Nigeria has the potential to generate 12,522 MW of electricity, but can only dispatch 4000 MW, wh... more Nigeria has the potential to generate 12,522 MW of electricity, but can only dispatch 4000 MW, which is insufficient for a population of over 200 million people as of 2022. Therefore, Nigerians use solid fuels including firewood and charcoal as an alternative to insufficient electricity for domestic use. The consumption of firewood and charcoal in Nigeria is estimated at 23,745,458 tons and 4,828,689 tons, respectively in 2021, by far the most consumed domestic solid fuel sources in Nigeria. Although there are domestic solid fuel alternatives, such as dung, agricultural residues and coal, to firewood and wood charcoal, their sustainable adoption has been slow in Nigeria, indicating that there is insufficient knowledge of domestic solid fuel sources. This requires a review focused on assessing Nigeria’s national sources of solid fuels. This article presents an overview of the sources of domestic solid fuels in Nigeria, an exploration of different types of firewood and charcoal studie...
The aim of the study was to analyze the species composition of the dendroflora near four main roa... more The aim of the study was to analyze the species composition of the dendroflora near four main roads in the city of Białystok, taking into regard their geographical and historical origin. The wildlife inventory was conducted in the vegetation season of 2011. The inventory revealed presence of a total of 837 trees and bushes representing 36 species and 18 families. The most abundant trees were those from the family Aceraceae (63.8%), while the most abundant bushes were those representing Rosaceae (48.9%). The contribution of native species (65.7%) was found to be about twice as high as that of alien ones (34.3%). The dominant species among the native trees was Acer platanoides L., while the principal bush species was Crataegus monogyna Jacq. The alien tree species were most commonly represented by Acer negundo L., and bushes - by Ligustrum vulgare L. Spontaneously settled trees and bushes were clearly dominant (59.9%) over those originating from plantations (40.1%). Among the native s...
Pulsatilla vulgaris Mill. ("Pasque flower", Ranunculaceae) is rare and a threatened plant species... more Pulsatilla vulgaris Mill. ("Pasque flower", Ranunculaceae) is rare and a threatened plant species in Europe. It produces biologically active secondary metabolites. P. vulgaris is also known herbal drug used for centuries in traditional Chinese and Korean medicine. The rhizomes of P. vulgaris have been traditionally used for treatment of headaches, neuralgia, insomnia, hyperactivity, bacterial skin infections, septicemia, cough and bronchitis. In the present study, the extracts of leaves and rhizomes of P. vulgaris were evaluated for their antifungal, antimicrobial, antimalarial and cytotoxic activities. The results showed the antifungal activity of crude extracts of the rhizome of P. vulgaris against the yeast Candida glabrata with an IC 50 of 11 µg/ml. These results indicate that the selected medicinal plant could be further investigated for identifying compounds that may be responsible for the observed activity and that may represent new leads in fungal drug discovery.
The aim of the paper is to define a relationship between the diversity in structural features of ... more The aim of the paper is to define a relationship between the diversity in structural features of the Carex digitata population and the dynamics of natural and disturbed anthropogenically oak-hornbeam communities in the cycle of 29-year research (1987-2015) conducted on permanent plots in the significantly to the community dynamics, whereas the existing interrelations are a response of Carex digitata population to dynamic vegetation changes undergoing in natural habitats (fluctuation) and under the influence of anthropogenic disturbances (degeneration as a result of pinetization followed by regeneration). This is reflected in a different spatial organization, age structure, size diversity of individual plants, as well as in various mechanisms regulating the number of individual plants in a population. Models of population dynamics in the light of dynamics of the natural and disturbed forest communities can be explained from the viewpoint of equilibrium and non-equilibrium in the nature. It has been proved that in stable communities, where variations in vegetation have a character of little fluctuations and indicate a state of a relevant equilibrium in the nature, the population of Carex digitata also reaches a phase of relevant equilibrium. In such a phase the size of the sedge population is small and changes in the number of individuals in the 29-year cycle slightly fluctuate. A different variation in the population features has been reported in the anthropogenically disturbed community. Processes of degeneration and regeneration are accompanied by rapid dynamic vegetation changes (a state of non-equilibrium) and rapid changes in structural features of the Carex digitata population. The sedge reaction to the dynamic variations in the communities can be explained by a different life strategy which differentiates morphological and developmental features of individuals and thus determines variation of properties of the population. Carex digitata demography, dynamic equilibrium/non-equilibrium of vegetation, long-term study, natural and disturbed communities, plant population.
