Tesis
Tesis
Tesis
Se presenta esta Tesis como parte de los requisitos de la Universidad Nacional del
Litoral para obtener el grado Académico de:
Autora
Lic. Marina J. FLORES
Realizada en
INTEC (UNL-CONICET)
A mi directora, Marisol, por estar siempre dispuesta a tenderme una mano, por su
forma de enseñar y trasmitir conocimientos, no sólo académicos. Por muchos
buenos momentos pasados aun en momentos duros de trabajo, por el apoyo que
me brindó y me sigue brindando y por todo el tiempo que dedicó para poder lograr
esta tesis.
A mi codirector Alberto, por exigirme a dar siempre un poco más, por haber puesto un
voto de confianza en mí sin conocerme y por alentarme a que siga investigando.
A Rodolfo Brandi, por su ayuda invaluable durante la realización de esta tesis doctoral,
su dedicación, paciencia, amistad y por las charlas de cine y libros compartidas
entre modelos cinéticos.
A Pablo Nieres, con quien realicé los primeros trabajos experimentales, gracias por
estar, por tu empuje y por tu amistad.
A los que colaboraron con su granito de arena para que esta tesis sea posible:
bajándome papers, instalando programas, con aportes valiosos: Ale Ontiveros,
Fernando Herrera, Mario Barbaglia, Maria Benzzo, Roy. Aconsejándome y
acompañándome en el trabajo: Villa, Chely.
A los de siempre, que tantas, tantas veces escucharon y entendieron “no puedo, estoy
con la tesis, no puedo tengo que estudiar”: Sebas, Vero, Yami Yoli, Fernandatus,
Sofi, Cintia, Franco, Lito, Tomy, Claudia
A mis amigos de Dignidad Animal, con quienes lucho a diario, Cintia, Franco, Gise,
Pao, Mica, Ale, Sole Flaca, Sole R, Joan, Agos y Jose, gracias por trabajar para
lograr un mejor lugar, gracias por saberme esperar.
A Nora, por estar y por cuidarme, a Juan por enseñarme a ser valiente.
A mi abuela I nés, que nunca pudo aprender a decir: Doctorado en Tecnología Química-
Beca de CONI CET y lo tenía escrito en un papel, en su cartera, en el bolsillo de los
caramelos frutales y a mi Padrino, siempre viviendo, los dos, en mi corazón.
A Greta, Galadriel y Leono, por su amor infinito, fidelidad eterna y compañía, quienes
sin duda merecían a alguien mucho mejor.
El agua es fundamental para todas las formas de vida conocidas. El acceso al agua
de los países más desfavorecidos. La falta de agua potable afianza el ciclo de la pobreza,
dado que las regiones pobres se encuentran en condiciones de mayor desventaja para
adecuados es esencial para evitar este problema. Hasta el presente, los efluentes son
principalmente desinfectados por derivados del cloro debido a su alto poder biocida. Sin
embargo, el cloro puede reaccionar con las sustancias orgánicas presentes en las agua
desinfección volátiles y no volátiles como son el vapor de cloro y los trihalometanos los
contaminación pasa por el uso de tecnologías limpias que en ninguno de sus pasos
i
afecten el medio ambiente. Dentro de estos procesos se ubican los Procesos Avanzados
radiación UV para llevar a cabo la tarea. Estas tecnologías pueden utilizarse sola o
combinadas entre ellas para producir especies altamente oxidantes como el radical
en la célula bacteriana, de sitios factibles (targets), de ser atacados por los ataque de los
lisado resultante, se modela como una secuencia de eventos en serie, seguidos de una
totalmente.
ii
acido peracético comercial es una mezcla cuaternaria de equilibrio entre: acido
considerando el poder oxidante de cada uno de los agentes de la mezcla por separado y
desinfectantes ideales y las condiciones de trabajo optimas para lograr altas tasas de
con la radiación UV, se modelan los resultados obtenidos con un M odelo de Eventos en
daños a través de pasos consecutivos que se acumulan hasta que alcanzan un umbral
oxidantes.
