Testing Models of Motives and Points of Attachment. Boyun Woo 1 , Galen T. Trail 1 , Hyungil H. K... more Testing Models of Motives and Points of Attachment. Boyun Woo 1 , Galen T. Trail 1 , Hyungil H. Kwon 2 and Dean F. Anderson 3 , (1)The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, (2)National Institute of Education, Singapore, Singapore, (3)Iowa State University, Ames, IA Purpose. ...
International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship
PurposeThis paper aims to determine if single-item (SI) needs' and values' measures have ... more PurposeThis paper aims to determine if single-item (SI) needs' and values' measures have similar reliability and validity values to multi-item (MI) measures of the same constructs and thus could be substituted by sport marketers to predict internal motivating aspects of sport consumer attitudes and behavior. In addition, the authors wish to determine whether a small subset of needs and values listed in current measures are sufficient to predict sport consumer attitudes and behavior.Design/methodology/approachIn this two-study design, the first study was a national sample (N = 439) comparing reliability and validity of single-item scales to multi-item scales. In the second study the authors collected data from fans and spectators of four different teams (N1 = 583; N2 = 1164; N3 = 213; N4 = 404) to determine the impact of needs and values on sport consumer attitudes and behavior.FindingsThe authors determined that in 89% of the scales, single-item measures of needs and values ...
Research question: The sport industry has deepened its commitment to implementing and deploying e... more Research question: The sport industry has deepened its commitment to implementing and deploying environmental sustainability initiatives. However, until this study there were no uniform ways to evaluate these efforts. To this end, the purpose of this study is to create and test the sport sustainability campaign evaluation model among sport participants of a 10-mile run event. Research methods: We tested the fit of the sport sustainability campaign evaluation model using 531 participants of a community run. Results and Findings: Needs, values, internal constraints, and points of attachment explained 52.1% of the variance in attitudes toward the campaign. Attitudes, external constraints, past behavior and all of the indirect effects of the other variables combined, explained 74.2% of the variance in participating in sustainability initiatives. Sport professionals can use this model to assess environmental sustainability campaigns and promote attitudinal and sustainable behaviors. Implications: The findings of this study have important implications for sport managers and marketers as they create and further advance their organization's sustainability campaigns. Understanding the needs and values of sport participants can help marketers and managers determine how those needs and values affect positive attitudes towards the campaign. Increasing the positive attitudes towards the campaign, while minimizing the negative influence of external constraints to act sustainably, can increase sustainable behavioral intentions and thus increase the success of the sport organization's sustainability campaign. This model can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of sustainability campaigns to influence attitudes and behaviors of sport participants.
International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, 2017
Purpose Previous research has focused on the antecedents of fan loyalty or the link between fans ... more Purpose Previous research has focused on the antecedents of fan loyalty or the link between fans and the team on sponsorship reactions, but no comprehensive framework has been developed to combine these perspectives. The purpose of this paper is to present an integrated framework of how team brand experience during the season impacts sponsorship brand experience. Design/methodology/approach To create the conceptual model, a comprehensive search of peer-reviewed articles was conducted in electronic databases and journal reference lists. The authors identified constructs from prior research aimed at understanding sponsorship effectiveness. These constructs not only included aspects of the sponsorship brand experience, but also aspects within the team brand experience that form the link between consumers’ responses derived from team-related stimuli and the responses evoked by sponsor-related stimuli. Findings This conceptual framework yields a set of 11 propositions regarding fans’ int...
International Journal of Sport Communication, 2008
Sport video games (SVGs) are a popular form of sport media and sponsorship, and advertising in SV... more Sport video games (SVGs) are a popular form of sport media and sponsorship, and advertising in SVGs is increasingly common. This study assessed the effectiveness of SVG in-game advertisements in 3 consumption domains: cognitive, affective, and conative. An experimental study was designed with 89 gamers randomly assigned to 1 of 2 conditions: (a) experimental, playing an SVG with advertisements, or (b) control, playing an SVG without advertisements. Consumption background and identification level were incorporated as covariates to ensure group equivalence. Participants responded to a questionnaire measuring brand awareness, brand attitude, and purchase intentions. MANCOVA revealed that after controlling for the effect of covariate variables, the experimental group had a significantly (p < .05) greater mean brand-awareness score than the control group. Mean brand-attitude and purchase-intention scores were not significantly (p > .05) different between groups. The findings indica...
