Papers by Raymond W . K . Lau
Despite remaining under the heavy influence of Eurocentrism, Needham called for overcoming it. Cr... more Despite remaining under the heavy influence of Eurocentrism, Needham called for overcoming it. Critics of Eurocentrism have taken up this call and argue for what we call the inter-civilizational cross fertilization (ICCF) perspective, pointing out the role of knowledge transmissions from non-European civilizations to Europe in the rise of modern science. Contemporary Eurocentric scholars, on the one hand, critique the ICCF perspective on the bases of the issue of evidence and of the purported culture-boundedness of scientific knowledge; and, on the other, insist on the importance of scholarly tradition, values, drives and so on with reference to Europe. Many ICCF supporters refuse to consider the last-mentioned variables as they are invariably interpreted by Eurocentric and anti-Eurocentric scholars alike in essentialist terms, and hence are forced to rely exclusively on the above-mentioned knowledge transmissions. We call this position transmissionism. Both Eurocentrism and transmissionism are misguided. With regard to Eurocentrism, the issue of evidence is misconceived by Eurocentric scholars while the argument of culture-boundedness is based upon a conceptual confusion. With regard to transmissionism, scholarly tradition, etc. do indeed constitute important explanatory variables, and not taking them into account weakens the ICCF perspective. With regard to both Eurocentrism and transmissionism, these variables can be fully accounted for in nonessentialist terms. By going beyond transmissionism in critiquing Eurocentrism, the ICCF perspective is enriched and strengthened. keeping and so on. Having stated the above, he went on to say: 'It is hence our first concern to work out and to explain genetically the special peculiarity of Occidental rationalism', concerning which he said: When we find again and again that, even in departments of life apparently mutually independent, certain types of rationalization have developed in the Occident, and only there, it would be natural to suspect that the most important reason lay in differences in heredity. The author admits that he is inclined to think the importance of biological heredity very great (pp xxxix, xlii). Weber admitted that science had not yet been able to prove 'biological heredity', hence, in the meantime, the sociologist would have to make do with seeking an explanation of the 'peculiarity of Occidental rationalism' 'from the peculiarities of the social structure of the Occident' (p xxxvii), in comparison with that of other civilizations. Thus, for Weber, as part and parcel of his 'forms of rationality' thesis, modern science emerged in Europe but not in other civilizations (the double NQ) because of their different 'forms of rationality', which derive ultimately, Weber believed, from differences in 'biological heredity', and certainly from differences in these civilizations' 'social structures'. Weber's answer is relevant to the consideration of the NQ right up to the present day. In Weber's conception, different civilizations are like different watertight compartments, with each independently and autonomously developing its own particular 'forms of rationality' on the basis of purely internal factors. If inter-civilizational cultural exchanges are acknowledged within this conception, such exchanges are assumed to have no significant effect on each civilization's own independent and autonomous development. We call such a conception, with reference to the 'West', 3 the autochthonous 'Western' development (AWD 4) paradigm. To refer to modern science, the AWD paradigm believes that modern science arose out of the autochthonous development of the 'West' on the basis of purely endogenous or pristinely or uniquely 5 'Western' factors. These factors fall into several categories, what Weber called 'biological heredity', social factors (Weber's 'the peculiarities of the social structure'), and, adding to Weber's scheme, cultural factors. We refer to the beliefs in 'biological heredity' biopsychological essentialism, in social factors social essentialism, and in cultural factors cultural essentialism. In the above quotes, Weber was a believer in the former two, though he was certainly also a believer in the last as well. With racist theory now abandoned by most scholars, AWD paradigm supporters mainly rely on social and/or cultural essentialism. The above beliefs are called essentialist because they speak of a purported 'essence', whether of a 'racial', social or cultural kind. Thus, essentialism in general refers to the view that a particular society's development is due to factors unique to that society which have arisen in that society through purely endogenous dynamics. In historical explanation, factors endogenous to a particular society are certainly 3 The reason why we put the term West and its cognates in quotation marks, except in quotes from other scholars, will be explained in section 4. 4 With reference to the previous note, since putting a letter in an acronym in quotes is odd and inconvenient, we use, reluctantly, AWD instead of A'W'D. 5 The terms endogenous, internal, pristine, unique and their cognates are used synonymously in the present paper.
