Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 2019
The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (the National Academies) conducted ... more The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (the National Academies) conducted a decadal survey (anticipated report release date is 5 March 2019) to explore and identify promising research opportunities in the social and behavioral sciences (SBS) for applications to national security. The report also provides guidance for the development of a 10-year research agenda and identifies key opportunities for SBS research to strengthen intelligence analysis. Although often used as a research roadmap in the space sciences, the use of the decadal process to survey SBS research and to support research planning in the Intelligence Community (IC) is unprecedented. The decadal survey — the first conducted in this context -- highlights ways to promote interdisciplinary collaboration so that the insights and ideas of SBS researchers are fully integrated with the needs and objectives of the IC.
Collaboration enables people to execute tasks that are beyond the capabilities of any one of them... more Collaboration enables people to execute tasks that are beyond the capabilities of any one of them. Each member of an organization or team has a set of skills, roles, and responsibilities that, when executed accurately and in synchronization with other members of that organization or team, enables them to accomplish the work of the organization. In complex, dynamic environments, team collaboration is more than the simple aggregation of the work products of individuals; collaboration also requires complex exchanges of information, largely through spoken or written language. Linguistic communication is the choreography of team performance. Modern networked information systems support synchronous and asynchronous communication among globally distributed team members via telephone, e-mail, instant messaging, and text chat-rooms, making possible the coordination of activities that would have been impossible or impractical in the past. The distributed project coordination common in commerc...
The challenge of establishing assurance in autonomy is rapidly attracting increasing interest in ... more The challenge of establishing assurance in autonomy is rapidly attracting increasing interest in the industry, government, and academia. Autonomy is a broad and expansive capability that enables systems to behave without direct control by a human operator. To that end, it is expected to be present in a wide variety of systems and applications. A vast range of industrial sectors, including (but by no means limited to) defense, mobility, health care, manufacturing, and civilian infrastructure, are embracing the opportunities in autonomy yet face the similar barriers toward establishing the necessary level of assurance sooner or later. Numerous government agencies are poised to tackle the challenges in assured autonomy. Given the already immense interest and investment in autonomy, a series of workshops on Assured Autonomy was convened to facilitate dialogs and increase awareness among the stakeholders in the academia, industry, and government. This series of three workshops aimed to h...
There is currently a surge in the utilization of Uninhabited Aerial Systems (UAS). Although the i... more There is currently a surge in the utilization of Uninhabited Aerial Systems (UAS). Although the importance of the human in the system is often ignored with a focus upon the physical airframe, there are nevertheless numerous human factors issues that must be considered one of which is the training of operators. This paper will describe the inventory and assessment of existing U.S. military and civilian UAS operator training activities and programs conducted by the Arizona State University group of the UAV Alliance, Research, and Curriculum Development Partnership Program. The paper will then discuss various avenues of future research pertinent to operator training including what training backgrounds UAS operators should possess, issues in team training, and use of simulators.
Theory and Models for Cyber Situation Awareness, 2017
In the presence of cyber warfare or cyber attacks, the security analysts need to answer four crit... more In the presence of cyber warfare or cyber attacks, the security analysts need to answer four critical questions: What has happened? What is the impact? Why did it happen? What should I do? Answers to the first three questions form the core of Cyber Situational Awareness (Cyber SA). Whether the last question can be satisfactorily answered is greatly dependent upon the cyber SA capability of an enterprise. Gaining SA is a human centric process through perception, comprehension, and projection. Compared to physical
Evaluation of team communication can provide critical insights into team dynamics, cohesion, trus... more Evaluation of team communication can provide critical insights into team dynamics, cohesion, trust, and performance on joint tasks. Although many communication-based measures have been tested and validated for human teams, this review article extends this research by identifying key approaches specific to human-autonomy teams. It is not possible to identify all approaches for all situations, though the following seem to generalize and support multi-size teams and a variety of military operations. Therefore, this article will outline several key approaches to assessing communication, associated data requirements, example applications, verification of methods through HAT use cases, and lessons learned, where applicable. Some approaches are based on the structure of team communication; others draw from dynamical systems theory to consider perspectives across different timescales; other approaches leverage features of team members’ voices or facial expressions to detect emotional states...
