The old joke goes, “How can you tell if a politician is lying? ... His lips are moving.” Many say... more The old joke goes, “How can you tell if a politician is lying? ... His lips are moving.” Many say that we are now in a “post-truth democracy” where the public “no longer expect or care” whether politicians tell the truth (Stanley 2012). But this leaves us with a puzzle about political speech. If it is true that people do not trust politicians to tell the truth, then it seems to follow that they won’t believe what politicians say and, hence, they won’t do those things the politician wants (e.g., vote for them, support their policies, donate to their campaigns). So, why do politicians bother to lie? In this chapter, we attempt to solve this puzzle by using the tools of social epistemology to explain how and why politicians lie and are often so successful at it. Our argument in this chapter proceeds as follows: We begin by characterizing political lying as intentionally deceptive statements uttered in a political context by (or in the name of) a politician. We then present Gordon Tullo...
In his paper “The Social Diffusion of Warrant and Rationality,” Sanford Goldberg argues that rely... more In his paper “The Social Diffusion of Warrant and Rationality,” Sanford Goldberg argues that relying on testimony makes the warrant for our beliefs “socially diffuse” and that this diminishes our capacity to rationally police our beliefs. Thus, according to Goldberg, rationality itself is socially diffuse. I argue that while testimonial warrant may be socially diffuse (because it depends on the warrants of other epistemic agents) this feature has no special link to our capacity to rationally police our beliefs. Nevertheless, I endorse Goldberg's claim about rationality and I propose that a Foley‐style account of rationality might help to better articulate Goldberg's proposal.
As we move into an isociety, it is essential that we engage in serious reflection on such topics ... more As we move into an isociety, it is essential that we engage in serious reflection on such topics as the nature of information and knowledge, the logic(s) of classification and categorization, and the ethics of information privacy, intellectual property, censorship, and access to information. iSchools should be centers for such reflection. Historically, philosophers have engaged in rigorous intellectual inquiry into these issues and have been the source of many foundational ideas and concepts in information studies, through their work on epistemology, ontology, logic, and ...
Abstract: Using the methods of philosophical analysis and concepts from moral and political philo... more Abstract: Using the methods of philosophical analysis and concepts from moral and political philosophy Indigenous Peoples' human right to control access to their cultural information is defended. The concept of a “right” is delineated and different types of rights are differentiated. The method of an “overlapping consensus” is used. In attempting to articulate the moral foundation for Indigenous Peoples' rights to culture, we can start with justifications for limiting access that are already widely accepted within our society. These widely ...
The International Review of Information Ethics, 2012
The United Nations has suggested that access to the Internet is a human right. In this paper, I d... more The United Nations has suggested that access to the Internet is a human right. In this paper, I defend the U.N.’s position against a number of challenges. First, I show that Vinton Cerf’s recent rejection of the human right to the Internet is based on a misunderstanding of the nature and structure of human rights. Second, I argue that the Internet enables the right to communicate, which is a linchpin right, and, thus, states have a duty to see to it that citizens have access to Internet technology. Third, I argue that concerns that the Internet can be used to engage in oppression and imperialism do not show that there is not a human right to it. Rather, it shows that the right to the Internet must be understood as part of a larger system of human rights.
The concept of information access is central to both Library and Information Science and to human... more The concept of information access is central to both Library and Information Science and to human rights discourse and practice. This paper offers a definition of information access and proposes a relational understanding of it. Using a "standard threat analysis," based on the work of political philosopher Henry Shue (1996), the access relation is analyzed in terms of five facets: (1) availability, (2) reachability, (3) findability, (4) comprehensibility, and (5) useability. It is shown how this theory can be synthesized with another prominent account of access (Burnett, Jaeger, and Thompson, 2008) to create a rubric to guide the evaluation and creation of information systems and services that satisfy the human right to information access.
"Transparency" has become a buzzword in national and international discussions of good ... more "Transparency" has become a buzzword in national and international discussions of good governance. One transparency initiative is Open Government Data (OGD), where almost all data possessed by governments is made freely available on the Internet. OGD is frequently championed on the grounds that transparency is essential to democracy. The claimed connection between transparency and democracy is rarely argued for, however. In this paper, I provide a defense of OGD from the perspective of two prominent normative theories of democracy. I then note a potential objection to this defense — viz., both rational choice theory and empirical evidence suggest that the existence of available information will not necessarily translate to the public being more informed. After considering how the democracy argument for transparency can be adjusted to meet this objection, I make some suggestions for how it might be more effective.
