Sodium-ion batteries have recently attracted significant attention as an alternative to lithium-i... more Sodium-ion batteries have recently attracted significant attention as an alternative to lithium-ion batteries because sodium sources do not present the geopolitical issues that lithium sources might. Although recent reports on cathode materials for sodium-ion batteries have demonstrated performances comparable to their lithium-ion counterparts, the major scientific challenge for a competitive sodium-ion battery technology is to develop viable anode materials. Here we show that a hybrid material made out of a few phosphorene layers sandwiched between graphene layers shows a specific capacity of 2,440 mA h g(-1) (calculated using the mass of phosphorus only) at a current density of 0.05 A g(-1) and an 83% capacity retention after 100 cycles while operating between 0 and 1.5 V. Using in situ transmission electron microscopy and ex situ X-ray diffraction techniques, we explain the large capacity of our anode through a dual mechanism of intercalation of sodium ions along the x axis of the phosphorene layers followed by the formation of a Na3P alloy. The presence of graphene layers in the hybrid material works as a mechanical backbone and an electrical highway, ensuring that a suitable elastic buffer space accommodates the anisotropic expansion of phosphorene layers along the y and z axial directions for stable cycling operation.
The reversible electrochemical insertion of multivalent ions into materials has promising applica... more The reversible electrochemical insertion of multivalent ions into materials has promising applications in many fi elds, including batteries, seawater desalination, element purifi cation, and wastewater treatment. However, fi nding materials that allow for the insertion of multivalent ions with fast kinetics and stable cycling has proven diffi cult because of strong electrostatic interactions between the highly charged insertion ions and atoms in the host framework.
[DE] Die Erfindung betrifft ein Verfahren zur effizienten Gewinnung von Lithium aus Salzlösungen ... more [DE] Die Erfindung betrifft ein Verfahren zur effizienten Gewinnung von Lithium aus Salzlösungen und eine hierfür geeignete Vorrichtung.[EN] Recovering lithium salts from salt solutions comprises: (A) immersing a lithium-intercalating positive electrode and an anion capturing electrode (negative electrode) in a lithium-containing salt solution, and adjusting a constant negative current to the positive electrode, where the lithium ion (Li +>) and anions of the lithium-containing salt solution are trapped in the electrode; (B) replacing the salt solution by a recovery solution; (C) reversing the direction of current relative to the step (A); and (D) replacing the recovery solution by fresh saline. Recovering lithium salts from salt solutions comprises: (A) immersing a lithium-intercalating positive electrode and an anion capturing electrode (negative electrode) in a lithium-containing salt solution, and adjusting a constant negative current to the positive electrode, where the lith...
The development of nanotechnology in the past two decades has generated great capability of contr... more The development of nanotechnology in the past two decades has generated great capability of controlling materials at the nanometer scale and has enabled exciting opportunities to design materials with desirable electronic, ionic, photonic, and mechanical properties. This development has also contributed to the advance in energy storage, which is a critical technology in this century. In this article, we will review how the rational design of nanostructured materials has addressed the challenges of batteries and electrochemical capacitors and led to high-performance electrochemical energy storage devices. Four specific material systems will be discussed: i) nanostructured alloy anodes for Li-batteries, ii) nanostructured sulfur cathodes for Li-batteries, iii) nanoporous openframework battery electrodes, and iv) nanostructured electrodes for electrochemical capacitors.
COMMUNICATION 1 wileyonlinelibrary.com Adv. Energy Mater. 2011, XX, 1-6 www.MaterialsViews.com ww... more COMMUNICATION 1 wileyonlinelibrary.com Adv. Energy Mater. 2011, XX, 1-6 www.MaterialsViews.comwww.advenergymat.de
Nickel hexacyanoferrate (NiHCFe) is an attractive cathode material in both aqueous and organic el... more Nickel hexacyanoferrate (NiHCFe) is an attractive cathode material in both aqueous and organic electrolytes due to a low-cost synthesis using earth-abundant precursors and also due to its open framework, Prussian blue-like crystal structure that enables ultra-long cycle life, high energy efficiency, and high power capability. Herein, we explored the effect of different alkali ions on the insertion electrochemistry of NiHCFe in aqueous and propylene carbonate-based electrolytes. The large channel diameter of the structure offers fast solid-state diffusion of Li(+), Na(+), and K(+) ions in aqueous electrolytes. However, all alkali ions in organic electrolytes and Rb(+) and Cs(+) in aqueous electrolytes show a quasi-reversible electrochemical behavior that results in poor galvanostatic cycling performance. Kinetic regimes in aqueous electrolyte were also determined, highlighting the effect of the size of the alkali ion on the electrochemical properties.