The phytosociological study was carried out in 2010 in the Biala valley in centre of Bialystok. T... more The phytosociological study was carried out in 2010 in the Biala valley in centre of Bialystok. The results revealed 11 plant communities from five phytosociological classes. Among them were 2 valuable types of forest communities mentioned in the I Annexe of the Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC, 9 types of non-forest communities and 7 protected plant species. In plans of the Biala valley management, we recommended restoration of the species composition and preservation of valuable wetland habitats by re-meandering of the Biala River bed, accompanied by establishment of a botanic park to be used for natural, didactic and recreational purposes.
Recently, biomass application as a renewable energy source is increasing worldwide. However, its ... more Recently, biomass application as a renewable energy source is increasing worldwide. However, its availability differs in dependence on the location and climate, therefore, agricultural residues as cow dung (CD) are being considered to supply heat and/or power installation. This paper aims at a wide evaluation of CD fuel properties and its prospect to apply in the form of pellets to direct combustion installations. Therefore, the proximate, ultimate composition and calorific value were analyzed, then pelletization and combustion tests were performed, and the ash characteristics were tested. It was found that CD is a promising source of bioenergy in terms of LHV (16.34 MJ·kg−1), carbon (44.24%), and fixed carbon (18.33%) content. During pelletization, CD showed high compaction properties and at a moisture content of 18%,and the received pellets’ bulk density reached ca. 470 kg·m−3 with kinetic durability of 98.7%. While combustion, in a fixed grate 25 kW boiler, high emissions of CO, ...
The 9th Innovations-Sustainability-Modernity-Openness Conference (ISMO’20), 2020
Cow dung biomass was collected from January 2019 to June 2019. The tests were carried out on the ... more Cow dung biomass was collected from January 2019 to June 2019. The tests were carried out on the samples of ground biofuel with a fraction below 0.42 mm, subjected to incineration. The chemical composition of ashes and characteristic fusion temperatures were determined. Cow dung biomass ashes were found to contain chlorine, which can contribute to corrosive processes in boilers.
Naukowa pt. "Różnorodność biologiczna-od komórki do ekosystemu. Interdyscyplinarne i aplikacyjne ... more Naukowa pt. "Różnorodność biologiczna-od komórki do ekosystemu. Interdyscyplinarne i aplikacyjne znaczenie badań biologicznych", zorganizowana przez Oddział Białostocki Polskiego Towarzystwa Botanicznego przy współpracy Politechniki Białostockiej i Uniwersytetu w Białymstoku oraz finansowym wsparciu Wojewódzkiego Funduszu Ochrony Środowiska i Gospodarki Wodnej w Białymstoku. W skład Komitetu Naukowego konferencji wchodzili: dr hab.
Cow dung biomass was taken from December 2017 to April 2018. After drying and crushing, analytica... more Cow dung biomass was taken from December 2017 to April 2018. After drying and crushing, analytical moisture was determined, followed by the content of ash, total carbon, total sulfur, heat of combustion, and calorific value. Research has shown that the moisture of the biomass burned has a significant impact on both the ash content and its calorific value.
The present study aimed to identify biologically active secondary metabolites from the rare plant... more The present study aimed to identify biologically active secondary metabolites from the rare plant species, Pulsatilla patens subsp. patens and the cultivated P. vulgaris subsp. vulgaris. Chromatographic fractionation of the ethanolic extract of the roots of P. patens subsp. patens resulted in the isolation of two oleanane-type glycosides identified as hederagenin 3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside (2.7 mg) and hederagenin 3-O-β-d-galactopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-d-glucopyranoside (3.3 mg, patensin). HPLC analysis of the methanolic extract of the crude root of P. patens subsp. patens and P. vulgaris subsp. vulgaris revealed the presence of Pulsatilla saponin D (hederagenin 3-O-α-l-rhamnopyranosyl(1→2)-[β-d-glucopyranosyl(1→4)]-α-l-arabinopyranoside). Chromatographic analysis using GC-MS of the silylated methanolic extracts from the leaves and roots of these species identified the presence of carboxylic acids, such as benzoic, caffeic, malic, and succinic acids. The extracts from Pulsatilla species were...