Acceptance rates of quality journals in the sport management field are typically below 20%. We ha... more Acceptance rates of quality journals in the sport management field are typically below 20%. We have identified seven problems that often prevent submitted manuscripts from being accepted: (1) Failure to derive research from theory and/or a failure to consider more than one potential theory to support the research. (2) No synthesis of existing, similar information already published within the sport field. (3) A lack of assessment of the validity of prior research. (4) Creation of new scales when existing scales work sufficiently well. (5) Limiting potential explanatory variance. (6) Not reporting the variance explained and/or a failure to discuss the meaningfulness of the results. (7) A lack of reporting viable alternative explanations when the data do not support the hypotheses or focal model. We discuss each of these issues and provide examples, both good and bad.
Marketing Opportunities and Challenges in a Changing Global Marketplace, 2020
Sport organizations are attempting to reduce their environmental impact but have difficulty in ma... more Sport organizations are attempting to reduce their environmental impact but have difficulty in managing stakeholders’ behaviors. To combat this challenge, sport organizations have increased the sophistication of their environmental sustainability initiatives to include stakeholder engagement campaigns. Until recently, no guidelines have been provided to sport organizations on how to evaluate the effectiveness of current communication strategies to convey the organization’s prioritization of sustainability initiatives. This research extends and evaluates the sport sustainability campaign evaluation model (SSCEM; Trail and McCullough 2019), using a sport organization’s (the Games’) sustainability initiative across multiple campaigns (waste diversion, transportation, energy conservation, and water conservation) and across time. The SSCEM depicts that needs and values influence attitudes toward sustainability campaigns. Furthermore, internal constraints have a negative effect on attitud...
Research question: The sport industry has deepened its commitment to implementing and deploying e... more Research question: The sport industry has deepened its commitment to implementing and deploying environmental sustainability initiatives. However, until this study there were no uniform ways to evaluate these efforts. To this end, the purpose of this study is to create and test the sport sustainability campaign evaluation model among sport participants of a 10-mile run event. Research methods: We tested the fit of the sport sustainability campaign evaluation model using 531 participants of a community run. Results and Findings: Needs, values, internal constraints, and points of attachment explained 52.1% of the variance in attitudes toward the campaign. Attitudes, external constraints, past behavior and all of the indirect effects of the other variables combined, explained 74.2% of the variance in participating in sustainability initiatives. Sport professionals can use this model to assess environmental sustainability campaigns and promote attitudinal and sustainable behaviors. Implications: The findings of this study have important implications for sport managers and marketers as they create and further advance their organization’s sustainability campaigns. Understanding the needs and values of sport participants can help marketers and managers determine how those needs and values affect positive attitudes towards the campaign. Increasing the positive attitudes towards the campaign, while minimizing the negative influence of external constraints to act sustainably, can increase sustainable behavioral intentions and thus increase the success of the sport organization’s sustainability campaign. This model can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of sustainability campaigns to influence attitudes and behaviors of sport participants.
International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, 2017
Purpose – Previous research has focused on the antecedents of fan loyalty or the link between fan... more Purpose – Previous research has focused on the antecedents of fan loyalty or the link between fans and the team on sponsorship reactions, but no comprehensive framework has been developed to combine these perspectives. The purpose of this paper is to present an integrated framework of how team brand experience during the season impacts sponsorship brand experience. Design/methodology/approach – To create the conceptual model, a comprehensive search of peer-reviewed articles was conducted in electronic databases and journal reference lists. The authors identified constructs from prior research aimed at understanding sponsorship effectiveness. These constructs not only included aspects of the sponsorship brand experience, but also aspects within the team brand experience that form the link between consumers’ responses derived from team-related stimuli and the responses evoked by sponsor-related stimuli. Findings – This conceptual framework yields a set of 11 propositions regarding fans’ interactions with both team and sponsorship brands highlighting how to strengthen the bond between fans, teams, and sponsors. It provides a comprehensive understanding of this phenomenon and identifies opportunities to increase fan support and the appeal of professional teams to potential sponsors. Originality/value – This study extends previous research by providing a unique conceptual framework that highlights the importance of understanding how fans view both the team brand and the sponsor brand. Several suggestions for future studies and strategies to increase the benefits for both teams and sponsors can be drawn from this framework.