Potential applications of sodium-ion batteries in grid-scale energy storage, portable electronics... more Potential applications of sodium-ion batteries in grid-scale energy storage, portable electronics and electric vehicles have revitalized research interest in these batteries. However, the performance of sodium-ion electrode materials has not been competitive with that of lithium-ion electrode materials. Here we present sodium manganese hexacyanomanganate (Na2MnII[MnII(CN)6]), an open-framework crystal structure material, as a viable positive electrode for sodium-ion batteries. We demonstrate a high discharge capacity of 209 mAh g(-1) at C/5 (40 mA g(-1)) and excellent capacity retention at high rates in a propylene carbonate electrolyte. We provide chemical and structural evidence for the unprecedented storage of 50% more sodium cations than previously thought possible during electrochemical cycling. These results represent a step forward in the development of sodium-ion batteries.
New types of energy storage are needed in conjunction with the deployment of renewable energy sou... more New types of energy storage are needed in conjunction with the deployment of renewable energy sources and their integration with the electrical grid. We have recently introduced a family of cathodes involving the reversible insertion of cations into materials with the Prussian Blue open-framework crystal structure. Here we report a newly developed manganese hexacyanomanganate open-framework anode that has the same crystal structure. By combining it with the previously reported copper hexacyanoferrate cathode we demonstrate a safe, fast, inexpensive, long-cycle life aqueous electrolyte battery, which involves the insertion of sodium ions. This high rate, high efficiency cell shows a 96.7% round trip energy efficiency when cycled at a 5C rate and an 84.2% energy efficiency at a 50C rate. There is no measurable capacity loss after 1,000 deep-discharge cycles. Bulk quantities of the electrode materials can be produced by a room temperature chemical synthesis from earth-abundant precursors.
New types of energy storage are needed in conjunction with the deployment of solar, wind and othe... more New types of energy storage are needed in conjunction with the deployment of solar, wind and other volatile renewable energy sources and their integration with the electric grid. No existing energy storage technology can economically provide the power, cycle life and energy efficiency needed to respond to the costly short-term transients that arise from renewables and other aspects of grid operation. Here we demonstrate a new type of safe, fast, inexpensive, long-life aqueous electrolyte battery, which relies on the insertion of potassium ions into a copper hexacyanoferrate cathode and a novel activated carbon/polypyrrole hybrid anode. The cathode reacts rapidly with very little hysteresis. The hybrid anode uses an electrochemically active additive to tune its potential. This high-rate, high-efficiency cell has a 95% round-trip energy efficiency when cycled at a 5C rate, and a 79% energy efficiency at 50C. It also has zero-capacity loss after 1,000 deep-discharge cycles.
Wearable electronics offer the combined advantages of both electronics and fabrics. In this artic... more Wearable electronics offer the combined advantages of both electronics and fabrics. In this article, we report the fabrication of wearable supercapacitors using cotton fabric as an essential component. Carbon nanotubes are conformally coated onto the cotton fibers, leading to a highly electrically conductive interconnecting network. The porous carbon nanotube coating functions as both active material and current collector in the supercapacitor. Aqueous lithium sulfate is used as the electrolyte in the devices, because it presents no safety concerns for human use. The supercapacitor shows high specific capacitance (~70-80 F·g -1 at 0.1 A·g -1 ) and cycling stability (negligible decay after 35,000 cycles). The extremely simple design and fabrication process make it applicable for providing power in practical electronic devices.
Water desalination is an important approach to provide fresh water around the world, although its... more Water desalination is an important approach to provide fresh water around the world, although its high energy consumption, and thus high cost, call for new, efficient technology. Here, we demonstrate the novel concept of a "desalination battery", which operates by performing cycles in reverse on our previously reported mixing entropy battery. Rather than generating electricity from salinity differences, as in mixing entropy batteries, desalination batteries use an electrical energy input to extract sodium and chloride ions from seawater and to generate fresh water. The desalination battery is comprised by a Na 2-x Mn 5 O 10 nanorod positive electrode and Ag/AgCl negative electrode. Here, we demonstrate an energy consumption of 0.29 Wh l −1 for the removal of 25% salt using this novel desalination battery, which is promising when compared to reverse osmosis (∼ 0.2 Wh l −1 ), the most efficient technique presently available.
Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) harness the metabolism of microorganisms, converting chemical energy ... more Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) harness the metabolism of microorganisms, converting chemical energy into electrical energy. Anode performance is an important factor limiting the power density of MFCs for practical application. Improving the anode design is thus important for enhancing the MFC performance, but only a little development has been reported. Here, we describe a biocompatible, highly conductive, two-scale porous anode fabricated from a carbon nanotube-textile (CNT-textile) composite for high-performance MFCs. The macroscale porous structure of the intertwined CNT-textile fibers creates an open 3D space for efficient substrate transport and internal colonization by a diverse microflora, resulting in a 10-fold-larger anolyte-biofilm-anode interfacial area than the projective surface area of the CNT-textile. The conformally coated microscale porous CNT layer displays strong interaction with the microbial biofilm, facilitating electron transfer from exoelectrogens to the CNT-textile anode. An MFC equipped with a CNT-textile anode has a 10-fold-lower charge-transfer resistance and achieves considerably better performance than one equipped with a traditional carbon cloth anode: the maximum current density is 157% higher, the maximum power density is 68% higher, and the energy recovery is 141% greater.
b S Supporting Information T echnologies to utilize renewable energy such as solar, wind, geother... more b S Supporting Information T echnologies to utilize renewable energy such as solar, wind, geothermal, and biomass sources have attracted great attention recently. The large scale chemical energy stored as the salinity difference between seawater and freshwater is another renewable source which can be harvested. The major components of the global water cycle involve distillation of water from oceans by evaporation, precipitation, and collection of this freshwater in rivers, lakes, and aquifers, with mixing of freshwater and salt water in estuaries. Solar energy drives this cycle, creating a significant salinity difference between seawater and freshwater. The entropic energy created by the difference in water salinities is normally dissipated when river water flows into the sea. This reduction in free energy due to the mixing is estimated at 2.2 kJ of free energy per liter of freshwater.
Recently there is strong interest in lightweight, flexible, and wearable electronics to meet the ... more Recently there is strong interest in lightweight, flexible, and wearable electronics to meet the technological demands of modern society. Integrated energy storage devices of this type are a key area that is still significantly underdeveloped. Here, we describe wearable power devices using everyday textiles as the platform. With an extremely simple "dipping and drying" process using single-walled carbon nanotube (SWNT) ink, we produced highly conductive textiles with conductivity of 125 S cm -1 and sheet resistance less than 1 Ω/sq. Such conductive textiles show outstanding flexibility and stretchability and demonstrate strong adhesion between the SWNTs and the textiles of interest. Supercapacitors made from these conductive textiles show high areal capacitance, up to 0.48F/cm 2 , and high specific energy. We demonstrate the loading of pseudocapacitor materials into these conductive textiles that leads to a 24-fold increase of the areal capacitance of the device. These highly conductive textiles can provide new design opportunities for wearable electronics and energy storage applications.
Layered materials consist of molecular layers stacked together by weak interlayer interactions. T... more Layered materials consist of molecular layers stacked together by weak interlayer interactions. They often crystallize to form atomically smooth thin films, nanotubes, and platelet or fullerene-like nanoparticles due to the anisotropic bonding. Structures that predominately expose edges of the layers exhibit high surface energy and are often considered unstable. In this communication, we present a synthesis process to grow MoS 2 and MoSe 2 thin films with vertically aligned layers, thereby maximally exposing the edges on the film surface. Such edge-terminated films are metastable structures of MoS 2 and MoSe 2 , which may find applications in diverse catalytic reactions. We have confirmed their catalytic activity in a hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), in which the exchange current density correlates directly with the density of the exposed edge sites.
The direct oxidation of glucose to produce electrical energy has been widely investigated because... more The direct oxidation of glucose to produce electrical energy has been widely investigated because of renewability, abundance, high energy density and easy handling of the carbohydrate. Most of the previous studies have been conducted in extreme conditions in order to achieve complete glucose oxidation to CO 2 , neglecting the carbohydrate chemical instability that generally leads to useless by-products mixtures. The partial oxidation to gluconate, originally studied for implantable fuel cells, has the advantage of generating a commercially valuable chemical.