The study was performed to identify, delimit and evaluate the current status of Arctostaphylo-Cal... more The study was performed to identify, delimit and evaluate the current status of Arctostaphylo-Callunetum R.Tx. et Prsg 1940 heaths, as well as to point out possible threats to these communities and means of their protection. The heaths are in Czerwony Bór (PLH 200018) in Podlaskie voivodeship, NE Poland, in the area included in the Natura 2000 network. The study was performed in 2008 with the use of GPS method over the study area of 3,784.04 ha. The area of Czerwony Bór includes 8 stands with dry heaths of Arctostaphylo-Callunetum of the total area of 21.7 ha. They are represented by typically developed and well-preserved patches of vegetation (90%) of the area of 19.5 ha and not so well preserved patches (10%) occupying the area of 2.2 ha. In general, their natural value in the area of study is high and the representative character, degree of preservation of the structure and functions are excellent. The main threat to the dry heaths Arctostaphylo-Callunetum in the area of Czerwony Bór comes from the forest management procedures aimed at reclamation of the area left after the army training grounds, reforestation in the form of large-area single-species forest plantations, forestation of the land that has not been forested earlier. In the areas where no plantation have been started the process of secondary succession is observed. As a result of this process heaths are replaced by forest-thicket formations. The active protection of the heaths in the area studied should include prevention of secondary succession, mowing and removal of forest-thicket formations and changes in forest management policy towards maintenance of open space by periodical removal of vegetation to bare soil.
The paper presents a discussion on different methods of multi-criteria analysis and different rul... more The paper presents a discussion on different methods of multi-criteria analysis and different rules of proceedings that have to be taken into account when making a decision regarding the location of a wind farm in the NE Poland. In the study, six multi-criteria analyses were discussed taking into account the main criteria on which they are based: utility functions (MAUT, AHP, DEMATEL), relationships outranking (ELECTRE, PROMETHEE), and decision support (Borda ranking methods).
The aim of the paper was to define a relationship between the structure and dynamics of the Carex... more The aim of the paper was to define a relationship between the structure and dynamics of the Carex digitata population. Additionally, modifications in the development of an individual and its life strategy in disturbed communities were analysed. The species was studied in the natural and anthropogenically disturbed oak-hornbeam communities over 23-years of research (1987-2009) conducted on permanent plots in the Knyszyńska Forest. The results of the research indicate that in the natural community, C. digitata individuals reach the phase of flowering and fruition in the 4 th year of the life cycle, while in the disturbed community dominated by pine trees-in the 2 nd year of the life cycle. Modification of the C. digitata life cycle can be attributed to different reactions of individuals to disturbances in the community, microclimatic, phenological and biocenotic balance to which C. digitata is exposed as a results of the degeneration (pinetization) of the community. The sedge responds differently to specific ecological conditions in the natural and anthropogenically disturbed oak-hornbeam communities due to different life strategies, which affect morphological and developmental features of individual plants, and thus induces changes in the structure and dynamics of populations. This is reflected in a different spatial organization, age structure, size diversity of the individual plants, as well as in various mechanisms regulating the number of individual plants in a population.
The species composition and structure of secondary communities developed after deforestation in f... more The species composition and structure of secondary communities developed after deforestation in fertile oak-hornbeam habitats and afforestation of post-arable land from Tilio-Carpinetum and Melitti-Carpinetum circles in the Knyszyńska Forest have been studied. The analysis was based on 178 relevés made by Braun-Blanquet method, including 47 relevés of oak-hornbeam natural communities, 59 relevés of post-clear-cutting communities after deforestation and 72 releves of five secondary forest communities, 30-59 years old forming the first generation of trees on post-arable land. The types of habitats, types of soil and surface geological formations were identified, while soil samples were subjected to chemical analysis. The degree of deterioration of secondary communities on post-arable land was found to be the greater the shorter the time from abandonment of agricultural use of a given area. As a result of former cultivation the soil has been degraded and the composition and structure of plant communities have been altered. The identified vegetation patches show changes characteristic of IV and V phase of degeneration and deformations manifested as cespitization, apophytization and bryophytization. The oak-hornbeam habitats represent the weakly (d) or strongly (D) degraded habitats, with the soil upper layer transformed by tilling into a ploughing horizon (Ap), with changes in the form of humus and considerable simplification in morphology of soil profiles.
