Objectives Self-reported criminal behaviour has the potential to provide clearer insights into pa... more Objectives Self-reported criminal behaviour has the potential to provide clearer insights into patterns of criminality compared to using police statistics. The risk of inaccurate responses however forms a major obstacle to its validity. This study therefore examines underreporting bias of self-reported criminal behaviour among five ethnic groups and compares different methods to facilitate the creation of valid intergroup comparisons. Methods This study includes data from the Monitor on Youthful Delinquency (N = 6,218) which was connected to police suspect registrations. To identify patterns of underreporting, we compared self-reported and police recorded crime with a social desirability measure, which was adjusted to be invariant across ethnic groups. Three different methods to correct for underreporting bias were subsequently compared; partialling out the effect of social desirability, listwise deletion, and a novel technique which we named Social Desirability based Score Replacement (SDSR). Results The study reveals that police suspects with a high social desirability score display a low likelihood to self-report crime when they have an ethnic minority background, but not when they have a native Dutch background or when they have a moderate to low social desirability score. This finding points towards systematic differences in underreporting bias. Model outcomes are shown to be significantly impacted depending on the method that is used to address this issue. Conclusion Neglecting to correct underreporting-bias hinders the validity of intergroup comparisons of self-reported criminal behaviour. The inclusion of a social desirability measure is therefore recommended to help identify and correct underreporting bias, particularly through the use of SDSR.
There is considerable international and local-level variation in immigrant crime. In this article... more There is considerable international and local-level variation in immigrant crime. In this article, we propose a theoretical model to better understand that contextual variation. Furthermore, we present the results of our first attempts to empirically assess the validity of the framework, focussing on local-level variation in crime among residents of Turkish or Moroccan origin in the Netherlands. The proposed model connects Berry's acculturation theory to criminological theories, using relevant findings from the immigration acculturation literature as starting points. It theorises that host societies with a ‘multicultural acculturation orientation’ tend to reduce immigrant crime by fostering informal social control and attenuating criminogenic strains. The empirical analyses explore whether local-level variation in multicultural attitudes among the native-Dutch indeed predicts municipal variation in the number of registered suspected crimes among first- and second-generation immi...
textabstractSamenvatting: Diverse EU-lidstaten, waaronder Nederland, hebben de afgelopen jaren ma... more textabstractSamenvatting: Diverse EU-lidstaten, waaronder Nederland, hebben de afgelopen jaren maatregelen genomen om partnermigratie te beperken. In 2004 verhoogde Nederland de inkomenseis voor ‘gezinsvorming’ van 100% naar 120% van het voltijds minimumloon. Dat normbedrag is hoger dan het inkomen van circa 30% van de werkende beroepsbevolking. Op basis van IND-gegevens, CBS gegevens en vijftig diepte-interviews onder internationale stellen is gekeken naar (1) de uitkomsten van de hogere inkomenseis voor de aard en omvang van partnermigratie en (2) de persoonlijke gevolgen voor internationale stellen die (aanvankelijk) niet aan de inkomenseis voldeden. We laten zien dat de potentiele macht van de nationale overheid om partnermigratie te beperken op gespannen voet staat met de waarde van een private familiesfeer. De partnermigratie naar Nederland daalde substantieel, vooral onder groepen met een zwakkere economische positie (niet-westerse minderheden, vrouwen en jongeren). Tegelijke...
This article considers the legitimacy deficits of immigration control in the eyes of unwanted mig... more This article considers the legitimacy deficits of immigration control in the eyes of unwanted migrants. We explore the consequences of globalisation-related changes in the institution of citizenship for the perceived legitimacy and operation of immigration control. The study is based on ethnographic research and in-depth interviews in 2018 with 35 migrants in the Detention Centre Rotterdam, the Netherlands. We find that immigration detainees use both denationalised and transnational/cosmopolitan definitions of citizenship and belonging to contest the legitimacy of restrictive admission requirements and, to a lesser extent, the authority of states to stipulate and implement admission requirements. Based on these narratives, immigration detainees engage in forms of resistance that are meant to diminish the likelihood of deportation (‘instrumental resistance’) and in forms of resistance that are unlikely to change the outcome of the deportation procedure yet do make immigration control...