La elección del tema de tesis responde a una problemática actual del país: el
iii
INDICE DE CONTENIDOS
CAPÍTULO I. INTRODUCCIÓN 1
IV
II.4.1 RADIACIÓN CON UV 36
II.4.1.1 CARACTERÍSTICAS DE LA RADIACIÓN UV 37
II.4.1.2 ACCIÓN DE LA RADIACIÓN UV 39
II.4.1.3 MECANISMOS DE FOTORREPARACIÓN 42
II.5 PROCESOS AVANZADOS DE OXIDACIÓN 44
II.5.1 FOTOOXIDACIÓN 47
II.6 CARACTERÍSTICAS DE LOS MICROORGANISMOS EN ESTUDIO 49
II.6.1 PARED CELULAR BACTERIANA 50
II.6.2 CITOPLASMA 57
II.7 MICROORGANIMO MODELO ESTUDIADO: Escherichia coli 57
II. 7.1 Escherichia coli CARACTERÍSTICAS MORFOLÓGICAS 57
II.7.1.2 HABITAD 60
II.7.1.3 PODER PATOGÉNICO DE Escherichia coli 61
II.8 MECANISMOS DE ACCIÓN DE LOS DESINFECTANTES 62
II.8.1 BIOCIDAS 62
II.8.2 REQUISITOS DE LOS BIOCIDAS 64
II.8.2.1 NIVELES DE ACTIVIDAD ANTIMICROBIANA 65
II.8.3 MECANISMOS DE ACCIÓN DE LOS BIOCIDAS 67
II.8.4 MECANISMOS DE RESISTENCIA BACTERIANA 70
ACRONIMOS CAPÍTULO II 73
V
III.3.1 MODELO DE CHICK 94
132
IV.1.1 ACONDICIONAMIENTO DEL DISPOSITIVO EXPERIMENTAL
132
IV. 1.2 PREPARACIÓN DEL INÓCULO BACTERIANO
VI
IV.1.2.1 REACTIVACIÓN DE LA CEPA 132
VII
IV.4.1 TÉCNICA DE TINCIÓN DE GRAM 159
176
IV.6.3.1 MEDICIÓN DE LA ABSORBANCIA
VIII
VI.3.1 MODELO CINÉTICO DE LA DESINFECCIÓN DE AGUA CON ÁCIDO
PERACÉTICO INHIBIENDO PERÓXIDO DE HIDRÓGENO
222
VI.3.1.1 BALANCE DE MATERIA EN EL REACTOR 225
IX
APENDICE IV Pseudomonas aeruginosa
276
AIV.2.1 ACTIVACIÓN DE LA CEPA ATCC 15442 P. AERUGINOSA
AIV.3 ENSAYOS EXPERIMENTALES CON P. aeruginosa 282
APENDICE V PUBLICACIONES
X
INDICE DE FIGURAS
CAPITULO I
FIGURA I.1 PROPORCIÓN DE LA POBLACIÓN MUNDIAL QUE CONSUME AGUA DE
FUENTES MEJORADAS 5
CAPITULO II
CAPITULO III
XI
FIGURA III.5 RESULTADOS DE LA SIMULACIÓN OMITIENDO LA ETAPA DE LISADO 121
FIGURA III.6 DESCRIPCIÓN GRÁFICA DE LA EVOLUCIÓN DEL PROCESO (185 ppm) 122
FIGURA III.7 DESCRIPCIÓN GRÁFICA DE LA EVOLUCIÓN DEL PROCESO (45 ppm) 123
CAPITULO IV
162
FIGURA IV.13 a) E.coli GRAM NEGATIVA
162
b) P. aeruginosa GRAM NEGATIVA
XII
FIGURA IV. 15 BARRIDO ESPECTRAL DEL MEDIO DE CULTIVO 168
CAPITULO V
CAPITULO VI
XIII
FIGURA VI.2 INACTIVACIÓN DE E. coli UTILIZANDO SOLUCIÓN COMERCIAL DE APA
1.5 ppm
204
XIV
FIGURA VI.21 EVOLUCIÓN DE LA CONCENTRACIÓN EXPERIMENTAL Y DEL 230
MODELO PARA UNA CONCENTRACIÓN DE APA DE 6 ppm INHIBIENDO PERÓXIDO
DE HIDRÓGENO
FIGURA VI. 30 ESQUEMA CINÉTICO: ATAQUE DEL ÁCIDO PERACÉTICO COMERCIAL 243
APENDICE IV
XV
INDICE DE TABLAS
CAPITULO I
CAPITULO II
CAPITULO IV
TABLA IV.12 DATOS EXPERIMENTALES DE LAS ABSORBANCIAS MEDIDAS CURVA CRESC. 177
XVI
CAPITULO V
CAPITULO VI
TABLA VI.1: TIEMPO NECESARIO PARA LOGRAR EL MISMO NIVEL DE INACTIVACIÓN(APA-HP) 217
APENDICE I
XVII
AI.2 TABLA 8: UV/8 ppm APA COMERCIAL/ E. coli 264
APENDICE IV
XVIII
CAPÍTULO I
INTRODUCCIÓN
CAPITULO I INTRODUCCIÓN
1
CAPITULO I INTRODUCCIÓN
El agua de consumo humano ha sido definida en las Guías de Calidad del Agua
de Bebida de la Organización M undial de la Salud (WHO, 2004; OM S, 2003; OM S,
1995) como aquella: “inocua (potable) que no ocasiona ningún r iesgo significativo
par a la salud cuando se consume dur ante toda una vida, teniendo en cuenta las
difer entes vulner abilidades que pueden pr esentar las per sonas en las distintas
etapas de su vida (lactantes, niños y ancianos)”. El objetivo de las normas y
estándares es el de controlar la cantidad de un determinado microorganismo en el
agua, siendo este microorganismo la causa de una enfermedad específica o un
indicador de las condiciones dentro de las cuales podría transmitir enfermedad
(Jones, 1997). En el caso de los microorganismos patógenos no existe un límite
inferior tolerable, por lo que el agua destinada al consumo, la preparación de
alimentos y bebidas o la higiene personal no debe contener ningún agente patógeno
para los seres humanos.