Sodium-ion batteries have recently attracted significant attention as an alternative to lithium-i... more Sodium-ion batteries have recently attracted significant attention as an alternative to lithium-ion batteries because sodium sources do not present the geopolitical issues that lithium sources might. Although recent reports on cathode materials for sodium-ion batteries have demonstrated performances comparable to their lithium-ion counterparts, the major scientific challenge for a competitive sodium-ion battery technology is to develop viable anode materials. Here we show that a hybrid material made out of a few phosphorene layers sandwiched between graphene layers shows a specific capacity of 2,440 mA h g(-1) (calculated using the mass of phosphorus only) at a current density of 0.05 A g(-1) and an 83% capacity retention after 100 cycles while operating between 0 and 1.5 V. Using in situ transmission electron microscopy and ex situ X-ray diffraction techniques, we explain the large capacity of our anode through a dual mechanism of intercalation of sodium ions along the x axis of the phosphorene layers followed by the formation of a Na3P alloy. The presence of graphene layers in the hybrid material works as a mechanical backbone and an electrical highway, ensuring that a suitable elastic buffer space accommodates the anisotropic expansion of phosphorene layers along the y and z axial directions for stable cycling operation.
The reversible electrochemical insertion of multivalent ions into materials has promising applica... more The reversible electrochemical insertion of multivalent ions into materials has promising applications in many fi elds, including batteries, seawater desalination, element purifi cation, and wastewater treatment. However, fi nding materials that allow for the insertion of multivalent ions with fast kinetics and stable cycling has proven diffi cult because of strong electrostatic interactions between the highly charged insertion ions and atoms in the host framework.
[DE] Die Erfindung betrifft ein Verfahren zur effizienten Gewinnung von Lithium aus Salzlösungen ... more [DE] Die Erfindung betrifft ein Verfahren zur effizienten Gewinnung von Lithium aus Salzlösungen und eine hierfür geeignete Vorrichtung.[EN] Recovering lithium salts from salt solutions comprises: (A) immersing a lithium-intercalating positive electrode and an anion capturing electrode (negative electrode) in a lithium-containing salt solution, and adjusting a constant negative current to the positive electrode, where the lithium ion (Li +>) and anions of the lithium-containing salt solution are trapped in the electrode; (B) replacing the salt solution by a recovery solution; (C) reversing the direction of current relative to the step (A); and (D) replacing the recovery solution by fresh saline. Recovering lithium salts from salt solutions comprises: (A) immersing a lithium-intercalating positive electrode and an anion capturing electrode (negative electrode) in a lithium-containing salt solution, and adjusting a constant negative current to the positive electrode, where the lith...
The development of nanotechnology in the past two decades has generated great capability of contr... more The development of nanotechnology in the past two decades has generated great capability of controlling materials at the nanometer scale and has enabled exciting opportunities to design materials with desirable electronic, ionic, photonic, and mechanical properties. This development has also contributed to the advance in energy storage, which is a critical technology in this century. In this article, we will review how the rational design of nanostructured materials has addressed the challenges of batteries and electrochemical capacitors and led to high-performance electrochemical energy storage devices. Four specific material systems will be discussed: i) nanostructured alloy anodes for Li-batteries, ii) nanostructured sulfur cathodes for Li-batteries, iii) nanoporous openframework battery electrodes, and iv) nanostructured electrodes for electrochemical capacitors.
COMMUNICATION 1 wileyonlinelibrary.com Adv. Energy Mater. 2011, XX, 1-6 www.MaterialsViews.com ww... more COMMUNICATION 1 wileyonlinelibrary.com Adv. Energy Mater. 2011, XX, 1-6 www.MaterialsViews.comwww.advenergymat.de
Nickel hexacyanoferrate (NiHCFe) is an attractive cathode material in both aqueous and organic el... more Nickel hexacyanoferrate (NiHCFe) is an attractive cathode material in both aqueous and organic electrolytes due to a low-cost synthesis using earth-abundant precursors and also due to its open framework, Prussian blue-like crystal structure that enables ultra-long cycle life, high energy efficiency, and high power capability. Herein, we explored the effect of different alkali ions on the insertion electrochemistry of NiHCFe in aqueous and propylene carbonate-based electrolytes. The large channel diameter of the structure offers fast solid-state diffusion of Li(+), Na(+), and K(+) ions in aqueous electrolytes. However, all alkali ions in organic electrolytes and Rb(+) and Cs(+) in aqueous electrolytes show a quasi-reversible electrochemical behavior that results in poor galvanostatic cycling performance. Kinetic regimes in aqueous electrolyte were also determined, highlighting the effect of the size of the alkali ion on the electrochemical properties.