Real and perceived risks of deportation may compromise the effective right of irregular migrants ... more Real and perceived risks of deportation may compromise the effective right of irregular migrants to report to the police if they have been a victim of crime. Some localities have therefore introduced so-called ‘firewall protection’, providing a clear separation between the provision of public services and immigration enforcement. This article explores one such policy in the Netherlands: ‘free in, free out’. While the policy began as a local pilot project, in 2015 it was introduced at the national-level alongside implementation of EU Victim’s Rights Directive, and currently represents the only national-level example of ‘firewall protection’ for victims of crime in Europe. This article is based on a socio-legal study that included interviews with informants from governmental and non-governmental organisations. It documents the legal and social reasons for instituting the policy, while critically assessing the challenges in implementation. Finally, it discusses the lessons and opportun...
There is considerable variation in how countries deal with the presence of migrants lacking a leg... more There is considerable variation in how countries deal with the presence of migrants lacking a legal right to stay. We present an analysis of the post-arrival migration enforcement regimes of European countries using a two-phased mixed-methods approach. The article (1) provides the currently best possible statistical overview of forced and assisted return in 12 European countries among rejected asylum seekers from six source countries, and (2) explores policy practices in six Western European and Scandinavian countries regarding deportability and effective non-deportability. While most rejected asylum seekers examined do not demonstrably return, we see highly divergent return patterns between host countries, and significant policy differences. The article thus shows the importance of better examining variation in post-arrival enforcement policies and their underlying interests and capacities. There is not one unified 'deportation regime'; there are at least four ideal-typical 'post-arrival enforcement regimes': thin, thick, targeted, and hampered.
... vermogensdelicten) en de gemiddelde ernstscore van dat delicttype ten opzichte van overige de... more ... vermogensdelicten) en de gemiddelde ernstscore van dat delicttype ten opzichte van overige delicttypen uit dezelfde catego-rie (bijvoorbeeld woninginbraak). ... Een belangrijke verdienste van het onderzoek is dat er aandacht uitgaat naar de invloed die de jeugdgroep uitoefent ...
Delikt En Delinkwent Tijdschrift Voor Strafrecht, 2009
Het strafrecht als vicieus sluitstuk van het beleid ten aanzien van criminele vreemdelingen. Het ... more Het strafrecht als vicieus sluitstuk van het beleid ten aanzien van criminele vreemdelingen. Het sluimerende probleem van de niet-uitzetbare ongewenst verklaarde vreemdelinÕ p grond van artikel 67 Vreemdelingenwet (Vw) kan een in Nederland verblijvende vreemdeling ongewenst worden verklaard. Dit kan bijvoorbeeld wanneer hij bij herhaling strafbare feiten pleegt of door de rechter is veroordeeld voor een misdrijf dat is bedreigd met een gevangenisstraf van drie jaar of meer. Als de ongewenst verklaarde vreemdeling toch in Nederland blijft, maakt hij zich schuldig aan het strafbare feit van artikel I97 Sr. In dit artikel laten we zien dat het beleid is aangescherpt in lijn met de retoriek van de harde aanpak. We laten ook zien dat het middel van de ongewenstverklaring steeds vaker wordt toegepast, zowel bij rechtmatig verblijvende vreemdelingen als bij illegalen': Een verkenning van de handhavingspraktijk brengt echter enkele problemen aan het licht. Zo zijn bij een deel van de ongewenste vreemdelingen de problemen met het uitzetten niet opgelost, maar verschoven. Ook is er een categorie vreemdelingen die in een vicieuze cirkel terechtkomt waarbij permanente strafbaarheid op grond van artikel I97 Sr bestaat maar de persoon ook het land niet kan worden uitgezet. In dit I Dominique Laagland is werkzaam bij het Arrondissementsparket te Den Haag, Joanne van der Leun en Patrick van der Meij zijn respectievelijk hoogleraar Criminologie en promovendus/docent bij het Instituut voor