Proceedings of the Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, 2019
This study aims to better understand trust in humanautonomy teams, finding that trust is related ... more This study aims to better understand trust in humanautonomy teams, finding that trust is related to team performance. A wizard of oz methodology was used in an experiment to simulate an autonomous agent as a team member in a remotely piloted aircraft system environment. Specific focuses of the study were team performance and team social behaviors (specifically trust) of human-autonomy teams. Results indicate 1) that there are lower levels of trust in the autonomous agent in low performing teams than both medium and high performing teams, 2) there is a loss of trust in the autonomous agent across low, medium, and high performing teams over time, and 3) that in addition to the human team members indicating low levels of trust in the autonomous agent, both low and medium performing teams also indicated lower levels of trust in their human team members.
2007 Annual Conference & Exposition Proceedings
The development of design, problem solving, and communications skills within a team setting is a ... more The development of design, problem solving, and communications skills within a team setting is a crucial component of the education of a globally competitive engineer. The importance of these attributes has been repeatedly recognized, by both the National Academy of Engineering and Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET), the accrediting body for engineering programs in the United States. Unfortunately, very little is known about the dynamics of engineering team-based engineering design and problem solving processes. How do the team processes of experts differ from those of novices? How do students develop the necessary skills over time? In this paper we present background on the problem and a Verbal Protocol Analysis (VPA) pilot study of freshman engineering team design and team processes as a step in the development of an empirically based understanding to address these questions. The research method used was based on the methods and the design categories used by Atman, Cardella, and Robin 1. An important distinction is that Atman's work was exclusive to individuals while our pilot used student teams. The pilot study was conducted in an introduction to engineering class. Data was collected and analyzed for four teams (three teams consisting of four team members and one team consisting of three team members). The pilot study resulted in the development of a modified verbal coding schema for team design processes. Broader findings of the pilot study included a difference between team and individual design activities, a need to add process to the content categories analyzed, a need to improve our instrumentation, and a need to acquire better software for the coding and analysis of the design activities.
Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 2019
Literature New capabilities to modernize the U.S. National Airspace System (NAS) include support ... more Literature New capabilities to modernize the U.S. National Airspace System (NAS) include support of real-time information streams derived from many data sources across the NAS. As an emergent property, safety of the NAS arises from interactions between many elements at different levels, ranging from those attributable to humans, technology, and the environment. Each component in the NAS needs to interact with other components, exchange resources and information, and operate under broad regulations to achieve overall system objectives (Harris & Stanton, 2010). Sometimes, incidents and accidents result from insufficient interaction (communication and coordination) between humans (e.g., pilot-controller). The content of communication provides value and supports understanding with a multitude of individual, group, team, and data sets within air traffic research. In addition, another dimension to communication with a potentially rich source of understanding is everything outside of its e...
Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 2019
In future urban search and rescue teams, robots may be expected to conduct cognitive tasks. As th... more In future urban search and rescue teams, robots may be expected to conduct cognitive tasks. As the capabilities of robots change, so too will their interdependence with human teammates. Human factors and cognitive engineering are well-positioned to guide the design of autonomy for effective teaming. Previous work in the urban search and rescue synthetic task environment (USAR-STE) used Minecraft, a customizable gaming platform. In this effort, we advanced the USAR-STE by increasing interdependence in dyadic human-robot teaming through the Coactive Design framework. In this framework, we defined required capacities of victim identification in USAR from literature, and used them as inputs for modeling interdependence, and determined recommendations that would enhance interdependence in the task environment. Although Coactive Design is typically used to design interdependence for robots or jobs, we demonstrated how it can also be used to design an experimental team task environment.
This report is published in the interest of scientific and technical information exchange, and it... more This report is published in the interest of scientific and technical information exchange, and its publication does not constitute the Government's approval or disapproval of its ideas or findings.