We examined the influence of vicarious achievement and team identification on BIRGing and CORFing... more We examined the influence of vicarious achievement and team identification on BIRGing and CORFing behavior. We tested three different models (direct effects, partially mediated, and fully mediated) across two different situations: BIRGing with the winning team and (X)RFing with the losing team. Data were collected from 246 students. The fully mediated model fit best in the BIRGing situation and the partially mediated model fit best in the CXlRFini; situation. We found that vicarious achievement explained 12.7% to 16.9% of the variance in team identification across sit-uations. Vicarious achievement explained approxi-mately 17".b of the variance in t^ORFing behavior, but none in BIRGing. Team identification explained 30% oí the variance in GORFing behavior and 41% in BIRGing. It is critical for sport teams to develop a high level of identification in their spectators. High identifi-cation makes it less likely that people will CORF and more likely that people will BIRG.
Testing Models of Motives and Points of Attachment. Boyun Woo 1 , Galen T. Trail 1 , Hyungil H. K... more Testing Models of Motives and Points of Attachment. Boyun Woo 1 , Galen T. Trail 1 , Hyungil H. Kwon 2 and Dean F. Anderson 3 , (1)The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, (2)National Institute of Education, Singapore, Singapore, (3)Iowa State University, Ames, IA Purpose. ...
International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship
PurposeThis paper aims to determine if single-item (SI) needs' and values' measures have ... more PurposeThis paper aims to determine if single-item (SI) needs' and values' measures have similar reliability and validity values to multi-item (MI) measures of the same constructs and thus could be substituted by sport marketers to predict internal motivating aspects of sport consumer attitudes and behavior. In addition, the authors wish to determine whether a small subset of needs and values listed in current measures are sufficient to predict sport consumer attitudes and behavior.Design/methodology/approachIn this two-study design, the first study was a national sample (N = 439) comparing reliability and validity of single-item scales to multi-item scales. In the second study the authors collected data from fans and spectators of four different teams (N1 = 583; N2 = 1164; N3 = 213; N4 = 404) to determine the impact of needs and values on sport consumer attitudes and behavior.FindingsThe authors determined that in 89% of the scales, single-item measures of needs and values ...
Research question: The sport industry has deepened its commitment to implementing and deploying e... more Research question: The sport industry has deepened its commitment to implementing and deploying environmental sustainability initiatives. However, until this study there were no uniform ways to evaluate these efforts. To this end, the purpose of this study is to create and test the sport sustainability campaign evaluation model among sport participants of a 10-mile run event. Research methods: We tested the fit of the sport sustainability campaign evaluation model using 531 participants of a community run. Results and Findings: Needs, values, internal constraints, and points of attachment explained 52.1% of the variance in attitudes toward the campaign. Attitudes, external constraints, past behavior and all of the indirect effects of the other variables combined, explained 74.2% of the variance in participating in sustainability initiatives. Sport professionals can use this model to assess environmental sustainability campaigns and promote attitudinal and sustainable behaviors. Implications: The findings of this study have important implications for sport managers and marketers as they create and further advance their organization's sustainability campaigns. Understanding the needs and values of sport participants can help marketers and managers determine how those needs and values affect positive attitudes towards the campaign. Increasing the positive attitudes towards the campaign, while minimizing the negative influence of external constraints to act sustainably, can increase sustainable behavioral intentions and thus increase the success of the sport organization's sustainability campaign. This model can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of sustainability campaigns to influence attitudes and behaviors of sport participants.