2t3 categories (asylum seekers are registered in Eurodac) and 'suspect' countries of origin (visa... more 2t3 categories (asylum seekers are registered in Eurodac) and 'suspect' countries of origin (visa-applicants will be registered in the VIS), in order to identify migrants who may cross the line into illegal residence at a later stage (Broeders, 2007). 3. An increase in detention capacity to facilitate the identification and expulsion of apprehended illegal migrants. There are now more than two hundred detention centers in the EU, both at traditional prisons and on islands, at airports and in large cities (fesuit Refugee Service Europe, 2005). \n2007 L3o/o of the penitentiary capacity in the Netherlands was intended for the administrative detention of illegal migrants (Van Kalmthout, 2007:1,03). One can defend the position that the number of unwanted migrants has remained limited because of Fortress Europe's deterring effects (see also landl, 2007; Torpy, 2000). Still, Fortress Europe is unable to combat irregular migration effectively. In some countries large numbers of illegal migrants work in jobs that are hard to fill otherwise. Furthermore, in many countries the expulsion of illegal migrants remains problematic. In the Netherlands, for instance, less than half of the detained illegal migrants are effectively expelled from the country. Contrary to political rhetoric, that number has decreased in reeent years [Van Kalmthout, 2007). This goes for other EU countries too. Fortress Europe has led to substantial human costs and social problems confronting the criminal justice system. We outline four of these below.
In de afgelopen jaren hebben diverse instanties en wetenschappers kritiek geuit op de Nederlandse... more In de afgelopen jaren hebben diverse instanties en wetenschappers kritiek geuit op de Nederlandse praktijk van vreemdelingendetentie (zie bijvoorbeeld Amnesty
2t3 categories (asylum seekers are registered in Eurodac) and 'suspect' countries of origin (visa... more 2t3 categories (asylum seekers are registered in Eurodac) and 'suspect' countries of origin (visa-applicants will be registered in the VIS), in order to identify migrants who may cross the line into illegal residence at a later stage (Broeders, 2007). 3. An increase in detention capacity to facilitate the identification and expulsion of apprehended illegal migrants. There are now more than two hundred detention centers in the EU, both at traditional prisons and on islands, at airports and in large cities (fesuit Refugee Service Europe, 2005). \n2007 L3o/o of the penitentiary capacity in the Netherlands was intended for the administrative detention of illegal migrants (Van Kalmthout, 2007:1,03). One can defend the position that the number of unwanted migrants has remained limited because of Fortress Europe's deterring effects (see also landl, 2007; Torpy, 2000). Still, Fortress Europe is unable to combat irregular migration effectively. In some countries large numbers of illegal migrants work in jobs that are hard to fill otherwise. Furthermore, in many countries the expulsion of illegal migrants remains problematic. In the Netherlands, for instance, less than half of the detained illegal migrants are effectively expelled from the country. Contrary to political rhetoric, that number has decreased in reeent years [Van Kalmthout, 2007). This goes for other EU countries too. Fortress Europe has led to substantial human costs and social problems confronting the criminal justice system. We outline four of these below.
The prevalence of crime among illegal immigrants in the Netherlands appears to have risen. Primar... more The prevalence of crime among illegal immigrants in the Netherlands appears to have risen. Primary and secondary analyses of police data showed that the involvement in crime among illegal immigrants (aged 12 to 25) reflects the patterns of delinquency among legal migrants of comparable age and country of origin. At present, the (rising) crime rate among illegal immigrants is perceived as (an increase of) "survival crime" that is caused by "marginalization", i.e., a lack of "social capital". The evidence presented in this study indicates that the relation between "social capital" and "delinquency" is not unambiguous, and suggests that additional explanatory variables should be taken into consideration besides social capital in the Netherlands.