Fake news poses a serious threat to knowledge and democracy. In order to address this threat, it ... more Fake news poses a serious threat to knowledge and democracy. In order to address this threat, it is important to understand exactly what fake news is. After surveying the various definitions that have been proposed in the philosophical literature, we argue that fake news is best understood as counterfeit news. A story is genuine news if and only if it has gone through the standard modern journalistic process involving professionally trained reporters, fact checkers, and editors. And a story is counterfeit news if and only if it is not genuine news, but is presented as genuine news, with the intention and propensity to deceive. This analysis is a contribution to 'systems-oriented social epistemology' (Goldman, Alvin I. 2011. "A Guide to Social Epistemology." In Social Epistemology: Essential Readings, edited by Alvin I. Goldman, and Dennis Whitcomb, 11-37. New York: Oxford University Press). Various social institutions, such as science and journalism, provide important epistemic benefits to society. But unscrupulous agents are often motivated to leverage the epistemic authority of these institutions by counterfeiting them. People can thereby be misled and/or lose faith in these institutions. Thus, society may suffer significant epistemic costs when such counterfeits proliferate.
I argue that a number of persons form a "collective" when they share a "first pers... more I argue that a number of persons form a "collective" when they share a "first person plural perspective." This perspective is shaped by a collective self-concept which, along with its causal history, uniquely identifies the collective. Collectives persist through changes in membership by maintaining this collective self-concept. Changes in the collective self-concept may be identity preserving, however, if they result from processes naturally flowing from the identity of the collective, which are appropriately caused by (or accepted by) the collective.
Perspectives on Libraries as Institutions of Human Rights and Social Justice, 2016
Abstract Purpose To discuss the problem of cultural imperialism as it relates to human rights and... more Abstract Purpose To discuss the problem of cultural imperialism as it relates to human rights and to provide a framework for applying human rights to Library and Information Services (LIS) so as to respect diverse worldviews. Methodology/approach The chapter is theoretical in nature but also draws out important practical implications. The problem is described and addressed using the approach of philosophical ethics emphasizing moral pluralism. Political and moral theories are compared and lessons drawn from them for LIS practice. Findings Drawing on the work of philosopher Jacques Maritain (1949) as well as contemporary human rights theory, an understanding of human rights as pluralistic and evolving practical principles is developed. Using Maritain’s conception of human rights as a set of common principles of action, guidelines for applying human rights in ways that avoid cultural imperialism are provided. Social implications The findings of this chapter should assist LIS professionals in understanding the relationship between human rights and cultural diversity. In addition, it gives professionals a framework for understanding and applying human rights in a ways that respects cultural diversity. Originality/value This chapter develops an original approach to applying human rights in a way that respects cultural diversity.
This article presents a conceptual framework of social justice for library and information scienc... more This article presents a conceptual framework of social justice for library and information science (LIS) and services responsive to their core concerns and drawing from the disciplinary literatures in both philosophy and LIS. The framework is introduced in terms of the multifaceted concept of informational justice, defined as the just treatment of persons as seekers, sources, and subjects of information. The article also expands on the central aspect of informational justice, namely iDistributive justice, defined as the equitable distribution of access to information. An iDistributively just system is one that ensures all persons have sufficient access to information, where access is understood as a capability sensitive resource.
Many of the most pressing issues in information ethics-informational privacy, surveillance, intel... more Many of the most pressing issues in information ethics-informational privacy, surveillance, intellectual property, access to information, and the distribution of information resources-can only be addressed at the level of global politics. This paper develops an approach to theorizing about political questions of concern to information ethics. It begins by situating a political philosophy of information within the broader field of ethics and defending a theoretical approach that is practical, person-centered, and pluralistic. The method of dialogic public reason, as articulated by John Rawls and supplemented with insights from Jürgen Habermas, is described and defended. It is argued that dialogic public reason provides a way to justify political principles in a diverse global context. The paper concludes by relating the idea of dialogic public reason to international human rights. The putative human right to intellectual property is criticized on the grounds that it does not pass the test of public reason.