Asian Philosophy, 2021
In the ‘Cook Ding cutting up an ox’ parable, Zhuangzi advanced a doctrine on craft and its relati... more In the ‘Cook Ding cutting up an ox’ parable, Zhuangzi advanced a doctrine on craft and its relationship with Dao. With reference to Merleau-Ponty’s philosophy in conjunction with an analysis of Zhuangzi’s epistemological position, we argue that Zhuangzi understood craft as involving the supersession of the cognitive. In craft, the relationship between human and world is non-cognitive and ‘pre-objective’, the living of this kind of relationship gives rise to a non-cognitive ‘practical sense’ which enables the craftsman’s movements to spontaneously constitute wuwei. Zhuangzi’s ideal is that this kind of relationship is generalized to life as a whole, thereby enabling human actions to spontaneously constitute wuwei generally. This is why he stipulated ‘doing away with knowing’ as a self-cultivation technique required for attaining Dao. Thus, craft constitutes an embodiment of Dao in the double-sense of wuwei and the non-cognitive and ‘pre-objective’ relationship between human and world which enables wuwei.
新亞學報, 2019
《莊子》說「不知之知」等，又對是非爭辯提出質疑，但莊子不是不可知論者，相反，他相信真理。他所有立說，包括提出上述質疑，都建基於對認知的肯定。對認知予以肯定的莊子之所以提出上述質疑，是由他的人生哲... more 《莊子》說「不知之知」等，又對是非爭辯提出質疑，但莊子不是不可知論者，相反，他相信真理。他所有立說，包括提出上述質疑，都建基於對認知的肯定。對認知予以肯定的莊子之所以提出上述質疑，是由他的人生哲學所決定的。外物的莊子厭惡智巧（含機心地運用心智），他認為之所以出現是非之爭，純粹產生自智巧所帶來的偏見，所以，如果能去除機心從而消除偏見，便不會出現是非之爭，而人便能得出不含是非爭辯的究極真理。機心這個價值判斷構成了莊子整個認識論的出發點，而就是這個出發點注定了該理論最終要失敗。有一種流行觀點從認識論角度把體道誤解為對究極真理的體認。其實，體道不是關於真理的。雖然莊子對認知予以肯定，他的終極理想是超越認知。當人不把物作為認知對象，而與它們生活於經驗實踐性的關係中，人便達到與天地同遊、跟萬物無隔之道的境界。體道便是對在這境界下的生活之體驗。上述誤解緣於莊子用詞多歧義，而又偏好於以悖論形式來立論，從而使人產生不少混淆。莊子提出超越認知這個他知道不能完全實現的理想，不是要人像文盲般的無知，而是要反省人在自然界的位置。
Zhuangzi is popularly taken to be an anti-rationalist and a supporter of unknowability, but this is mistaken. In fact, Zhuangzi believes in truth, his whole theoretical practice, including his querying of debating right and wrong, is premised upon an endorsement of cognitive knowing. Zhuangzi is driven to query debating right and wrong by his life philosophy. Despising the pursuit of power and material things, Zhuangzi hates cleverness (zhiqiao), that is, the use of intelligence with an improper motive. In his view, improper motive inevitably brings prejudice (chengxin), and it is prejudice that leads to debating right and wrong. Hence, if people can do away with improper motive thereby eliminating prejudice, they will be able to arrive at the ultimate truth which is above right and wrong. As a value judgment, improper motive constitutes the starting point of Zhuangzi’s epistemology, and it is this very starting point that destines his entire epistemology to failure. There is a common misunderstanding that tidao (experiencing Dao) means arriving at a cognitive ultimate truth through some experiential revelation. In fact, tidao has nothing to do with truth. Although Zhuangzi endorses cognitive knowing, his ultimate ideal is to go beyond it. When people do not treat things as cognitive objects, but simply live with them in a relationship of experiential practice, they will attain the state of Dao. Tidao is precisely the experience of living in such a state. The above misunderstanding of tidao has arisen from two practices of Zhuangzi which have caused much conflation: On the one hand, Zhuangzi is very loose with terminology (the term Dao is used in a number of different senses), on the other, Zhuangzi has a preference for advancing arguments by means of paradoxes. In putting forth the idea of Dao as a state of going beyond cognitive knowing, Zhuangzi’s objective is not that people should become illiterate and ignorant, but to rethink humankind’s position in nature.