Objectives Self-reported criminal behaviour has the potential to provide clearer insights into pa... more Objectives Self-reported criminal behaviour has the potential to provide clearer insights into patterns of criminality compared to using police statistics. The risk of inaccurate responses however forms a major obstacle to its validity. This study therefore examines underreporting bias of self-reported criminal behaviour among five ethnic groups and compares different methods to facilitate the creation of valid intergroup comparisons. Methods This study includes data from the Monitor on Youthful Delinquency (N = 6,218) which was connected to police suspect registrations. To identify patterns of underreporting, we compared self-reported and police recorded crime with a social desirability measure, which was adjusted to be invariant across ethnic groups. Three different methods to correct for underreporting bias were subsequently compared; partialling out the effect of social desirability, listwise deletion, and a novel technique which we named Social Desirability based Score Replacement (SDSR). Results The study reveals that police suspects with a high social desirability score display a low likelihood to self-report crime when they have an ethnic minority background, but not when they have a native Dutch background or when they have a moderate to low social desirability score. This finding points towards systematic differences in underreporting bias. Model outcomes are shown to be significantly impacted depending on the method that is used to address this issue. Conclusion Neglecting to correct underreporting-bias hinders the validity of intergroup comparisons of self-reported criminal behaviour. The inclusion of a social desirability measure is therefore recommended to help identify and correct underreporting bias, particularly through the use of SDSR.
There is considerable international and local-level variation in immigrant crime. In this article... more There is considerable international and local-level variation in immigrant crime. In this article, we propose a theoretical model to better understand that contextual variation. Furthermore, we present the results of our first attempts to empirically assess the validity of the framework, focussing on local-level variation in crime among residents of Turkish or Moroccan origin in the Netherlands. The proposed model connects Berry's acculturation theory to criminological theories, using relevant findings from the immigration acculturation literature as starting points. It theorises that host societies with a ‘multicultural acculturation orientation’ tend to reduce immigrant crime by fostering informal social control and attenuating criminogenic strains. The empirical analyses explore whether local-level variation in multicultural attitudes among the native-Dutch indeed predicts municipal variation in the number of registered suspected crimes among first- and second-generation immi...
textabstractSamenvatting: Diverse EU-lidstaten, waaronder Nederland, hebben de afgelopen jaren ma... more textabstractSamenvatting: Diverse EU-lidstaten, waaronder Nederland, hebben de afgelopen jaren maatregelen genomen om partnermigratie te beperken. In 2004 verhoogde Nederland de inkomenseis voor ‘gezinsvorming’ van 100% naar 120% van het voltijds minimumloon. Dat normbedrag is hoger dan het inkomen van circa 30% van de werkende beroepsbevolking. Op basis van IND-gegevens, CBS gegevens en vijftig diepte-interviews onder internationale stellen is gekeken naar (1) de uitkomsten van de hogere inkomenseis voor de aard en omvang van partnermigratie en (2) de persoonlijke gevolgen voor internationale stellen die (aanvankelijk) niet aan de inkomenseis voldeden. We laten zien dat de potentiele macht van de nationale overheid om partnermigratie te beperken op gespannen voet staat met de waarde van een private familiesfeer. De partnermigratie naar Nederland daalde substantieel, vooral onder groepen met een zwakkere economische positie (niet-westerse minderheden, vrouwen en jongeren). Tegelijke...
This article considers the legitimacy deficits of immigration control in the eyes of unwanted mig... more This article considers the legitimacy deficits of immigration control in the eyes of unwanted migrants. We explore the consequences of globalisation-related changes in the institution of citizenship for the perceived legitimacy and operation of immigration control. The study is based on ethnographic research and in-depth interviews in 2018 with 35 migrants in the Detention Centre Rotterdam, the Netherlands. We find that immigration detainees use both denationalised and transnational/cosmopolitan definitions of citizenship and belonging to contest the legitimacy of restrictive admission requirements and, to a lesser extent, the authority of states to stipulate and implement admission requirements. Based on these narratives, immigration detainees engage in forms of resistance that are meant to diminish the likelihood of deportation (‘instrumental resistance’) and in forms of resistance that are unlikely to change the outcome of the deportation procedure yet do make immigration control...