Nigeria has the potential to generate 12,522 MW of electricity, but can only dispatch 4000 MW, wh... more Nigeria has the potential to generate 12,522 MW of electricity, but can only dispatch 4000 MW, which is insufficient for a population of over 200 million people as of 2022. Therefore, Nigerians use solid fuels including firewood and charcoal as an alternative to insufficient electricity for domestic use. The consumption of firewood and charcoal in Nigeria is estimated at 23,745,458 tons and 4,828,689 tons, respectively in 2021, by far the most consumed domestic solid fuel sources in Nigeria. Although there are domestic solid fuel alternatives, such as dung, agricultural residues and coal, to firewood and wood charcoal, their sustainable adoption has been slow in Nigeria, indicating that there is insufficient knowledge of domestic solid fuel sources. This requires a review focused on assessing Nigeria’s national sources of solid fuels. This article presents an overview of the sources of domestic solid fuels in Nigeria, an exploration of different types of firewood and charcoal studie...
The aim of the study was to analyze the species composition of the dendroflora near four main roa... more The aim of the study was to analyze the species composition of the dendroflora near four main roads in the city of Białystok, taking into regard their geographical and historical origin. The wildlife inventory was conducted in the vegetation season of 2011. The inventory revealed presence of a total of 837 trees and bushes representing 36 species and 18 families. The most abundant trees were those from the family Aceraceae (63.8%), while the most abundant bushes were those representing Rosaceae (48.9%). The contribution of native species (65.7%) was found to be about twice as high as that of alien ones (34.3%). The dominant species among the native trees was Acer platanoides L., while the principal bush species was Crataegus monogyna Jacq. The alien tree species were most commonly represented by Acer negundo L., and bushes - by Ligustrum vulgare L. Spontaneously settled trees and bushes were clearly dominant (59.9%) over those originating from plantations (40.1%). Among the native s...
Pulsatilla vulgaris Mill. ("Pasque flower", Ranunculaceae) is rare and a threatened plant species... more Pulsatilla vulgaris Mill. ("Pasque flower", Ranunculaceae) is rare and a threatened plant species in Europe. It produces biologically active secondary metabolites. P. vulgaris is also known herbal drug used for centuries in traditional Chinese and Korean medicine. The rhizomes of P. vulgaris have been traditionally used for treatment of headaches, neuralgia, insomnia, hyperactivity, bacterial skin infections, septicemia, cough and bronchitis. In the present study, the extracts of leaves and rhizomes of P. vulgaris were evaluated for their antifungal, antimicrobial, antimalarial and cytotoxic activities. The results showed the antifungal activity of crude extracts of the rhizome of P. vulgaris against the yeast Candida glabrata with an IC 50 of 11 µg/ml. These results indicate that the selected medicinal plant could be further investigated for identifying compounds that may be responsible for the observed activity and that may represent new leads in fungal drug discovery.
The aim of the paper is to define a relationship between the diversity in structural features of ... more The aim of the paper is to define a relationship between the diversity in structural features of the Carex digitata population and the dynamics of natural and disturbed anthropogenically oak-hornbeam communities in the cycle of 29-year research (1987-2015) conducted on permanent plots in the significantly to the community dynamics, whereas the existing interrelations are a response of Carex digitata population to dynamic vegetation changes undergoing in natural habitats (fluctuation) and under the influence of anthropogenic disturbances (degeneration as a result of pinetization followed by regeneration). This is reflected in a different spatial organization, age structure, size diversity of individual plants, as well as in various mechanisms regulating the number of individual plants in a population. Models of population dynamics in the light of dynamics of the natural and disturbed forest communities can be explained from the viewpoint of equilibrium and non-equilibrium in the nature. It has been proved that in stable communities, where variations in vegetation have a character of little fluctuations and indicate a state of a relevant equilibrium in the nature, the population of Carex digitata also reaches a phase of relevant equilibrium. In such a phase the size of the sedge population is small and changes in the number of individuals in the 29-year cycle slightly fluctuate. A different variation in the population features has been reported in the anthropogenically disturbed community. Processes of degeneration and regeneration are accompanied by rapid dynamic vegetation changes (a state of non-equilibrium) and rapid changes in structural features of the Carex digitata population. The sedge reaction to the dynamic variations in the communities can be explained by a different life strategy which differentiates morphological and developmental features of individuals and thus determines variation of properties of the population. Carex digitata demography, dynamic equilibrium/non-equilibrium of vegetation, long-term study, natural and disturbed communities, plant population.