Constructionism has always carried potential problems for journalism studies, for whereas news is... more Constructionism has always carried potential problems for journalism studies, for whereas news is supposed to be about facts and reality, constructionism problematizes these very concepts. This paper bears upon this tension by revisiting the proposition that news constructs reality. This proposition is fruitful but has so far been argued on the faulty theoretical grounds of constructionism. We show how founders of the constructionist perspective in news failed to establish a sound case due to constructionism’s inherent theoretical problems. Subsequent studies admit to these problems but side-step them; further, many involve a dilution of the construction concept and/or fail to pay due attention to what precisely is meant by reality construction by news, instead of through news. A realist-discourse-theoretic approach is proposed to establish the proposition of news constructing reality on a sound theoretical basis. This is done on the basis of realism and by means of adapting constructionism’s central thesis that the outcome of discursive contention is decided upon exclusively by non-epistemic or extra-discursive factors, modify it, ground it on realist basis, and incorporate it into the realist position. The characteristics of news-making are conceptualized as a particular category of extra-discursive factors, which in particular types of cases, can play a central role in the construction of reality, thereby constituting reality construction by news. Empirical illustrations are provided. Our analysis should be able to contribute to resolving the tension mentioned at the beginning.
荀子性惡論歷來備受非議；近年，一些學者試圖為它「平反」。荀子對性惡論的理論性質之理解，是以它作為一個經驗事實性學說而非道德哲學，即相近於今天之社會科學理論。性惡論不僅含有初始社會學和心理學意識（... more 荀子性惡論歷來備受非議；近年，一些學者試圖為它「平反」。荀子對性惡論的理論性質之理解，是以它作為一個經驗事實性學說而非道德哲學，即相近於今天之社會科學理論。性惡論不僅含有初始社會學和心理學意識（這為一般之評價），它更體現出一系列十分現代之具體概念、理解及論證方法。性惡論之社會學不遜色於很多現代社會學理論，而它之心理學與二十世紀初佛洛依德所提出之精神結構論驚奇的相似。本文先就現有文獻作簡單回顧及評價，繼而說明荀子以性惡論為經驗事實性學說之根據，之後詳細分析性惡論以上各方面之成就，最後以性惡論不足之處作結。本文從社會科學觀點進行分析，冀能給性惡論研究帶來一些新的角度。
For centuries, numerous Western scholars have argued that Chinese writing is concrete-bound and h... more For centuries, numerous Western scholars have argued that Chinese writing is concrete-bound and hence inhibitive of abstract thinking in pre-modern China, while alphabetic writing is abstract, and hence enabling of abstract thinking. This longstanding and popular view, while originating in Europe, has also had considerable impact in Chinese and other non-Western academic circles. The present paper devises a special-purpose historical-sociological framework in order to examine, in a theoretically-informed way, writing’s invention and subsequent development in Mesopotamia/the East Mediterranean area and China, on the basis of which the concrete-bound-versus-abstract distinction between different writing systems is debunked. The claim concerning the supposed effects of writing system on mode of thinking is then shown to be theoretically vacuous, logically illegitimate, as well as empirically ill-informed concerning ancient Chinese thoughts. The present paper’s analysis complements that of scholars who show that the ancient Chinese language was not (grammatically or otherwise) inhibitive of abstract logical thinking and reasoning.