International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, 2017
Purpose Previous research has focused on the antecedents of fan loyalty or the link between fans ... more Purpose Previous research has focused on the antecedents of fan loyalty or the link between fans and the team on sponsorship reactions, but no comprehensive framework has been developed to combine these perspectives. The purpose of this paper is to present an integrated framework of how team brand experience during the season impacts sponsorship brand experience. Design/methodology/approach To create the conceptual model, a comprehensive search of peer-reviewed articles was conducted in electronic databases and journal reference lists. The authors identified constructs from prior research aimed at understanding sponsorship effectiveness. These constructs not only included aspects of the sponsorship brand experience, but also aspects within the team brand experience that form the link between consumers’ responses derived from team-related stimuli and the responses evoked by sponsor-related stimuli. Findings This conceptual framework yields a set of 11 propositions regarding fans’ int...
International Journal of Sport Communication, 2008
Sport video games (SVGs) are a popular form of sport media and sponsorship, and advertising in SV... more Sport video games (SVGs) are a popular form of sport media and sponsorship, and advertising in SVGs is increasingly common. This study assessed the effectiveness of SVG in-game advertisements in 3 consumption domains: cognitive, affective, and conative. An experimental study was designed with 89 gamers randomly assigned to 1 of 2 conditions: (a) experimental, playing an SVG with advertisements, or (b) control, playing an SVG without advertisements. Consumption background and identification level were incorporated as covariates to ensure group equivalence. Participants responded to a questionnaire measuring brand awareness, brand attitude, and purchase intentions. MANCOVA revealed that after controlling for the effect of covariate variables, the experimental group had a significantly (p < .05) greater mean brand-awareness score than the control group. Mean brand-attitude and purchase-intention scores were not significantly (p > .05) different between groups. The findings indica...
Acceptance rates of quality journals in the sport management field are typically below 20%. We ha... more Acceptance rates of quality journals in the sport management field are typically below 20%. We have identified seven problems that often prevent submitted manuscripts from being accepted: (1) Failure to derive research from theory and/or a failure to consider more than one potential theory to support the research. (2) No synthesis of existing, similar information already published within the sport field. (3) A lack of assessment of the validity of prior research. (4) Creation of new scales when existing scales work sufficiently well. (5) Limiting potential explanatory variance. (6) Not reporting the variance explained and/or a failure to discuss the meaningfulness of the results. (7) A lack of reporting viable alternative explanations when the data do not support the hypotheses or focal model. We discuss each of these issues and provide examples, both good and bad.
Marketing Opportunities and Challenges in a Changing Global Marketplace, 2020
Sport organizations are attempting to reduce their environmental impact but have difficulty in ma... more Sport organizations are attempting to reduce their environmental impact but have difficulty in managing stakeholders’ behaviors. To combat this challenge, sport organizations have increased the sophistication of their environmental sustainability initiatives to include stakeholder engagement campaigns. Until recently, no guidelines have been provided to sport organizations on how to evaluate the effectiveness of current communication strategies to convey the organization’s prioritization of sustainability initiatives. This research extends and evaluates the sport sustainability campaign evaluation model (SSCEM; Trail and McCullough 2019), using a sport organization’s (the Games’) sustainability initiative across multiple campaigns (waste diversion, transportation, energy conservation, and water conservation) and across time. The SSCEM depicts that needs and values influence attitudes toward sustainability campaigns. Furthermore, internal constraints have a negative effect on attitud...
Research question: The sport industry has deepened its commitment to implementing and deploying e... more Research question: The sport industry has deepened its commitment to implementing and deploying environmental sustainability initiatives. However, until this study there were no uniform ways to evaluate these efforts. To this end, the purpose of this study is to create and test the sport sustainability campaign evaluation model among sport participants of a 10-mile run event. Research methods: We tested the fit of the sport sustainability campaign evaluation model using 531 participants of a community run. Results and Findings: Needs, values, internal constraints, and points of attachment explained 52.1% of the variance in attitudes toward the campaign. Attitudes, external constraints, past behavior and all of the indirect effects of the other variables combined, explained 74.2% of the variance in participating in sustainability initiatives. Sport professionals can use this model to assess environmental sustainability campaigns and promote attitudinal and sustainable behaviors. Implications: The findings of this study have important implications for sport managers and marketers as they create and further advance their organization’s sustainability campaigns. Understanding the needs and values of sport participants can help marketers and managers determine how those needs and values affect positive attitudes towards the campaign. Increasing the positive attitudes towards the campaign, while minimizing the negative influence of external constraints to act sustainably, can increase sustainable behavioral intentions and thus increase the success of the sport organization’s sustainability campaign. This model can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of sustainability campaigns to influence attitudes and behaviors of sport participants.