Public reporting burden for this collection of information is estimated to average 1 hour per res... more Public reporting burden for this collection of information is estimated to average 1 hour per response, including the time for reviewing instructions, searching existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing this collection of information. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing this burden to Department of Defense, Washington Headquarters Services, Directorate for Information Operations and Reports (0704-0188), 1215 Jefferson Davis Highway, Suite 1204, Arlington, VA 22202-4302 Respondents should be aware that notwithstanding any other provision of law, no person shall be subject to any penalty for failing to comply with a collection of information if it does not display a currently valid OMB control number PLEASE DO NOT RETURN YOUR FORM TO THE ABOVE ADDRESS.
Cyber analysis is a complex task that requires the coordination of a large sociotechnical system ... more Cyber analysis is a complex task that requires the coordination of a large sociotechnical system of human analysts working together with technology. Adequate situation awareness of such a complex system requires more than aggregate situation awareness of individuals. Teamwork in the form of communication and information coordination is at the heart of team-level situation awareness. In this position paper, we report observations from previously conducted cognitive task analyses that suggest that teamwork is lacking in many cyber analysis organizations. Communication is ineffective, team roles are inconsistent across organizations, reward structures and selection may thwart collaboration, and the environment is conducive to individual work. Suggestions for improving teamwork in the cyber domain are offered.
A novel joint decision making paradigm for assessing team coordination was developed and tested u... more A novel joint decision making paradigm for assessing team coordination was developed and tested using baseball infielders. Balls launched onto an infield at different trajectories were filmed using four video cameras that were each placed at one of the typical positions of the four infielders. Each participant viewed temporally occluded videos for one of the four positions and were asked to say either "ball" if they would attempt to field it or the name of the bag that they would cover. The evaluation of two experienced coaches was used to assign a group coordination score for each trajectory and group decision times were calculated. Thirty groups of 4 current college baseball players were: (i) teammates (players from same team/view from own position), (ii) non-teammates (players from different teams/view from own position), or (iii) scrambled teammates (players from same team/view not from own position). Teammates performed significantly better (i.e., faster and more coor...
This chapter summarizes the research literature on team effectiveness, highlighting findings on t... more This chapter summarizes the research literature on team effectiveness, highlighting findings on the key features that create challenges for team science outlined in Chapter 1. Based on its review of the literature (e.g., Kozlowski and Ilgen, 2006; Marks, Mathieu, and Zaccaro, 2001; Salas, Goodwin, and Burke, 2009), the committee defines team effectiveness as follows: Team effectiveness, also referred to as team performance, is a team's capacity to achieve its goals and objectives. This capacity to achieve goals and objectives leads to improved outcomes for the team members (e.g., team member satisfaction and willingness to remain together) as well as outcomes produced or influenced by the team. In a science team or larger group, the outcomes include new research findings or methods and may also include translational applications of the research.
Conference companion on Human factors in computing systems - CHI '95, 1995
This tutorial teaches participants about methods used to measure cognitive content, structure, an... more This tutorial teaches participants about methods used to measure cognitive content, structure, and processes in an active hands-on manner, and how to apply those methods to HCI. The structure of the tutorial centers around the phases of a design process; the areas of cognition addressed are perception, memory, language, and thinking. For the initial analytical phase of design, the tutorial describes methods for measuring visual search, the structure of semantic memory, and process tracing. Methods for measuring readability and comprehension, as well as memory recall and recognition are applied to data from the second phase-design and diagnostic testing. For the third phase-system testing, the discussion focuses on scaling methods and statistical techniques.
Programmatic learning and transfer studies were conducted in co-located and distributed contexts ... more Programmatic learning and transfer studies were conducted in co-located and distributed contexts to investigate team-level acquisition of knowledge, use of communication, and establishment and maintenance of trust in complex simulations of military tasks. In these studies, team training occurred in co-located or in distributed contexts, and testing occurred in the same or in an opposite context. Across studies, team performance in distributed contexts was greater than for co-located teams. At initial transfer, all teams showed performance decrements but performance subsequently improved. Results for communication conditions revealed physical context effects at transfer. Results of team-level antecedents to trust, propensity to trust, and trust behaviors indicate that team trust can be built equally well in co-located or in distributed situations if team members are confident in their ability and competence in doing their tasks. Overall, improvements in both training and learning theory are suggested by identifying several variables that affect team performance in context.
Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 2019
The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (the National Academies) conducted ... more The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (the National Academies) conducted a decadal survey (anticipated report release date is 5 March 2019) to explore and identify promising research opportunities in the social and behavioral sciences (SBS) for applications to national security. The report also provides guidance for the development of a 10-year research agenda and identifies key opportunities for SBS research to strengthen intelligence analysis. Although often used as a research roadmap in the space sciences, the use of the decadal process to survey SBS research and to support research planning in the Intelligence Community (IC) is unprecedented. The decadal survey — the first conducted in this context -- highlights ways to promote interdisciplinary collaboration so that the insights and ideas of SBS researchers are fully integrated with the needs and objectives of the IC.
Collaboration enables people to execute tasks that are beyond the capabilities of any one of them... more Collaboration enables people to execute tasks that are beyond the capabilities of any one of them. Each member of an organization or team has a set of skills, roles, and responsibilities that, when executed accurately and in synchronization with other members of that organization or team, enables them to accomplish the work of the organization. In complex, dynamic environments, team collaboration is more than the simple aggregation of the work products of individuals; collaboration also requires complex exchanges of information, largely through spoken or written language. Linguistic communication is the choreography of team performance. Modern networked information systems support synchronous and asynchronous communication among globally distributed team members via telephone, e-mail, instant messaging, and text chat-rooms, making possible the coordination of activities that would have been impossible or impractical in the past. The distributed project coordination common in commerc...
The challenge of establishing assurance in autonomy is rapidly attracting increasing interest in ... more The challenge of establishing assurance in autonomy is rapidly attracting increasing interest in the industry, government, and academia. Autonomy is a broad and expansive capability that enables systems to behave without direct control by a human operator. To that end, it is expected to be present in a wide variety of systems and applications. A vast range of industrial sectors, including (but by no means limited to) defense, mobility, health care, manufacturing, and civilian infrastructure, are embracing the opportunities in autonomy yet face the similar barriers toward establishing the necessary level of assurance sooner or later. Numerous government agencies are poised to tackle the challenges in assured autonomy. Given the already immense interest and investment in autonomy, a series of workshops on Assured Autonomy was convened to facilitate dialogs and increase awareness among the stakeholders in the academia, industry, and government. This series of three workshops aimed to h...
There is currently a surge in the utilization of Uninhabited Aerial Systems (UAS). Although the i... more There is currently a surge in the utilization of Uninhabited Aerial Systems (UAS). Although the importance of the human in the system is often ignored with a focus upon the physical airframe, there are nevertheless numerous human factors issues that must be considered one of which is the training of operators. This paper will describe the inventory and assessment of existing U.S. military and civilian UAS operator training activities and programs conducted by the Arizona State University group of the UAV Alliance, Research, and Curriculum Development Partnership Program. The paper will then discuss various avenues of future research pertinent to operator training including what training backgrounds UAS operators should possess, issues in team training, and use of simulators.
Theory and Models for Cyber Situation Awareness, 2017
In the presence of cyber warfare or cyber attacks, the security analysts need to answer four crit... more In the presence of cyber warfare or cyber attacks, the security analysts need to answer four critical questions: What has happened? What is the impact? Why did it happen? What should I do? Answers to the first three questions form the core of Cyber Situational Awareness (Cyber SA). Whether the last question can be satisfactorily answered is greatly dependent upon the cyber SA capability of an enterprise. Gaining SA is a human centric process through perception, comprehension, and projection. Compared to physical
Evaluation of team communication can provide critical insights into team dynamics, cohesion, trus... more Evaluation of team communication can provide critical insights into team dynamics, cohesion, trust, and performance on joint tasks. Although many communication-based measures have been tested and validated for human teams, this review article extends this research by identifying key approaches specific to human-autonomy teams. It is not possible to identify all approaches for all situations, though the following seem to generalize and support multi-size teams and a variety of military operations. Therefore, this article will outline several key approaches to assessing communication, associated data requirements, example applications, verification of methods through HAT use cases, and lessons learned, where applicable. Some approaches are based on the structure of team communication; others draw from dynamical systems theory to consider perspectives across different timescales; other approaches leverage features of team members’ voices or facial expressions to detect emotional states...