2
CAPITULO I INTRODUCCIÓN
3
CAPITULO I INTRODUCCIÓN
4
CAPITULO I INTRODUCCIÓN
Figura I.1. Proporción de la población mundial que consume agua de fuentes mejoradas.
(Modificada del Informe de Actualización de UNICEF, 2013)
En los países en desarrollo, cerca del 85% de la población cuenta con servicios
de agua potable, ya sea con conexión o con fácil acceso a una fuente pública. Estas
estimaciones de la cobertura sugieren que los niveles de servicio son relativamente
altos. Sin embargo, no hay equidad en el acceso y uso de estos servicios y se observan
grandes disparidades entre zonas urbanas y rurales, si bien esta diferencia ha
decrecido en los últimos 20 años. En la figura I .2 puede observarse la evolución de la
cobertura del acceso al agua potable en las zonas urbanas y rurales en el periodo
comprendido entre 1990 y 2011.
5
CAPITULO I INTRODUCCIÓN
Figura I.2. Evolución de la cobertura mundial del acceso al agua potable en zonas urbanas
y rurales (Modificada del Informe de Actualización de UNICEF, 2013)
Dentro de las cuatro metas principales de las Naciones Unidas, UNI CEF y la
OM S para los próximos 20 años, tres de ellas hacen referencia al acceso al agua
segura, estas son:
6
CAPITULO I INTRODUCCIÓN
El 40% de la población rural dispone de agua potable por red mientras que
sólo el 1,6% evacua sus excretas a una red colectora domiciliaria, en tanto, el 48, 2%
de la población rural dispone de sistemas individuales de descarga de efluentes
(cámara séptica y pozo absorbente). De esta información se puede observar que en
Argentina, la presencia de microorganismos patógenos en el agua de bebida es un
riesgo que se incrementa en las aéreas marginales de mayor densidad poblacional
que no tengan disposición final de excretas o en zonas sin disponibilidad de agua
tratada (zonas rurales).
7
CAPITULO I INTRODUCCIÓN
sobre la base de los resultados de sistemas que operan con micro medición (Bahía
Blanca en la provincia de Buenos Aires y la provincia de Jujuy) es del orden de los
180 l/ hab/ día.
El vertido de las aguas residuales domésticas sin depurar a los ríos y lagos y la
infiltración de excretas provenientes de fosas sépticas y redes de alcantarillado mal
mantenidas, constituyen una de las principales fuentes de contaminación de las
aguas superficiales y subterráneas en el país, generando así un riesgo potencial para
la salud de la población. Sólo el 10% del volumen total de los efluentes domésticos
recolectados por los sistemas de desagües cloacales, son tratados por un sistema de
depuración.
A nivel nacional, se puede decir que no existe una ley nacional de aguas.
Numerosos proyectos sobre una ley nacional o federal de aguas fueron presentados
por el Poder Ejecutivo o por diversos legisladores a lo largo de los años, sin encontrar
el adecuado respaldo para su sanción. La actual legislación nacional está constituida
entonces por las normas contenidas fundamentalmente en el Código Civil, el Código
de Comercio, el Código de M inería, el Código Penal y leyes federales como las de
energía, navegación, transporte, puertos, protección del ambiente y de los recursos
naturales, etc., las que contienen disposiciones directa o indirectamente relacionadas
con el agua. A su vez la Nación ha ratificado tratados internacionales sobre aguas
compartidas; ingreso de buques nucleares en aguas argentinas; préstamos para obras
8
CAPITULO I INTRODUCCIÓN
La desinfección del agua es un proceso que tiene como objetivo volver inactivo
al agente biológico contaminante, y generalmente es la etapa final de los
tratamientos de agua para consumo.
El pH del agua.
Ser fiable para usar dentro del rango de condiciones que podrían encontrarse
en el abastecimiento de agua.