International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, 2017
Purpose – Previous research has focused on the antecedents of fan loyalty or the link between fan... more Purpose – Previous research has focused on the antecedents of fan loyalty or the link between fans and the team on sponsorship reactions, but no comprehensive framework has been developed to combine these perspectives. The purpose of this paper is to present an integrated framework of how team brand experience during the season impacts sponsorship brand experience. Design/methodology/approach – To create the conceptual model, a comprehensive search of peer-reviewed articles was conducted in electronic databases and journal reference lists. The authors identified constructs from prior research aimed at understanding sponsorship effectiveness. These constructs not only included aspects of the sponsorship brand experience, but also aspects within the team brand experience that form the link between consumers’ responses derived from team-related stimuli and the responses evoked by sponsor-related stimuli. Findings – This conceptual framework yields a set of 11 propositions regarding fans’ interactions with both team and sponsorship brands highlighting how to strengthen the bond between fans, teams, and sponsors. It provides a comprehensive understanding of this phenomenon and identifies opportunities to increase fan support and the appeal of professional teams to potential sponsors. Originality/value – This study extends previous research by providing a unique conceptual framework that highlights the importance of understanding how fans view both the team brand and the sponsor brand. Several suggestions for future studies and strategies to increase the benefits for both teams and sponsors can be drawn from this framework.
We examined the influence of vicarious achievement and team identification on BIRGing and CORFing... more We examined the influence of vicarious achievement and team identification on BIRGing and CORFing behavior. We tested three different models (direct effects, partially mediated, and fully mediated) across two different situations: BIRGing with the winning team and (X)RFing with the losing team. Data were collected from 246 students. The fully mediated model fit best in the BIRGing situation and the partially mediated model fit best in the CXlRFini; situation. We found that vicarious achievement explained 12.7% to 16.9% of the variance in team identification across sit-uations. Vicarious achievement explained approxi-mately 17".b of the variance in t^ORFing behavior, but none in BIRGing. Team identification explained 30% oí the variance in GORFing behavior and 41% in BIRGing. It is critical for sport teams to develop a high level of identification in their spectators. High identifi-cation makes it less likely that people will CORF and more likely that people will BIRG.
Sport Consumer Behavior (2nd ed.) was designed to help sport marketers (current and soon to be) b... more Sport Consumer Behavior (2nd ed.) was designed to help sport marketers (current and soon to be) better understand sport consumers. Topics covered in the book include: - Sport consumer behavior in general - Theories of consumer behavior - The use of segmentation to identify key consumer groups - How people become sport consumers in the first place - Motivators of sport consumer behavior (e.g., culture, personality, needs and values, market demand characteristics) - The impact of (dis)confirmation, satisfaction, and self‐esteem building on repatronage. Trail and James have provided a resource through which sport industry professionals, and emerging professionals, learn about the different factors—internal and external—that impact the behavior of sport consumers. Building and maintaining relationships begins with better understanding the behavior of sport consumers.
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Papers by Galen Trail
Research methods: We tested the fit of the sport sustainability campaign evaluation model using 531 participants of a community run.
Results and Findings: Needs, values, internal constraints, and points of attachment explained 52.1% of the variance in attitudes toward the campaign. Attitudes, external constraints, past behavior and all of the indirect effects of the other variables combined, explained 74.2% of the variance in participating in sustainability initiatives. Sport professionals can use this model to assess environmental sustainability campaigns and promote attitudinal and sustainable behaviors.