學術界一向把老子之自然哲學視作形上學和形容道為「形上實存」。「形上實存」指存在於時間空間以外，英文稱作transcendent。現代科學表明，實在不局限於經驗界，但科學之超經驗層級存在於時空以內... more 學術界一向把老子之自然哲學視作形上學和形容道為「形上實存」。「形上實存」指存在於時間空間以外，英文稱作transcendent。現代科學表明，實在不局限於經驗界，但科學之超經驗層級存在於時空以內。現代科學哲學中之科學實在論稱「感察不到但實存於時空以內」作unobservable。老子之道正符合unobservable之理解，而不屬於違反現代科學精神之transcendent。廣義上，把老子之自然哲學視作形上學並無不可，但有欠精準，因為道指涉unobservable，而unobservable乃科學哲學之專門概念，而非形上學之一般概念。「形而上」一詞出自《易傳‧系辭上》「形而上者謂之道」這一句。日本學者井上哲次郎按這一句把歐美哲學中之metaphysics譯作形而上學。其實，〈系辭上〉「形而上」的意義是承老子而指涉unobservable，井上以「形而上」這詞來翻譯metaphysics卻把它理解為指涉transcendent，故他這一譯並不符合〈系辭上〉的原來意義。本文就以上作出詳細分析，而為給老子之自然哲學作出充份說明，本文除討論老子外，還把他跟莊子之氣概念、《易傳》及古希臘之相關學說作出比較。
Annals of Tourism Research, Sep 2013
My article 'Tourist sights as semiotic signs: a critical commentary' (Annals of Tourism Research,... more My article 'Tourist sights as semiotic signs: a critical commentary' (Annals of Tourism Research, 2011, 38(2), pp 711-4) has been singled out for critique from a post-modernist standpoint. It and another article of mine titled 'Revisiting authenticity: a social realist approach' (Annals of Tourism Research, 2010, 37(2), pp 478-98) have then together been critiqued for alleged 'essentialism'. In this anti-critique, I first show how it is my critics, and not me, who commits a conflation between the two founders of semiotic theory, Saussure and Peirce; after which I note the need to integrate the insights of realism and constructionism/ discourse theory. To better appreciate this latter point, it would be useful to read my paper 'Integrating discourse, construction and objectivity: a contemporary realist approach', which is available 'online first' wef Sep 2013 at the website of the journal Sociology. My critics appear to me to be naïve post-modernists whose understanding of the debate between realism and constructionism remains at the stage of the late 1970s to early 1980s. In the first draft of my anti-critique, I included the following comments, which, however, had to be cut out at the journalist's suggestion:
Sociology, Sep 2013
In recent developments in the realism-constructionism debate, attempts have been made by individu... more In recent developments in the realism-constructionism debate, attempts have been made by individual scholars on both sides to assimilate the other side's insights into one's own position. With respect to epistemology, such attempts have so far failed. Situated in this context, this paper proposes a general approach in which valid insights from constructionism, discourse theory,
Constructionism has always carried potential problems for journalism studies, for whereas news is... more Constructionism has always carried potential problems for journalism studies, for whereas news is supposed to be about facts and reality, constructionism problematizes these very concepts. This paper bears upon this tension by revisiting the proposition that news constructs reality. This proposition is fruitful but has so far been argued on the faulty theoretical grounds of constructionism. We show how founders of the constructionist perspective in news failed to establish a sound case due to constructionism's inherent theoretical problems. Subsequent studies admit to these problems but side-step them; further, many involve a dilution of the construction concept and/or fail to pay due attention to what precisely is meant by reality construction by news, instead of through news. A realist-discourse-theoretic approach is proposed to establish the proposition of news constructing reality on a sound theoretical basis. This is done on the basis of realism and by means of adapting constructionism's central thesis that the outcome of discursive contention is decided upon exclusively by non-epistemic or extra-discursive factors, modify it, ground it on realist basis, and incorporate it into the realist position. The characteristics of news-making are conceptualized as a particular category of extra-discursive factors, which in particular types of cases, can play a central role in the construction of reality, thereby constituting reality construction by news. Empirical illustrations are provided. Our analysis should be able to contribute to resolving the tension mentioned at the beginning.
