bakışlar gösterilmiş, ardından modern dönemde sosyal bilimler ve İslam hukuk biliminden vakfa nasıl bakıldığına işaret edilmiştir. Makale boyunca takip edilen çerçevenin mutlak sayılamayacağını hatırlatmak gerekir. Daha ileri tartışmalarla gelişmeye ve değişmeye açık bir şema gözetilmiştir.
Anahtar kelimeler: vakf, irsâd, stiftung/fondation/tesis, trust, evkâf.
ABSTRACT
Although several explanations were made in different disciplines about what the waqf is, there is a need for a treatment that approaches the phenomenon by taking multiple disciplines into account. It is essential that this approach must consider both historical and geographical differences. Only after such a “meta” debate would there be an idea
of the semantic stratum of waqf. The purpose of this paper is to emphasize the need in question. Therefore, instead of repeating the first-hand information about waqf, I propose a framework for differences of meaning from a holistic perspective. Firstly, I show the approaches of fiqh and jurisprudence on waqf in pre-modern and modern periods, then I point out social sciences and modern Islamic jurisprudence’s look at waqf. It should be noted that the framework I follow throughout the article cannot be considered absolute. Further schemes are open to progress and change.
Keyword: waqf, irsād, stiftung/fondation/tesis, trust, awqāf.
Çalışmamızda, görev ve yetki alanları giderek değişen mahkemelerin hukukî bağlamda aldıkları pozisyon tespit edilmeye çalışılacaktır. Akabinde Şer‘iyye ve Nizamiyye Mahkemeleri özelinde, yargılama usulleri ve bilhassa yargılama sürelerinde farklılıkların olup olmadığı incelenecektir. Bu kapsamda, Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivi’nde bulunan
konuyla ilgili muhtelif evrak ile defterler taranmıştır. Ayrıca söz konusu mahkemenin kuruluşu, yapısı, görev ve yetki alanlarını içeren hukukî düzenlemeler de dönemin ilgili kanun mecmua ve yayınlarından tespit edilmiştir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Osmanlı hukuku, Şer‘iyye mahkemeleri, Nizâmiyye mahkemeleri, Klasik dönem, Tanzimat dönemi, yargılama süresi.
ABSTRACT
Sharia Courts served as the principal and general courts in the Ottoman State until the imperial edict of Gülhane (Tanzimat) and handled any kind of case including legal, penal, administrative, military, financial matters. It is known that new institutions were established as well as the existing ones were reformed during Tanzimat Period. Sharia Court was one of the institutions which was affected by this transformation and much of its jurisdiction and function were transferred to different institutions from
mid-19th century onwards. Thus, Sharia Courts became limited to their legal functions only. Furthermore, in addition to the Ottoman legal system, a Western legal system was also introduced, and Nizamiye Courts came into existence along with Sharia Courts.
The legal mechanism, which were divided in such a way, also included such specialized courts as Waqf Courts, Commercial Courts, and Minority Courts etc. In our study, the legal position of the courts within shifting jurisdictional and functional scopes is aimed to be detected. Subsequently, the rules of legal procedures and if there was a difference between trial durations will be examined with a specific focus on Sharia and Nizamiye Courts. To this end, related documents and records in the Ottoman Archive of Prime Ministry will be scanned. Furthermore, the legal arrangements regarding the foundation, the structure, jurisdictional and functional scope of the court will be identified through the legal journals and issues of the period.
Keywords: Ottoman law, Sharia courts, Nizamiye courts, Classical period, Tanzimat period, trial duration.
Makalede İslam’ın klasik dönemlerindeki hukuk eğitiminin bir örneği olarak Memlükler dönemi fıkıh eğitimine dair bir tasvir sunulmaktadır. Bunu yaparken öncelikle fıkhın ve şer’î hukuk sisteminin ayırdedici özelliklerine değinilmekte, ardından Memlükler döneminden seçilen kırk civarındaki fakihin eğitim hayatından yola çıkılarak bir değerlendirme yapılmaktadır. İslam medeniyetinde fıkıh, günümüzdeki modern hukuk mesleğinin kapsamından daha farklı ve geniş bir muhtevaya sahiptir. Fıkıhta kurallar, vahiyle belirlenmiş temel hükümlerden ilmî bir istinbat işlemi yoluyla üretilir. Fakih, Hz. Peygamber’in örnekliğini esas aldığı bir hayat ve ilişkiler düzeni inşa etmeyi hedefler. Fıkhî tefekkür ve istinbat sürecinde devletten bağımsız ve ilmî esaslara bağlı bir hukuk üretimi söz konusudur. Dolayısıyla fıkıh eğitimi, öncelikle dinî kaynakları ve onlara dayalı olarak hukuki olay ve fiilleri yorumlayabilecek, fetvâ, yargı ve öğretim (tedris) görevini yerine getirebilecek yetkin hukukçular yetiştirmeyi hedeflemiştir. Kendisine ait bazı özellikler göstermekle birlikte Memlükler dönemi de klasik dönemler boyunca İslam medeniyetindeki fıkıh eğitiminin ana niteliklerini taşır. Bu eğitim, modern anlamda formel unvan ve aşamalara tabi olmamasına karşın öğrenilecek konuları, geliştirilecek yetkinlikleri, eğitim metotları ve yetkinlik ölçüleri standartlaşan bir mahiyet arz eder. Eğitim sürecinde müesseseler ve formel belgelerden ziyade belirli yetkinliğe sahip üstatların denetiminde öğrencinin hem naklî bilgiye hem de metotlu, tenkitçi bir zihniyetle istinbat yeteneğine sahip olmasına önem verilmiştir. Memlükler dönemi eğitimini belirleyen hususlar arasında Abbasî dönemi sonlarından itibaren mezhep olgusunun ortaya çıkıp yerleşmesi, Selçuklularla birlikte medreselerin kurulup yaygınlaşması ve “muhtasar” metinlere dayalı standartlaşan bir eğitimin gelişmesi zikredilebilir. Memlükler’de birden fazla mezhepte eğitim veren medreselerin varlığı, dört mezhepten kadı atanması uygulaması ve hadis eğitiminin ağırlıklı bir yerinin bulunması, fıkıh eğitiminin hem canlılığını hem de rengini belirleyen hususlar arasında yer alır. Öte yandan Osmanlılar’daki uygulamanın aksine gerek medreselerdeki eğitim gerekse istihdam açısından hiyerarşik bir sistemin bulunduğu söylenemez.