The phytosociological study was carried out in 2010 in the Biala valley in centre of Bialystok. T... more The phytosociological study was carried out in 2010 in the Biala valley in centre of Bialystok. The results revealed 11 plant communities from five phytosociological classes. Among them were 2 valuable types of forest communities mentioned in the I Annexe of the Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC, 9 types of non-forest communities and 7 protected plant species. In plans of the Biala valley management, we recommended restoration of the species composition and preservation of valuable wetland habitats by re-meandering of the Biala River bed, accompanied by establishment of a botanic park to be used for natural, didactic and recreational purposes.
Recently, biomass application as a renewable energy source is increasing worldwide. However, its ... more Recently, biomass application as a renewable energy source is increasing worldwide. However, its availability differs in dependence on the location and climate, therefore, agricultural residues as cow dung (CD) are being considered to supply heat and/or power installation. This paper aims at a wide evaluation of CD fuel properties and its prospect to apply in the form of pellets to direct combustion installations. Therefore, the proximate, ultimate composition and calorific value were analyzed, then pelletization and combustion tests were performed, and the ash characteristics were tested. It was found that CD is a promising source of bioenergy in terms of LHV (16.34 MJ·kg−1), carbon (44.24%), and fixed carbon (18.33%) content. During pelletization, CD showed high compaction properties and at a moisture content of 18%,and the received pellets’ bulk density reached ca. 470 kg·m−3 with kinetic durability of 98.7%. While combustion, in a fixed grate 25 kW boiler, high emissions of CO, ...
The 9th Innovations-Sustainability-Modernity-Openness Conference (ISMO’20), 2020
Cow dung biomass was collected from January 2019 to June 2019. The tests were carried out on the ... more Cow dung biomass was collected from January 2019 to June 2019. The tests were carried out on the samples of ground biofuel with a fraction below 0.42 mm, subjected to incineration. The chemical composition of ashes and characteristic fusion temperatures were determined. Cow dung biomass ashes were found to contain chlorine, which can contribute to corrosive processes in boilers.
Naukowa pt. "Różnorodność biologiczna-od komórki do ekosystemu. Interdyscyplinarne i aplikacyjne ... more Naukowa pt. "Różnorodność biologiczna-od komórki do ekosystemu. Interdyscyplinarne i aplikacyjne znaczenie badań biologicznych", zorganizowana przez Oddział Białostocki Polskiego Towarzystwa Botanicznego przy współpracy Politechniki Białostockiej i Uniwersytetu w Białymstoku oraz finansowym wsparciu Wojewódzkiego Funduszu Ochrony Środowiska i Gospodarki Wodnej w Białymstoku. W skład Komitetu Naukowego konferencji wchodzili: dr hab.
Cow dung biomass was taken from December 2017 to April 2018. After drying and crushing, analytica... more Cow dung biomass was taken from December 2017 to April 2018. After drying and crushing, analytical moisture was determined, followed by the content of ash, total carbon, total sulfur, heat of combustion, and calorific value. Research has shown that the moisture of the biomass burned has a significant impact on both the ash content and its calorific value.
The present study aimed to identify biologically active secondary metabolites from the rare plant... more The present study aimed to identify biologically active secondary metabolites from the rare plant species, Pulsatilla patens subsp. patens and the cultivated P. vulgaris subsp. vulgaris. Chromatographic fractionation of the ethanolic extract of the roots of P. patens subsp. patens resulted in the isolation of two oleanane-type glycosides identified as hederagenin 3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside (2.7 mg) and hederagenin 3-O-β-d-galactopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-d-glucopyranoside (3.3 mg, patensin). HPLC analysis of the methanolic extract of the crude root of P. patens subsp. patens and P. vulgaris subsp. vulgaris revealed the presence of Pulsatilla saponin D (hederagenin 3-O-α-l-rhamnopyranosyl(1→2)-[β-d-glucopyranosyl(1→4)]-α-l-arabinopyranoside). Chromatographic analysis using GC-MS of the silylated methanolic extracts from the leaves and roots of these species identified the presence of carboxylic acids, such as benzoic, caffeic, malic, and succinic acids. The extracts from Pulsatilla species were...