Proceedings of the Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, 2019
This study aims to better understand trust in humanautonomy teams, finding that trust is related ... more This study aims to better understand trust in humanautonomy teams, finding that trust is related to team performance. A wizard of oz methodology was used in an experiment to simulate an autonomous agent as a team member in a remotely piloted aircraft system environment. Specific focuses of the study were team performance and team social behaviors (specifically trust) of human-autonomy teams. Results indicate 1) that there are lower levels of trust in the autonomous agent in low performing teams than both medium and high performing teams, 2) there is a loss of trust in the autonomous agent across low, medium, and high performing teams over time, and 3) that in addition to the human team members indicating low levels of trust in the autonomous agent, both low and medium performing teams also indicated lower levels of trust in their human team members.
2007 Annual Conference & Exposition Proceedings
The development of design, problem solving, and communications skills within a team setting is a ... more The development of design, problem solving, and communications skills within a team setting is a crucial component of the education of a globally competitive engineer. The importance of these attributes has been repeatedly recognized, by both the National Academy of Engineering and Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET), the accrediting body for engineering programs in the United States. Unfortunately, very little is known about the dynamics of engineering team-based engineering design and problem solving processes. How do the team processes of experts differ from those of novices? How do students develop the necessary skills over time? In this paper we present background on the problem and a Verbal Protocol Analysis (VPA) pilot study of freshman engineering team design and team processes as a step in the development of an empirically based understanding to address these questions. The research method used was based on the methods and the design categories used by Atman, Cardella, and Robin 1. An important distinction is that Atman's work was exclusive to individuals while our pilot used student teams. The pilot study was conducted in an introduction to engineering class. Data was collected and analyzed for four teams (three teams consisting of four team members and one team consisting of three team members). The pilot study resulted in the development of a modified verbal coding schema for team design processes. Broader findings of the pilot study included a difference between team and individual design activities, a need to add process to the content categories analyzed, a need to improve our instrumentation, and a need to acquire better software for the coding and analysis of the design activities.
Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 2019
Literature New capabilities to modernize the U.S. National Airspace System (NAS) include support ... more Literature New capabilities to modernize the U.S. National Airspace System (NAS) include support of real-time information streams derived from many data sources across the NAS. As an emergent property, safety of the NAS arises from interactions between many elements at different levels, ranging from those attributable to humans, technology, and the environment. Each component in the NAS needs to interact with other components, exchange resources and information, and operate under broad regulations to achieve overall system objectives (Harris & Stanton, 2010). Sometimes, incidents and accidents result from insufficient interaction (communication and coordination) between humans (e.g., pilot-controller). The content of communication provides value and supports understanding with a multitude of individual, group, team, and data sets within air traffic research. In addition, another dimension to communication with a potentially rich source of understanding is everything outside of its e...
Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 2019
In future urban search and rescue teams, robots may be expected to conduct cognitive tasks. As th... more In future urban search and rescue teams, robots may be expected to conduct cognitive tasks. As the capabilities of robots change, so too will their interdependence with human teammates. Human factors and cognitive engineering are well-positioned to guide the design of autonomy for effective teaming. Previous work in the urban search and rescue synthetic task environment (USAR-STE) used Minecraft, a customizable gaming platform. In this effort, we advanced the USAR-STE by increasing interdependence in dyadic human-robot teaming through the Coactive Design framework. In this framework, we defined required capacities of victim identification in USAR from literature, and used them as inputs for modeling interdependence, and determined recommendations that would enhance interdependence in the task environment. Although Coactive Design is typically used to design interdependence for robots or jobs, we demonstrated how it can also be used to design an experimental team task environment.
This report is published in the interest of scientific and technical information exchange, and it... more This report is published in the interest of scientific and technical information exchange, and its publication does not constitute the Government's approval or disapproval of its ideas or findings.