Anahtar kelimeler: Memlükler, fıkıh eğitimi, fetva ve tedris icazeti, muhtasar, ictihad ve müctehid.
ABSTRACT
In the article I describe the legal education in Mamluk period as an example of classical periods of Islamic civilization. In the introductory section I talked about the characteristics of Shar’i legal system and fiqh. In the next section I described the legal education by searching the educational lives of some forty prominent faqihs from Mamluk period. The legal science of the Islamic civilisation, e.g. fiqh, has a different
and broader content than the modern legal sciences. The rules are produced through scientific-methodological inferences from the revealed sources in the fiqh. Faqihs aim to build a life and order of relations following the example of the Messenger (pbuh). The process of the legal production is subject to scientific rules and methods and is independent of the state, at least in the sources and ijtihad level. So, the Islamic legal
education aimed to raise competent legal scholars who are able a) to understand the religious sources and interpret the revealed rules, and the legal cases according to these rules, b) to carry out the duties of fatwa, tadris (education), and jurisdiciton. These are also true for the Mamluk period. Although this period bears the same constant features of the Islamic legal education that we encounter throughout the classical
periods, there are some features special to it. As a continuation of the Ayyubid era, the Mamluk legal education gave importance to the competency of the students both in the naqlî knowledge and in the inferential capacities with a highly critical mind. Although there were many madrasas and semi-formal documentation, e.g. ijazahs, the main emphasis was on the relation of master scholar and student together with semi-standardised legal texts in every madhhab. Especially the existence of the highly refined legal texts (mukhtasars and sharhs), qawaid literature and ahadith al-ahkam literature differentiated it from the early periods (mutakaddimûn) and gave it some kind of standardisation that left little need to the amali (sin. imla) of the master scholars except in the cases where the master wrote and taught his own commentary. Another important aspect characterising the Mamluk legal education and differentiating it from the educational traditions of the eastern Islamic World (before and after the Seljukids) or the Ottoman heartland was an intensive hadith education accompanying to the
legal education. Other than these points, we may count the stabilisation of the four sunni madhhabs, appointment of qadis from every madhhab, plurality and diversity of madrasas and mansibs (cadres) among the factors shaping the legal education at the time of Mamluks. Additionally there were no visible or formal hierarchy among the madrasas neither a guarantee of employment attached to the madrasas or the level of
education as developed in the Ottomans from the second half of the 15th century on.
Keywords: Mamluks, Islamic legal education, ijazah of fatwa and tadris, mukhtasar, ijtihad and mujtahid.