Real and perceived risks of deportation may compromise the effective right of irregular migrants ... more Real and perceived risks of deportation may compromise the effective right of irregular migrants to report to the police if they have been a victim of crime. Some localities have therefore introduced so-called ‘firewall protection’, providing a clear separation between the provision of public services and immigration enforcement. This article explores one such policy in the Netherlands: ‘free in, free out’. While the policy began as a local pilot project, in 2015 it was introduced at the national-level alongside implementation of EU Victim’s Rights Directive, and currently represents the only national-level example of ‘firewall protection’ for victims of crime in Europe. This article is based on a socio-legal study that included interviews with informants from governmental and non-governmental organisations. It documents the legal and social reasons for instituting the policy, while critically assessing the challenges in implementation. Finally, it discusses the lessons and opportun...
There is considerable variation in how countries deal with the presence of migrants lacking a leg... more There is considerable variation in how countries deal with the presence of migrants lacking a legal right to stay. We present an analysis of the post-arrival migration enforcement regimes of European countries using a two-phased mixed-methods approach. The article (1) provides the currently best possible statistical overview of forced and assisted return in 12 European countries among rejected asylum seekers from six source countries, and (2) explores policy practices in six Western European and Scandinavian countries regarding deportability and effective non-deportability. While most rejected asylum seekers examined do not demonstrably return, we see highly divergent return patterns between host countries, and significant policy differences. The article thus shows the importance of better examining variation in post-arrival enforcement policies and their underlying interests and capacities. There is not one unified 'deportation regime'; there are at least four ideal-typical 'post-arrival enforcement regimes': thin, thick, targeted, and hampered.
... vermogensdelicten) en de gemiddelde ernstscore van dat delicttype ten opzichte van overige de... more ... vermogensdelicten) en de gemiddelde ernstscore van dat delicttype ten opzichte van overige delicttypen uit dezelfde catego-rie (bijvoorbeeld woninginbraak). ... Een belangrijke verdienste van het onderzoek is dat er aandacht uitgaat naar de invloed die de jeugdgroep uitoefent ...
Delikt En Delinkwent Tijdschrift Voor Strafrecht, 2009
Het strafrecht als vicieus sluitstuk van het beleid ten aanzien van criminele vreemdelingen. Het ... more Het strafrecht als vicieus sluitstuk van het beleid ten aanzien van criminele vreemdelingen. Het sluimerende probleem van de niet-uitzetbare ongewenst verklaarde vreemdelinÕ p grond van artikel 67 Vreemdelingenwet (Vw) kan een in Nederland verblijvende vreemdeling ongewenst worden verklaard. Dit kan bijvoorbeeld wanneer hij bij herhaling strafbare feiten pleegt of door de rechter is veroordeeld voor een misdrijf dat is bedreigd met een gevangenisstraf van drie jaar of meer. Als de ongewenst verklaarde vreemdeling toch in Nederland blijft, maakt hij zich schuldig aan het strafbare feit van artikel I97 Sr. In dit artikel laten we zien dat het beleid is aangescherpt in lijn met de retoriek van de harde aanpak. We laten ook zien dat het middel van de ongewenstverklaring steeds vaker wordt toegepast, zowel bij rechtmatig verblijvende vreemdelingen als bij illegalen': Een verkenning van de handhavingspraktijk brengt echter enkele problemen aan het licht. Zo zijn bij een deel van de ongewenste vreemdelingen de problemen met het uitzetten niet opgelost, maar verschoven. Ook is er een categorie vreemdelingen die in een vicieuze cirkel terechtkomt waarbij permanente strafbaarheid op grond van artikel I97 Sr bestaat maar de persoon ook het land niet kan worden uitgezet. In dit I Dominique Laagland is werkzaam bij het Arrondissementsparket te Den Haag, Joanne van der Leun en Patrick van der Meij zijn respectievelijk hoogleraar Criminologie en promovendus/docent bij het Instituut voor