This paper examines urban China's socio-political control crisis under the impact of economic ref... more This paper examines urban China's socio-political control crisis under the impact of economic reforms as an epitome of a more general social crisis. The traditional urban institutional form of socio-political control in the People's Republic of China (PRC), the work unit form of control, is a variant of age-old forms. The latter's reproduction in variant form in the former was premised upon the fact that the PRC's industrialization was carried out by a peasant-based party creating a new working class of rural migrants engaged in non-market production and exchange. The persistence of non-market economic relations ensured this form of control's continued reproduction. Post-1978 market-oriented reforms have undermined this form. As the emergence of new forms has been slow, a socio-political control crisis has arisen, at a time when millions of urban employees are being thrown out of work. In dealing with the crisis, the official trade union, an organic constituent institution of the work unit form of control, plays a prominent part, in being given the tasks of sustaining this decaying form, and preventing and defusing potential social explosion. Yet, the very economic reform program that has undermined the work unit form of control, is also gravely weakening the union.
This article examines the contemporary trends of therapy and life-'skills' training. Several inte... more This article examines the contemporary trends of therapy and life-'skills' training. Several interrelated implications are drawn for the understanding of contemporary modernity. There is a continued modernist belief in the attainability of complete control in life, and faith in knowledge/expertise and instrumental rational control. Hence, life's contingencies are construed as eliminable or resolvable 'problems', instead of unavoidable and given. There is a disempowerment of individuals who are thus rendered dependent on 'experts'; correlatedly, there is a diminution of individual agency (responsibility) concerning the consequences of life choices and decisions, and the handling of life's contingencies. These implications are at odds with the theses on contemporary modernity advanced by Giddens, Beck and Bauman. Enhanced empirical research into the diminution of individual agency has both scholarly and practical significance.
Accelerated state-induced market-oriented reforms in China threaten to catalyze labor explosion. ... more Accelerated state-induced market-oriented reforms in China threaten to catalyze labor explosion. How would the official trade union act in this situation? Focusing on a previously unexplored issue of the question, namely, that of China's unionists as social agents, this paper analyzes the "logic of practice" of China's unionists by means of Pierre Bourdieu's social agency concept of habitus. The unionists' habitus is examined, and it is shown how it generates practices that reproduce the unionists' spontaneous and unforced subordination, as part and parcel of the state, to the Party in managing labor on behalf of the state, so as to facilitate the implementation of market-oriented reforms. The implications of the analysis for the paradigmatic 'dualist' and its derivative 'corporatist' models of China's union are drawn out.
MacCannell's thesis of tourism incorporates two implied inter-linked concepts of authenticity, wh... more MacCannell's thesis of tourism incorporates two implied inter-linked concepts of authenticity, which we refer to as relationship and object authenticities. Underpinned by the social realist perspective, we argue for authenticity to be conceptualized solely as object authenticity, delinked from other concepts. The concept is developed through critically examining MacCannell's thesis and Cohen's development of it; explicating the concept and scrutinizing the various senses of the word authenticity pertaining to it; extending the scope of tourist objects beyond the socialcultural-historical horizon; and explaining how the concept can accommodate a role for construction and discourse. The concept is then situated within the contemporary discursive field in tourism research concerning authenticity, underlining the importance of recognizing the different natures of the various conceptions.