censorship itself. 3 In this chapter, I try to fill in this gap by providing a definition of cens... more censorship itself. 3 In this chapter, I try to fill in this gap by providing a definition of censorship. With this definition in hand, I consider the sorts of justifications given for censorship and canvass the arguments against censorship. I. The Interest in Access to Expression Censorship limits access to an expression, either by deterring the speaker from speaking or the hearer from receiving such speech. 4 By an "expression" I mean anything that may be composed by one person and communicated to another. This includes such things as speeches, personal communications, books, articles, compilations of data, art works, photographs, and music. Given that censorship limits access to expression, it is important to have clearly before us why access to expressions is valuable. Stuart Cohen (1993) provides an admirably clear and convincing account of the fundamental human interests that can only be satisfied if there is access to the expressions of others. Cohen links our concern with freedom of speech to three fundamental interests: (1) the interest in expression, (2) the interest in deliberation, and (3) the interest in information (223-230). Cohen defines the interest in expression as, "a direct interest in articulating thoughts, attitudes, and feelings on matters of personal or broader human concern and perhaps through that articulation influencing the thought and conduct of others" (1993, 224). Note that, while Cohen's emphasis is on acts of expression directed to others with
Some UNESCO activities in the field of Information Ethics undertaken in 2010-2011 UNESCO's contri... more Some UNESCO activities in the field of Information Ethics undertaken in 2010-2011 UNESCO's contribution in the field of information ethics has focused on interventions in three principle areas which are outlined below: Contributing to the international debate on the ethical dimensions of information On 18 May 2011, at the WSIS Forum held at the ILO Headquarters in Geneva an Action line facilitation meeting for the C10 Action line, "The Ethical dimensions of the information society" was organized jointly by UNESCO's CI and SHS Sectors. The session was held under the theme "Cyber and Information Ethics: freedom & Security, Privacy, Malice & Harm, Property", with an expert panel from academia, civil society and the intergovernmental sector. The session facilitated a rich debate on the ways in which evolutions in the field of technology was contributing to dynamic societal changes not yet well understood. These interactions are changing our understanding of what it means to be human as well as our perceptions and relationship with technology. Areas identified during the debate for further investigation included:
Abstract: A recent United Nations report asserts that states have an obligation “to make the Inte... more Abstract: A recent United Nations report asserts that states have an obligation “to make the Internet widely available, accessible and affordable to all….” I defend this claim against critics, such as Vinton Cerf (one of the founders of the Internet) who has argued that “technology is an enabler of rights, not a right itself.” I argue that the right to the Internet derives from the right to communicate. Using James Nickel's account of relations of support between rights, I show that the right to communicate provides essential support for all ...
The old joke goes, “How can you tell if a politician is lying? ... His lips are moving.” Many say... more The old joke goes, “How can you tell if a politician is lying? ... His lips are moving.” Many say that we are now in a “post-truth democracy” where the public “no longer expect or care” whether politicians tell the truth (Stanley 2012). But this leaves us with a puzzle about political speech. If it is true that people do not trust politicians to tell the truth, then it seems to follow that they won’t believe what politicians say and, hence, they won’t do those things the politician wants (e.g., vote for them, support their policies, donate to their campaigns). So, why do politicians bother to lie? In this chapter, we attempt to solve this puzzle by using the tools of social epistemology to explain how and why politicians lie and are often so successful at it. Our argument in this chapter proceeds as follows: We begin by characterizing political lying as intentionally deceptive statements uttered in a political context by (or in the name of) a politician. We then present Gordon Tullo...
In his paper “The Social Diffusion of Warrant and Rationality,” Sanford Goldberg argues that rely... more In his paper “The Social Diffusion of Warrant and Rationality,” Sanford Goldberg argues that relying on testimony makes the warrant for our beliefs “socially diffuse” and that this diminishes our capacity to rationally police our beliefs. Thus, according to Goldberg, rationality itself is socially diffuse. I argue that while testimonial warrant may be socially diffuse (because it depends on the warrants of other epistemic agents) this feature has no special link to our capacity to rationally police our beliefs. Nevertheless, I endorse Goldberg's claim about rationality and I propose that a Foley‐style account of rationality might help to better articulate Goldberg's proposal.
As we move into an isociety, it is essential that we engage in serious reflection on such topics ... more As we move into an isociety, it is essential that we engage in serious reflection on such topics as the nature of information and knowledge, the logic(s) of classification and categorization, and the ethics of information privacy, intellectual property, censorship, and access to information. iSchools should be centers for such reflection. Historically, philosophers have engaged in rigorous intellectual inquiry into these issues and have been the source of many foundational ideas and concepts in information studies, through their work on epistemology, ontology, logic, and ...