Implications: The findings of this study have important implications for sport managers and marketers as they create and further advance their organization’s sustainability campaigns. Understanding the needs and values of sport participants can help marketers and managers determine how those needs and values affect positive attitudes towards the campaign. Increasing the positive attitudes towards the campaign, while minimizing the negative influence of external constraints to act sustainably, can increase sustainable behavioral intentions and thus increase the success of the sport organization’s sustainability campaign. This model can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of sustainability campaigns to influence attitudes and behaviors of sport participants.
perspectives. The purpose of this paper is to present an integrated framework of how team brand experience during the season impacts sponsorship brand experience.
Design/methodology/approach – To create the conceptual model, a comprehensive search of peer-reviewed articles was conducted in electronic databases and journal reference lists. The authors identified constructs from prior research aimed at understanding sponsorship effectiveness. These constructs not only included aspects of the sponsorship brand experience, but also aspects within the team brand
experience that form the link between consumers’ responses derived from team-related stimuli and the responses evoked by sponsor-related stimuli.
Findings – This conceptual framework yields a set of 11 propositions regarding fans’ interactions with both team and sponsorship brands highlighting how to strengthen the bond between fans, teams, and sponsors. It provides a comprehensive understanding of this phenomenon and identifies opportunities to increase fan support and the appeal of professional teams to potential sponsors.
Originality/value – This study extends previous research by providing a unique conceptual framework that highlights the importance of understanding how fans view both the team brand and the sponsor brand. Several suggestions for future studies and strategies to increase the benefits for both teams and sponsors can be drawn from this framework.
Research methods: We tested the fit of the sport sustainability campaign evaluation model using 531 participants of a community run.
Results and Findings: Needs, values, internal constraints, and points of attachment explained 52.1% of the variance in attitudes toward the campaign. Attitudes, external constraints, past behavior and all of the indirect effects of the other variables combined, explained 74.2% of the variance in participating in sustainability initiatives. Sport professionals can use this model to assess environmental sustainability campaigns and promote attitudinal and sustainable behaviors.
Implications: The findings of this study have important implications for sport managers and marketers as they create and further advance their organization’s sustainability campaigns. Understanding the needs and values of sport participants can help marketers and managers determine how those needs and values affect positive attitudes towards the campaign. Increasing the positive attitudes towards the campaign, while minimizing the negative influence of external constraints to act sustainably, can increase sustainable behavioral intentions and thus increase the success of the sport organization’s sustainability campaign. This model can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of sustainability campaigns to influence attitudes and behaviors of sport participants.
perspectives. The purpose of this paper is to present an integrated framework of how team brand experience during the season impacts sponsorship brand experience.
Design/methodology/approach – To create the conceptual model, a comprehensive search of peer-reviewed articles was conducted in electronic databases and journal reference lists. The authors identified constructs from prior research aimed at understanding sponsorship effectiveness. These constructs not only included aspects of the sponsorship brand experience, but also aspects within the team brand
experience that form the link between consumers’ responses derived from team-related stimuli and the responses evoked by sponsor-related stimuli.
Findings – This conceptual framework yields a set of 11 propositions regarding fans’ interactions with both team and sponsorship brands highlighting how to strengthen the bond between fans, teams, and sponsors. It provides a comprehensive understanding of this phenomenon and identifies opportunities to increase fan support and the appeal of professional teams to potential sponsors.
Originality/value – This study extends previous research by providing a unique conceptual framework that highlights the importance of understanding how fans view both the team brand and the sponsor brand. Several suggestions for future studies and strategies to increase the benefits for both teams and sponsors can be drawn from this framework.
- Sport consumer behavior in general
- Theories of consumer behavior
- The use of segmentation to identify key consumer groups
- How people become sport consumers in the first place
- Motivators of sport consumer behavior (e.g., culture, personality, needs and values, market demand characteristics)
- The impact of (dis)confirmation, satisfaction, and self‐esteem building on repatronage.
Trail and James have provided a resource through which sport industry professionals, and emerging professionals, learn about the different factors—internal and external—that impact the behavior of sport consumers. Building and maintaining relationships begins with better understanding the behavior of sport consumers.