Public reporting burden for this collection of information is estimated to average 1 hour per res... more Public reporting burden for this collection of information is estimated to average 1 hour per response, including the time for reviewing instructions, searching existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing this collection of information. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing this burden to Department of Defense, Washington Headquarters Services, Directorate for Information Operations and Reports (0704-0188), 1215 Jefferson Davis Highway, Suite 1204, Arlington, VA 22202-4302 Respondents should be aware that notwithstanding any other provision of law, no person shall be subject to any penalty for failing to comply with a collection of information if it does not display a currently valid OMB control number PLEASE DO NOT RETURN YOUR FORM TO THE ABOVE ADDRESS.
Cyber analysis is a complex task that requires the coordination of a large sociotechnical system ... more Cyber analysis is a complex task that requires the coordination of a large sociotechnical system of human analysts working together with technology. Adequate situation awareness of such a complex system requires more than aggregate situation awareness of individuals. Teamwork in the form of communication and information coordination is at the heart of team-level situation awareness. In this position paper, we report observations from previously conducted cognitive task analyses that suggest that teamwork is lacking in many cyber analysis organizations. Communication is ineffective, team roles are inconsistent across organizations, reward structures and selection may thwart collaboration, and the environment is conducive to individual work. Suggestions for improving teamwork in the cyber domain are offered.
A novel joint decision making paradigm for assessing team coordination was developed and tested u... more A novel joint decision making paradigm for assessing team coordination was developed and tested using baseball infielders. Balls launched onto an infield at different trajectories were filmed using four video cameras that were each placed at one of the typical positions of the four infielders. Each participant viewed temporally occluded videos for one of the four positions and were asked to say either "ball" if they would attempt to field it or the name of the bag that they would cover. The evaluation of two experienced coaches was used to assign a group coordination score for each trajectory and group decision times were calculated. Thirty groups of 4 current college baseball players were: (i) teammates (players from same team/view from own position), (ii) non-teammates (players from different teams/view from own position), or (iii) scrambled teammates (players from same team/view not from own position). Teammates performed significantly better (i.e., faster and more coor...
This chapter summarizes the research literature on team effectiveness, highlighting findings on t... more This chapter summarizes the research literature on team effectiveness, highlighting findings on the key features that create challenges for team science outlined in Chapter 1. Based on its review of the literature (e.g., Kozlowski and Ilgen, 2006; Marks, Mathieu, and Zaccaro, 2001; Salas, Goodwin, and Burke, 2009), the committee defines team effectiveness as follows: Team effectiveness, also referred to as team performance, is a team's capacity to achieve its goals and objectives. This capacity to achieve goals and objectives leads to improved outcomes for the team members (e.g., team member satisfaction and willingness to remain together) as well as outcomes produced or influenced by the team. In a science team or larger group, the outcomes include new research findings or methods and may also include translational applications of the research.
Conference companion on Human factors in computing systems - CHI '95, 1995
This tutorial teaches participants about methods used to measure cognitive content, structure, an... more This tutorial teaches participants about methods used to measure cognitive content, structure, and processes in an active hands-on manner, and how to apply those methods to HCI. The structure of the tutorial centers around the phases of a design process; the areas of cognition addressed are perception, memory, language, and thinking. For the initial analytical phase of design, the tutorial describes methods for measuring visual search, the structure of semantic memory, and process tracing. Methods for measuring readability and comprehension, as well as memory recall and recognition are applied to data from the second phase-design and diagnostic testing. For the third phase-system testing, the discussion focuses on scaling methods and statistical techniques.
Programmatic learning and transfer studies were conducted in co-located and distributed contexts ... more Programmatic learning and transfer studies were conducted in co-located and distributed contexts to investigate team-level acquisition of knowledge, use of communication, and establishment and maintenance of trust in complex simulations of military tasks. In these studies, team training occurred in co-located or in distributed contexts, and testing occurred in the same or in an opposite context. Across studies, team performance in distributed contexts was greater than for co-located teams. At initial transfer, all teams showed performance decrements but performance subsequently improved. Results for communication conditions revealed physical context effects at transfer. Results of team-level antecedents to trust, propensity to trust, and trust behaviors indicate that team trust can be built equally well in co-located or in distributed situations if team members are confident in their ability and competence in doing their tasks. Overall, improvements in both training and learning theory are suggested by identifying several variables that affect team performance in context.
Uploads
Papers by Nancy Cooke