Bourdieu confuses himself and others by calling his project a 'transcendence' of the objectivist-... more Bourdieu confuses himself and others by calling his project a 'transcendence' of the objectivist-subjectivist antinomy. Contrary to claims, Bourdieu's methodology and theoretical premises are directly opposed to phenomenological social constructivism, though he makes use of several key phenomenological concepts. Habitus enriches the objectivist perspective by specifying a partial theory of agency which, contrary to critics, is non-reductionist. Habitus' current formulation and usage brim with inconsistencies and ambiguities. It is non-reflective but not corporeal; it should not be equated to cultural capital; it is specifiable into concrete components instead of being 'difficult to specify empirically'. The concepts of practical logic and doxa are connatural to habitus, but the concept of strategy derives from a different premise and is non-essential to habitus. The above interpretation derives from the critical realist view. An empirical study of China's trade unionists is provided for illustration.
In recent years, a culture of blame has arisen in certain economically advanced societies which r... more In recent years, a culture of blame has arisen in certain economically advanced societies which rules out the unexpected mishap. Its nature is theorized with reference to Mary Douglas' blame theory. A genealogy of the modern concept of accident shows that the conceptual distinction between the foreseeable and the unforeseeable becomes meaningful under a secular cosmology. Since contemporary society is secular, how the culture of blame is able, despite this meaningfulness, to delegitimize the unexpected is analyzed by tracing it to the modernist mentality itself. Why the culture of blame has arisen is shown by tracing its emergence to neo-liberalism's ascendance. By showing, with reference to Garfinkel and others, why the unexpected is intrinsic to social life, and by combining the lay and Marx's meanings of the term fetishism, it is explained why the culture of blame's mentality constitutes a fetishization of the modernist mentality. Illustrative cases are given. The culture of blame's implications for understanding contemporary modernity vis-à-vis Giddens', Beck's and Bauman's theories are discussed. The entrenchedness of the culture of blame is examined from a discursive angle.
Critical realism enables a fresh look at news production. The prevailing typology in the sociolog... more Critical realism enables a fresh look at news production. The prevailing typology in the sociology of news production is critiqued and supplemented by a distinction between extraneous factors constraining journalists and internal factors deriving from journalists themselves. While approaches focusing on extraneous factors are implicitly realist, the philosophical underpinnings of approaches focusing on internal factors are varied, with the result that anti-realist interpretations of news are prone to be made. To counteract this, realist accounts of the internal factors of news values and routine journalistic practices are provided. This enables a unified realist approach to news production. The implications of such a realist analysis for understanding news as a representation of reality are discussed.
Drafts by Raymond W . K . Lau
Despite remaining under the heavy influence of Eurocentrism, Needham called for overcoming it. Cr... more Despite remaining under the heavy influence of Eurocentrism, Needham called for overcoming it. Critics of Eurocentrism have taken up this call and argue for what we call the inter-civilizational cross fertilization (ICCF) perspective, pointing out the role of knowledge transmissions from non-European civilizations to Europe in the rise of modern science. Contemporary Eurocentric scholars, on the one hand, critique the ICCF perspective on the bases of the issue of evidence and of the purported culture-boundedness of scientific knowledge; and, on the other, insist on the importance of scholarly tradition, values, drives and so on with reference to Europe. Many ICCF supporters refuse to consider the last-mentioned variables as they are invariably interpreted by Eurocentric and anti-Eurocentric scholars alike in essentialist terms, and hence are forced to rely exclusively on the above-mentioned knowledge transmissions. We call this position transmissionism. Both Eurocentrism and transmissionism are misguided. With regard to Eurocentrism, the issue of evidence is misconceived by Eurocentric scholars while the argument of culture-boundedness is based upon a conceptual confusion. With regard to transmissionism, scholarly tradition, etc. do indeed constitute important explanatory variables, and not taking them into account weakens the ICCF perspective. With regard to both Eurocentrism and transmissionism, these variables can be fully accounted for in nonessentialist terms. By going beyond transmissionism in critiquing Eurocentrism, the ICCF perspective is enriched and strengthened.