Abstract: Using the methods of philosophical analysis and concepts from moral and political philo... more Abstract: Using the methods of philosophical analysis and concepts from moral and political philosophy Indigenous Peoples' human right to control access to their cultural information is defended. The concept of a “right” is delineated and different types of rights are differentiated. The method of an “overlapping consensus” is used. In attempting to articulate the moral foundation for Indigenous Peoples' rights to culture, we can start with justifications for limiting access that are already widely accepted within our society. These widely ...
The International Review of Information Ethics, 2012
The United Nations has suggested that access to the Internet is a human right. In this paper, I d... more The United Nations has suggested that access to the Internet is a human right. In this paper, I defend the U.N.’s position against a number of challenges. First, I show that Vinton Cerf’s recent rejection of the human right to the Internet is based on a misunderstanding of the nature and structure of human rights. Second, I argue that the Internet enables the right to communicate, which is a linchpin right, and, thus, states have a duty to see to it that citizens have access to Internet technology. Third, I argue that concerns that the Internet can be used to engage in oppression and imperialism do not show that there is not a human right to it. Rather, it shows that the right to the Internet must be understood as part of a larger system of human rights.
The concept of information access is central to both Library and Information Science and to human... more The concept of information access is central to both Library and Information Science and to human rights discourse and practice. This paper offers a definition of information access and proposes a relational understanding of it. Using a "standard threat analysis," based on the work of political philosopher Henry Shue (1996), the access relation is analyzed in terms of five facets: (1) availability, (2) reachability, (3) findability, (4) comprehensibility, and (5) useability. It is shown how this theory can be synthesized with another prominent account of access (Burnett, Jaeger, and Thompson, 2008) to create a rubric to guide the evaluation and creation of information systems and services that satisfy the human right to information access.
"Transparency" has become a buzzword in national and international discussions of good ... more "Transparency" has become a buzzword in national and international discussions of good governance. One transparency initiative is Open Government Data (OGD), where almost all data possessed by governments is made freely available on the Internet. OGD is frequently championed on the grounds that transparency is essential to democracy. The claimed connection between transparency and democracy is rarely argued for, however. In this paper, I provide a defense of OGD from the perspective of two prominent normative theories of democracy. I then note a potential objection to this defense — viz., both rational choice theory and empirical evidence suggest that the existence of available information will not necessarily translate to the public being more informed. After considering how the democracy argument for transparency can be adjusted to meet this objection, I make some suggestions for how it might be more effective.
Fake news poses a serious threat to knowledge and democracy. In order to address this threat, it ... more Fake news poses a serious threat to knowledge and democracy. In order to address this threat, it is important to understand exactly what fake news is. After surveying the various definitions that have been proposed in the philosophical literature, we argue that fake news is best understood as counterfeit news. A story is genuine news if and only if it has gone through the standard modern journalistic process involving professionally trained reporters, fact checkers, and editors. And a story is counterfeit news if and only if it is not genuine news, but is presented as genuine news, with the intention and propensity to deceive. This analysis is a contribution to 'systems-oriented social epistemology' (Goldman, Alvin I. 2011. "A Guide to Social Epistemology." In Social Epistemology: Essential Readings, edited by Alvin I. Goldman, and Dennis Whitcomb, 11-37. New York: Oxford University Press). Various social institutions, such as science and journalism, provide important epistemic benefits to society. But unscrupulous agents are often motivated to leverage the epistemic authority of these institutions by counterfeiting them. People can thereby be misled and/or lose faith in these institutions. Thus, society may suffer significant epistemic costs when such counterfeits proliferate.
I argue that a number of persons form a "collective" when they share a "first pers... more I argue that a number of persons form a "collective" when they share a "first person plural perspective." This perspective is shaped by a collective self-concept which, along with its causal history, uniquely identifies the collective. Collectives persist through changes in membership by maintaining this collective self-concept. Changes in the collective self-concept may be identity preserving, however, if they result from processes naturally flowing from the identity of the collective, which are appropriately caused by (or accepted by) the collective.
Perspectives on Libraries as Institutions of Human Rights and Social Justice, 2016
Abstract Purpose To discuss the problem of cultural imperialism as it relates to human rights and... more Abstract Purpose To discuss the problem of cultural imperialism as it relates to human rights and to provide a framework for applying human rights to Library and Information Services (LIS) so as to respect diverse worldviews. Methodology/approach The chapter is theoretical in nature but also draws out important practical implications. The problem is described and addressed using the approach of philosophical ethics emphasizing moral pluralism. Political and moral theories are compared and lessons drawn from them for LIS practice. Findings Drawing on the work of philosopher Jacques Maritain (1949) as well as contemporary human rights theory, an understanding of human rights as pluralistic and evolving practical principles is developed. Using Maritain’s conception of human rights as a set of common principles of action, guidelines for applying human rights in ways that avoid cultural imperialism are provided. Social implications The findings of this chapter should assist LIS professionals in understanding the relationship between human rights and cultural diversity. In addition, it gives professionals a framework for understanding and applying human rights in a ways that respects cultural diversity. Originality/value This chapter develops an original approach to applying human rights in a way that respects cultural diversity.