2t3 categories (asylum seekers are registered in Eurodac) and 'suspect' countries of origin (visa... more 2t3 categories (asylum seekers are registered in Eurodac) and 'suspect' countries of origin (visa-applicants will be registered in the VIS), in order to identify migrants who may cross the line into illegal residence at a later stage (Broeders, 2007). 3. An increase in detention capacity to facilitate the identification and expulsion of apprehended illegal migrants. There are now more than two hundred detention centers in the EU, both at traditional prisons and on islands, at airports and in large cities (fesuit Refugee Service Europe, 2005). \n2007 L3o/o of the penitentiary capacity in the Netherlands was intended for the administrative detention of illegal migrants (Van Kalmthout, 2007:1,03). One can defend the position that the number of unwanted migrants has remained limited because of Fortress Europe's deterring effects (see also landl, 2007; Torpy, 2000). Still, Fortress Europe is unable to combat irregular migration effectively. In some countries large numbers of illegal migrants work in jobs that are hard to fill otherwise. Furthermore, in many countries the expulsion of illegal migrants remains problematic. In the Netherlands, for instance, less than half of the detained illegal migrants are effectively expelled from the country. Contrary to political rhetoric, that number has decreased in reeent years [Van Kalmthout, 2007). This goes for other EU countries too. Fortress Europe has led to substantial human costs and social problems confronting the criminal justice system. We outline four of these below.
In de afgelopen jaren hebben diverse instanties en wetenschappers kritiek geuit op de Nederlandse... more In de afgelopen jaren hebben diverse instanties en wetenschappers kritiek geuit op de Nederlandse praktijk van vreemdelingendetentie (zie bijvoorbeeld Amnesty
2t3 categories (asylum seekers are registered in Eurodac) and 'suspect' countries of origin (visa... more 2t3 categories (asylum seekers are registered in Eurodac) and 'suspect' countries of origin (visa-applicants will be registered in the VIS), in order to identify migrants who may cross the line into illegal residence at a later stage (Broeders, 2007). 3. An increase in detention capacity to facilitate the identification and expulsion of apprehended illegal migrants. There are now more than two hundred detention centers in the EU, both at traditional prisons and on islands, at airports and in large cities (fesuit Refugee Service Europe, 2005). \n2007 L3o/o of the penitentiary capacity in the Netherlands was intended for the administrative detention of illegal migrants (Van Kalmthout, 2007:1,03). One can defend the position that the number of unwanted migrants has remained limited because of Fortress Europe's deterring effects (see also landl, 2007; Torpy, 2000). Still, Fortress Europe is unable to combat irregular migration effectively. In some countries large numbers of illegal migrants work in jobs that are hard to fill otherwise. Furthermore, in many countries the expulsion of illegal migrants remains problematic. In the Netherlands, for instance, less than half of the detained illegal migrants are effectively expelled from the country. Contrary to political rhetoric, that number has decreased in reeent years [Van Kalmthout, 2007). This goes for other EU countries too. Fortress Europe has led to substantial human costs and social problems confronting the criminal justice system. We outline four of these below.
The prevalence of crime among illegal immigrants in the Netherlands appears to have risen. Primar... more The prevalence of crime among illegal immigrants in the Netherlands appears to have risen. Primary and secondary analyses of police data showed that the involvement in crime among illegal immigrants (aged 12 to 25) reflects the patterns of delinquency among legal migrants of comparable age and country of origin. At present, the (rising) crime rate among illegal immigrants is perceived as (an increase of) "survival crime" that is caused by "marginalization", i.e., a lack of "social capital". The evidence presented in this study indicates that the relation between "social capital" and "delinquency" is not unambiguous, and suggests that additional explanatory variables should be taken into consideration besides social capital in the Netherlands.
Overview of findings on the integration trajectories among asylum migrants who came to the Nether... more Overview of findings on the integration trajectories among asylum migrants who came to the Netherlands in the 1990s and obtained a residence permit. It looks their labour market participation, crime involvement and return migration. The report includes suggestions for how to respond to asylum migration in the 2010s.
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Papers by Arjen Leerkes