The study was performed to identify, delimit and evaluate the current status of Arctostaphylo-Cal... more The study was performed to identify, delimit and evaluate the current status of Arctostaphylo-Callunetum R.Tx. et Prsg 1940 heaths, as well as to point out possible threats to these communities and means of their protection. The heaths are in Czerwony Bór (PLH 200018) in Podlaskie voivodeship, NE Poland, in the area included in the Natura 2000 network. The study was performed in 2008 with the use of GPS method over the study area of 3,784.04 ha. The area of Czerwony Bór includes 8 stands with dry heaths of Arctostaphylo-Callunetum of the total area of 21.7 ha. They are represented by typically developed and well-preserved patches of vegetation (90%) of the area of 19.5 ha and not so well preserved patches (10%) occupying the area of 2.2 ha. In general, their natural value in the area of study is high and the representative character, degree of preservation of the structure and functions are excellent. The main threat to the dry heaths Arctostaphylo-Callunetum in the area of Czerwony Bór comes from the forest management procedures aimed at reclamation of the area left after the army training grounds, reforestation in the form of large-area single-species forest plantations, forestation of the land that has not been forested earlier. In the areas where no plantation have been started the process of secondary succession is observed. As a result of this process heaths are replaced by forest-thicket formations. The active protection of the heaths in the area studied should include prevention of secondary succession, mowing and removal of forest-thicket formations and changes in forest management policy towards maintenance of open space by periodical removal of vegetation to bare soil.
The paper presents a discussion on different methods of multi-criteria analysis and different rul... more The paper presents a discussion on different methods of multi-criteria analysis and different rules of proceedings that have to be taken into account when making a decision regarding the location of a wind farm in the NE Poland. In the study, six multi-criteria analyses were discussed taking into account the main criteria on which they are based: utility functions (MAUT, AHP, DEMATEL), relationships outranking (ELECTRE, PROMETHEE), and decision support (Borda ranking methods).
The aim of the paper was to define a relationship between the structure and dynamics of the Carex... more The aim of the paper was to define a relationship between the structure and dynamics of the Carex digitata population. Additionally, modifications in the development of an individual and its life strategy in disturbed communities were analysed. The species was studied in the natural and anthropogenically disturbed oak-hornbeam communities over 23-years of research (1987-2009) conducted on permanent plots in the Knyszyńska Forest. The results of the research indicate that in the natural community, C. digitata individuals reach the phase of flowering and fruition in the 4 th year of the life cycle, while in the disturbed community dominated by pine trees-in the 2 nd year of the life cycle. Modification of the C. digitata life cycle can be attributed to different reactions of individuals to disturbances in the community, microclimatic, phenological and biocenotic balance to which C. digitata is exposed as a results of the degeneration (pinetization) of the community. The sedge responds differently to specific ecological conditions in the natural and anthropogenically disturbed oak-hornbeam communities due to different life strategies, which affect morphological and developmental features of individual plants, and thus induces changes in the structure and dynamics of populations. This is reflected in a different spatial organization, age structure, size diversity of the individual plants, as well as in various mechanisms regulating the number of individual plants in a population.
The species composition and structure of secondary communities developed after deforestation in f... more The species composition and structure of secondary communities developed after deforestation in fertile oak-hornbeam habitats and afforestation of post-arable land from Tilio-Carpinetum and Melitti-Carpinetum circles in the Knyszyńska Forest have been studied. The analysis was based on 178 relevés made by Braun-Blanquet method, including 47 relevés of oak-hornbeam natural communities, 59 relevés of post-clear-cutting communities after deforestation and 72 releves of five secondary forest communities, 30-59 years old forming the first generation of trees on post-arable land. The types of habitats, types of soil and surface geological formations were identified, while soil samples were subjected to chemical analysis. The degree of deterioration of secondary communities on post-arable land was found to be the greater the shorter the time from abandonment of agricultural use of a given area. As a result of former cultivation the soil has been degraded and the composition and structure of plant communities have been altered. The identified vegetation patches show changes characteristic of IV and V phase of degeneration and deformations manifested as cespitization, apophytization and bryophytization. The oak-hornbeam habitats represent the weakly (d) or strongly (D) degraded habitats, with the soil upper layer transformed by tilling into a ploughing horizon (Ap), with changes in the form of humus and considerable simplification in morphology of soil profiles.
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Papers by Grażyna Laska