This article presents a conceptual framework of social justice for library and information scienc... more This article presents a conceptual framework of social justice for library and information science (LIS) and services responsive to their core concerns and drawing from the disciplinary literatures in both philosophy and LIS. The framework is introduced in terms of the multifaceted concept of informational justice, defined as the just treatment of persons as seekers, sources, and subjects of information. The article also expands on the central aspect of informational justice, namely iDistributive justice, defined as the equitable distribution of access to information. An iDistributively just system is one that ensures all persons have sufficient access to information, where access is understood as a capability sensitive resource.
Many of the most pressing issues in information ethics-informational privacy, surveillance, intel... more Many of the most pressing issues in information ethics-informational privacy, surveillance, intellectual property, access to information, and the distribution of information resources-can only be addressed at the level of global politics. This paper develops an approach to theorizing about political questions of concern to information ethics. It begins by situating a political philosophy of information within the broader field of ethics and defending a theoretical approach that is practical, person-centered, and pluralistic. The method of dialogic public reason, as articulated by John Rawls and supplemented with insights from Jürgen Habermas, is described and defended. It is argued that dialogic public reason provides a way to justify political principles in a diverse global context. The paper concludes by relating the idea of dialogic public reason to international human rights. The putative human right to intellectual property is criticized on the grounds that it does not pass the test of public reason.
censorship itself. 3 In this chapter, I try to fill in this gap by providing a definition of cens... more censorship itself. 3 In this chapter, I try to fill in this gap by providing a definition of censorship. With this definition in hand, I consider the sorts of justifications given for censorship and canvass the arguments against censorship. I. The Interest in Access to Expression Censorship limits access to an expression, either by deterring the speaker from speaking or the hearer from receiving such speech. 4 By an "expression" I mean anything that may be composed by one person and communicated to another. This includes such things as speeches, personal communications, books, articles, compilations of data, art works, photographs, and music. Given that censorship limits access to expression, it is important to have clearly before us why access to expressions is valuable. Stuart Cohen (1993) provides an admirably clear and convincing account of the fundamental human interests that can only be satisfied if there is access to the expressions of others. Cohen links our concern with freedom of speech to three fundamental interests: (1) the interest in expression, (2) the interest in deliberation, and (3) the interest in information (223-230). Cohen defines the interest in expression as, "a direct interest in articulating thoughts, attitudes, and feelings on matters of personal or broader human concern and perhaps through that articulation influencing the thought and conduct of others" (1993, 224). Note that, while Cohen's emphasis is on acts of expression directed to others with
Some UNESCO activities in the field of Information Ethics undertaken in 2010-2011 UNESCO's contri... more Some UNESCO activities in the field of Information Ethics undertaken in 2010-2011 UNESCO's contribution in the field of information ethics has focused on interventions in three principle areas which are outlined below: Contributing to the international debate on the ethical dimensions of information On 18 May 2011, at the WSIS Forum held at the ILO Headquarters in Geneva an Action line facilitation meeting for the C10 Action line, "The Ethical dimensions of the information society" was organized jointly by UNESCO's CI and SHS Sectors. The session was held under the theme "Cyber and Information Ethics: freedom & Security, Privacy, Malice & Harm, Property", with an expert panel from academia, civil society and the intergovernmental sector. The session facilitated a rich debate on the ways in which evolutions in the field of technology was contributing to dynamic societal changes not yet well understood. These interactions are changing our understanding of what it means to be human as well as our perceptions and relationship with technology. Areas identified during the debate for further investigation included:
Abstract: A recent United Nations report asserts that states have an obligation “to make the Inte... more Abstract: A recent United Nations report asserts that states have an obligation “to make the Internet widely available, accessible and affordable to all….” I defend this claim against critics, such as Vinton Cerf (one of the founders of the Internet) who has argued that “technology is an enabler of rights, not a right itself.” I argue that the right to the Internet derives from the right to communicate. Using James Nickel's account of relations of support between rights, I show that the right to communicate provides essential support for all ...
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