Potential applications of sodium-ion batteries in grid-scale energy storage, portable electronics... more Potential applications of sodium-ion batteries in grid-scale energy storage, portable electronics and electric vehicles have revitalized research interest in these batteries. However, the performance of sodium-ion electrode materials has not been competitive with that of lithium-ion electrode materials. Here we present sodium manganese hexacyanomanganate (Na2MnII[MnII(CN)6]), an open-framework crystal structure material, as a viable positive electrode for sodium-ion batteries. We demonstrate a high discharge capacity of 209 mAh g(-1) at C/5 (40 mA g(-1)) and excellent capacity retention at high rates in a propylene carbonate electrolyte. We provide chemical and structural evidence for the unprecedented storage of 50% more sodium cations than previously thought possible during electrochemical cycling. These results represent a step forward in the development of sodium-ion batteries.
New types of energy storage are needed in conjunction with the deployment of renewable energy sou... more New types of energy storage are needed in conjunction with the deployment of renewable energy sources and their integration with the electrical grid. We have recently introduced a family of cathodes involving the reversible insertion of cations into materials with the Prussian Blue open-framework crystal structure. Here we report a newly developed manganese hexacyanomanganate open-framework anode that has the same crystal structure. By combining it with the previously reported copper hexacyanoferrate cathode we demonstrate a safe, fast, inexpensive, long-cycle life aqueous electrolyte battery, which involves the insertion of sodium ions. This high rate, high efficiency cell shows a 96.7% round trip energy efficiency when cycled at a 5C rate and an 84.2% energy efficiency at a 50C rate. There is no measurable capacity loss after 1,000 deep-discharge cycles. Bulk quantities of the electrode materials can be produced by a room temperature chemical synthesis from earth-abundant precursors.
New types of energy storage are needed in conjunction with the deployment of solar, wind and othe... more New types of energy storage are needed in conjunction with the deployment of solar, wind and other volatile renewable energy sources and their integration with the electric grid. No existing energy storage technology can economically provide the power, cycle life and energy efficiency needed to respond to the costly short-term transients that arise from renewables and other aspects of grid operation. Here we demonstrate a new type of safe, fast, inexpensive, long-life aqueous electrolyte battery, which relies on the insertion of potassium ions into a copper hexacyanoferrate cathode and a novel activated carbon/polypyrrole hybrid anode. The cathode reacts rapidly with very little hysteresis. The hybrid anode uses an electrochemically active additive to tune its potential. This high-rate, high-efficiency cell has a 95% round-trip energy efficiency when cycled at a 5C rate, and a 79% energy efficiency at 50C. It also has zero-capacity loss after 1,000 deep-discharge cycles.
Wearable electronics offer the combined advantages of both electronics and fabrics. In this artic... more Wearable electronics offer the combined advantages of both electronics and fabrics. In this article, we report the fabrication of wearable supercapacitors using cotton fabric as an essential component. Carbon nanotubes are conformally coated onto the cotton fibers, leading to a highly electrically conductive interconnecting network. The porous carbon nanotube coating functions as both active material and current collector in the supercapacitor. Aqueous lithium sulfate is used as the electrolyte in the devices, because it presents no safety concerns for human use. The supercapacitor shows high specific capacitance (~70-80 F·g -1 at 0.1 A·g -1 ) and cycling stability (negligible decay after 35,000 cycles). The extremely simple design and fabrication process make it applicable for providing power in practical electronic devices.
Water desalination is an important approach to provide fresh water around the world, although its... more Water desalination is an important approach to provide fresh water around the world, although its high energy consumption, and thus high cost, call for new, efficient technology. Here, we demonstrate the novel concept of a "desalination battery", which operates by performing cycles in reverse on our previously reported mixing entropy battery. Rather than generating electricity from salinity differences, as in mixing entropy batteries, desalination batteries use an electrical energy input to extract sodium and chloride ions from seawater and to generate fresh water. The desalination battery is comprised by a Na 2-x Mn 5 O 10 nanorod positive electrode and Ag/AgCl negative electrode. Here, we demonstrate an energy consumption of 0.29 Wh l −1 for the removal of 25% salt using this novel desalination battery, which is promising when compared to reverse osmosis (∼ 0.2 Wh l −1 ), the most efficient technique presently available.
Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) harness the metabolism of microorganisms, converting chemical energy ... more Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) harness the metabolism of microorganisms, converting chemical energy into electrical energy. Anode performance is an important factor limiting the power density of MFCs for practical application. Improving the anode design is thus important for enhancing the MFC performance, but only a little development has been reported. Here, we describe a biocompatible, highly conductive, two-scale porous anode fabricated from a carbon nanotube-textile (CNT-textile) composite for high-performance MFCs. The macroscale porous structure of the intertwined CNT-textile fibers creates an open 3D space for efficient substrate transport and internal colonization by a diverse microflora, resulting in a 10-fold-larger anolyte-biofilm-anode interfacial area than the projective surface area of the CNT-textile. The conformally coated microscale porous CNT layer displays strong interaction with the microbial biofilm, facilitating electron transfer from exoelectrogens to the CNT-textile anode. An MFC equipped with a CNT-textile anode has a 10-fold-lower charge-transfer resistance and achieves considerably better performance than one equipped with a traditional carbon cloth anode: the maximum current density is 157% higher, the maximum power density is 68% higher, and the energy recovery is 141% greater.
b S Supporting Information T echnologies to utilize renewable energy such as solar, wind, geother... more b S Supporting Information T echnologies to utilize renewable energy such as solar, wind, geothermal, and biomass sources have attracted great attention recently. The large scale chemical energy stored as the salinity difference between seawater and freshwater is another renewable source which can be harvested. The major components of the global water cycle involve distillation of water from oceans by evaporation, precipitation, and collection of this freshwater in rivers, lakes, and aquifers, with mixing of freshwater and salt water in estuaries. Solar energy drives this cycle, creating a significant salinity difference between seawater and freshwater. The entropic energy created by the difference in water salinities is normally dissipated when river water flows into the sea. This reduction in free energy due to the mixing is estimated at 2.2 kJ of free energy per liter of freshwater.
Recently there is strong interest in lightweight, flexible, and wearable electronics to meet the ... more Recently there is strong interest in lightweight, flexible, and wearable electronics to meet the technological demands of modern society. Integrated energy storage devices of this type are a key area that is still significantly underdeveloped. Here, we describe wearable power devices using everyday textiles as the platform. With an extremely simple "dipping and drying" process using single-walled carbon nanotube (SWNT) ink, we produced highly conductive textiles with conductivity of 125 S cm -1 and sheet resistance less than 1 Ω/sq. Such conductive textiles show outstanding flexibility and stretchability and demonstrate strong adhesion between the SWNTs and the textiles of interest. Supercapacitors made from these conductive textiles show high areal capacitance, up to 0.48F/cm 2 , and high specific energy. We demonstrate the loading of pseudocapacitor materials into these conductive textiles that leads to a 24-fold increase of the areal capacitance of the device. These highly conductive textiles can provide new design opportunities for wearable electronics and energy storage applications.
Layered materials consist of molecular layers stacked together by weak interlayer interactions. T... more Layered materials consist of molecular layers stacked together by weak interlayer interactions. They often crystallize to form atomically smooth thin films, nanotubes, and platelet or fullerene-like nanoparticles due to the anisotropic bonding. Structures that predominately expose edges of the layers exhibit high surface energy and are often considered unstable. In this communication, we present a synthesis process to grow MoS 2 and MoSe 2 thin films with vertically aligned layers, thereby maximally exposing the edges on the film surface. Such edge-terminated films are metastable structures of MoS 2 and MoSe 2 , which may find applications in diverse catalytic reactions. We have confirmed their catalytic activity in a hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), in which the exchange current density correlates directly with the density of the exposed edge sites.
The direct oxidation of glucose to produce electrical energy has been widely investigated because... more The direct oxidation of glucose to produce electrical energy has been widely investigated because of renewability, abundance, high energy density and easy handling of the carbohydrate. Most of the previous studies have been conducted in extreme conditions in order to achieve complete glucose oxidation to CO 2 , neglecting the carbohydrate chemical instability that generally leads to useless by-products mixtures. The partial oxidation to gluconate, originally studied for implantable fuel cells, has the advantage of generating a commercially valuable chemical.
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