The ‘democracy versus authoritarianism’ discourse targeted at China that Biden introduced since t... more The ‘democracy versus authoritarianism’ discourse targeted at China that Biden introduced since taking office in 2021 constitutes the othering of China as a distinct civilization and society, which embodies a profound intolerance of civilizational diversity. Under the dominance of the above discourse, to make such an argument is impermissible in Euro-American academia.
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Papers by Raymond W . K . Lau
Zhuangzi is popularly taken to be an anti-rationalist and a supporter of unknowability, but this is mistaken. In fact, Zhuangzi believes in truth, his whole theoretical practice, including his querying of debating right and wrong, is premised upon an endorsement of cognitive knowing. Zhuangzi is driven to query debating right and wrong by his life philosophy. Despising the pursuit of power and material things, Zhuangzi hates cleverness (zhiqiao), that is, the use of intelligence with an improper motive. In his view, improper motive inevitably brings prejudice (chengxin), and it is prejudice that leads to debating right and wrong. Hence, if people can do away with improper motive thereby eliminating prejudice, they will be able to arrive at the ultimate truth which is above right and wrong. As a value judgment, improper motive constitutes the starting point of Zhuangzi’s epistemology, and it is this very starting point that destines his entire epistemology to failure. There is a common misunderstanding that tidao (experiencing Dao) means arriving at a cognitive ultimate truth through some experiential revelation. In fact, tidao has nothing to do with truth. Although Zhuangzi endorses cognitive knowing, his ultimate ideal is to go beyond it. When people do not treat things as cognitive objects, but simply live with them in a relationship of experiential practice, they will attain the state of Dao. Tidao is precisely the experience of living in such a state. The above misunderstanding of tidao has arisen from two practices of Zhuangzi which have caused much conflation: On the one hand, Zhuangzi is very loose with terminology (the term Dao is used in a number of different senses), on the other, Zhuangzi has a preference for advancing arguments by means of paradoxes. In putting forth the idea of Dao as a state of going beyond cognitive knowing, Zhuangzi’s objective is not that people should become illiterate and ignorant, but to rethink humankind’s position in nature.
Drafts by Raymond W . K . Lau
Zhuangzi is popularly taken to be an anti-rationalist and a supporter of unknowability, but this is mistaken. In fact, Zhuangzi believes in truth, his whole theoretical practice, including his querying of debating right and wrong, is premised upon an endorsement of cognitive knowing. Zhuangzi is driven to query debating right and wrong by his life philosophy. Despising the pursuit of power and material things, Zhuangzi hates cleverness (zhiqiao), that is, the use of intelligence with an improper motive. In his view, improper motive inevitably brings prejudice (chengxin), and it is prejudice that leads to debating right and wrong. Hence, if people can do away with improper motive thereby eliminating prejudice, they will be able to arrive at the ultimate truth which is above right and wrong. As a value judgment, improper motive constitutes the starting point of Zhuangzi’s epistemology, and it is this very starting point that destines his entire epistemology to failure. There is a common misunderstanding that tidao (experiencing Dao) means arriving at a cognitive ultimate truth through some experiential revelation. In fact, tidao has nothing to do with truth. Although Zhuangzi endorses cognitive knowing, his ultimate ideal is to go beyond it. When people do not treat things as cognitive objects, but simply live with them in a relationship of experiential practice, they will attain the state of Dao. Tidao is precisely the experience of living in such a state. The above misunderstanding of tidao has arisen from two practices of Zhuangzi which have caused much conflation: On the one hand, Zhuangzi is very loose with terminology (the term Dao is used in a number of different senses), on the other, Zhuangzi has a preference for advancing arguments by means of paradoxes. In putting forth the idea of Dao as a state of going beyond cognitive knowing, Zhuangzi’s objective is not that people should become illiterate and ignorant, but to rethink humankind’s position in nature.