II. Meşrutiyet dönemi sonrasında başta aile hukuku olmak üzere yeni ihtiyaçları karşılamak üzere yapılması tartışılan kanun hazırlıklarıyla ilgili gelişmeler, Fıkıh usulü alanında yeni tartışmaların ortaya çıkmasına yol açmıştır. Darülfünun Hukuk Fakültesi Fıkıh usulü hocası Hüseyin Naci’nin bu yazıda incelenen ders notları, alışılmış bir usul-i fıkıh kitabında bulunan tüm konuları içermez. Metinde üç temel konu ele alınır. İlk olarak Usul-i fıkıh dersinin hukuk fakültesi müfredatından çıkarılması girişimlerine karşı bu ilim dalının güncel hukuku anlamak ve yorumlamak için önemli bir araç oluşuna vurgu yapılır. Bu sebeple Hüseyin Naci eski ve eksik yönlerinin gözden geçirilmesi durumunda usul-i fıkıh verilerinden yararlanılabileceğini tartışır. İkinci olarak usul-i fıkıh karşısındaki mevcut tarihsel yaklaşımları ikiye ayırarak tasnif eder. Bunlardan ilki taklide dayalı dogmatik özellikleri barındıran” Klasik ve Teolojik Mektep”, ikincisi ise ictihad serbestliğini savunmakla beraber felsefi yönlerden de tam olarak kurtulamamış “Müdafaacıların Mektebi”dir. Kendisi bir adım daha ileri giderek bu iki yaklaşımda gördüğü sorunlar sebebiyle tenkid özelliği bulunan üçüncü ve “Lâyik” bir yaklaşım önermiştir. Bu görüşler modernleşme dönemi İslam Hukuku tartışmalarının önemli noktalarını göstermesi bakımından dikkate değerdir. Hüseyin Naci bu tasniflerini
temellendirmek için dönemin diğer bazı yazarları gibi Fıkıh tarihine özel bir önem atfeder. Ders notlarının üçüncü eksenini, dersin esas konusu olan geleneksel tasnifteki fıkıh usulü konuları oluşturmakla beraber eserde, bu konuların çok küçük bir kısmını oluşturan “hüküm” bahsinin bazı sınırlı meseleleri ele alınabilmiştir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Hüseyin Naci, Modernleşme ve İslam Hukuku, Usul-i fıkıh, Darülfünun Hukuk Fakültesi, Hukuk Eğitimi
ABSTRACT
A host of new legal issues led to the emergence of debates primarily on family law during the Second Constitutional Era, which in turn brought up new ideas in the field of Islamic Law Methodology, Usul al- fiqh. This article examines the Lecture notes by Huseyin Naci, a Usul al-fiqh Professor at the Darulfunun Law School, which do not contain all the subjects found in a standard Usul al-fiqh book. Instead they cover three
main subjects: First, they emphasize the significance of Islamic Law Methodology in terms of understanding and interpreting the contemporary law, against the attempts to remove Usul al-fiqh courses from the Law School’s curriculum. Huseyin Naci thus argues that Usul al-fiqh data will be beneficial once its old and deficient aspects have been reviewed. Secondly, he classifies existing historical approaches to Usul al-fiqh into two groups: The first one is the “Classical and Theological School” that entails dogmatic features based on imitation (taqlid), and the second one is the “School of Defenders”, which, along with advocating the freedom of ijtihad, failed to get rid of its philosophical
aspects. He takes one step further proposing a third, critical approach, which he prefers to call “laique”, due to the problems he observes within the first two approaches. These arguments are worth for consideration in terms of showing important turning points within modern Islamic Law debates. Here Huseyin Naci, like some other contemporaneous authors, makes special references to the history of Islamic Law to justify his classifications. The third axis of the lecture notes consists of traditional Usul al-fiqh subjects, which are the main topic of the course, though it remained limited to certain matters of the question of hukm, which itself constitutes a small part of these subjects.
Keywords: Hüseyin Naci, Islamic Law and Modernization, Usul al-fiqh, Darulfunun Law School, Legal Education
Sırbistan Osmanlı egemenliği altında 1830-1878 yılları arasnda imtiyâzlı vilâyet statüsü elde etmiştir. İmtiyâzlı eyâletler sahip oldukları statü kapsamında iç işlerinde hukukî, idarî ve mâlî düzenlemeler yapabilme yetkisine sahiptiler. Sırbistan kendisine tanınan statü çerçevesinde Osmanlı idaresi altında 1835, 1838 ve 1869 yıllarında anayasalar kabul
etmiştir. 1838 Anayasası’nın müzâkereleri İstanbul’da yapılmış, muhtevâsında Osmanlı padişahına önemli yetkiler tanınmış ve padişah tarafından bir fermanla ilan edilmiştir. Bu nedenlerle, 1838 Anayasası literatürde “Türk Anayasası (Turski Ustav)” olarak isimlendirilmiştir.
Anayasa, Osmanlı Devleti ve Rusya’nın garantörlüğünde olmakla birlikte
uluslararası rekâbetin bir parçası hâline gelmiştir. 1838 Anayasası, özellikle 1860’dan itibaren çıkarılan kanunlarla etkisini kaybetmiştir. 30 yıl boyunca yürürlükte kalan Anayasa 1869 yılında yürürlükten kaldırılmıştır.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Anayasacılık, Osmanlı Anayasacılığı, Balkan Anayasacılığı, Sırbistan Anayasacılığı, 1838 Türk Anayasası.
ABSTRACT
Serbia gained privileged province status between 1830-1878 under Ottoman rule. The privileged states had the authority to make legal, administrative and financial arrangements in their internal affairs within the scope of their status. Serbia adopted constitutions in 1835, 1838 and 1869 under Ottoman rule within the framework of the status granted to it. Negotiations of the Constitution of 1838 were held in Istanbul the Ottoman sultan was given important powers in the content and was declared by the sultan with a ferman. For these reasons, the 1838 Constitution was named as the Turkish Constitution (Turski Ustav) in the literature. Although the constitution is under the guarantee of the Ottoman Empire and Russia, it has become a part of international
competition. The Constitution of 1838 lost its effect especially with the laws enacted since 1860. The Constitution, which was in force for 30 years, was abolished in 1869.
Keywords: Constitutionalism, Ottoman Constitutionalism, Balkan Constitutionalism, Serbian Constitutionalism, Turkish Constitution of 1838.