9
CAPITULO I INTRODUCCIÓN
10
CAPITULO I INTRODUCCIÓN
al., 1983; M iller and Uden, 1983; Oliver, 1983; Johnson et al., 1982; Rook, 1976;
Bellar et al., 1974).
11
CAPITULO I INTRODUCCIÓN
12
CAPITULO I INTRODUCCIÓN
13
CAPITULO I INTRODUCCIÓN
En muchos casos, consumen mucha menos energía que otros métodos (por
ejemplo, la incineración).
14
CAPITULO I INTRODUCCIÓN
15
CAPITULO I INTRODUCCIÓN
ACRONIMOS CAPITULO I
THM Trihalometanos
HAAs Haloacéticos
µg microgramos
hab habitantes
16
OBJETIVOS Y PLAN EXPERIMENTAL
La elección del tema de tesis responde a una problemática actual del país:
el acceso al agua microbiológicamente segura. Además, realizará aportes para
contribuir con la solución del problema de tratamiento, en especial, con la
ausencia de subproductos de desinfección sin involucrar mayores costos
adicionales.
Página 17
OBJETIVOS Y PLAN EXPERIMENTAL
Página 18
CAPÍTULO II
MÉTODOS DE
DESINFECCIÓN
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
Ultrafiltración
Cloro- Dióxido de Cloro-Cloramidas
Ultrasonido
Ozono
Osmosis inversa
Permanganato
Temperatura:
Peróxido de Hidrogeno(*)
i)Ebullición
ii)Congelamiento Ácido peracético(*)
Glutaraldehido
Radiación:
Plata
i)Ultravioleta(*)
ii)Gama Iodo
iii)Ionizante
(*) Se desar r ollar án en esta tesis doctor al.
19
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
N -N
% ( R/I ) = 0 100 (II.1)
N0
20
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
N
Log(R/I)=Log (I I .2)
N0
100
Log(R/I)=Log (I I .3)
100-(R/I)
1
%(R/I)= 1 − Log(R/I) 100 (II.4)
10
21
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
22
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
H + OCl- (II.8)
Ki =
[ HOCl]
23
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
Las cloraminas son una buena opción como desinfectante secundario por
los siguientes potenciales beneficios (EPA, 1999):
24
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
3O 2 2O3 (II.9)
25
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
inferior, que son más biodegradables que sus precursores, y no deja efecto
residual (desinfectante residual) (ENOHSA, 2000).
26
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
27
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
R-CH=CH-R
+H 3CCO3 H
-H 3CCO3 H
→ R-CH − CH-R ´ (II.11)
O
Las propiedades germicidas del APA fueron reportadas por primera vez
en 1902 por Freer y Novy, quienes notaron las excelentes acciones
desinfectantes del APA. Hutchings y Xezones (1949) evaluaron la acción
germicida de 23 desinfectantes contra esporas de Bacillus ther moacidur ans
siendo el APA el desinfectante más efectivo de los 23 evaluados.
28
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
29
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
Baldry & French (1989b) encontraron que el APA era un eficaz agente
desinfectante para efluentes secundarios y resaltaron la facilidad de aplicación
del tratamiento con APA sin necesidad de equipos costosos, el amplio espectro
de actividad, incluso en presencia de materia orgánica y la ausencia de
generación de subproductos indeseables para el medio ambiente, características
que hacen del APA un potencial agente desinfectante para el tratamiento de
aguas residuales (Baldry y French, 1989b; Block, 2001). Gehr et al. (2002)
encontraron que para efluentes municipales primarios tratados
fisicoquímicamente (con cloruro de aluminio o de hierro), se requerían dosis de
APA de 2 a 6 mg/ L para lograr 1.000 unidades formadoras de colonias (UFC) de
coliformes fecales por cada 100ml con un tiempo de contacto de 60 minutos.
Para los efluentes secundarios, se requerían dosis menores de APA (0,6 a 4
mg/ L) para alcanzar 1.000 UFC de coliformes fecales por cada 100ml.
30
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
31
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
32
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
33
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
O 2- + H 2 O 2
Fe/Cu
→ OH • +OH - +O 2 (II.13)
34
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
35
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
II.4.1. RADIACIÓN UV
El efecto germicida de este tipo de energía fue reportado por primera vez
por Downs y Blunt en 1877 (USEPA, 1996; Groocock, 1984; Schenck, 1981), pero
seguramente por falta de desarrollo en el equipamiento y la escasa confiabilidad
del proceso, no fue utilizado sino hasta pasada la primera mitad del siglo XX
(Wright y Cairns, 2000). Se comprobó el efecto del UV con diferentes
microorganismos en numerosa bibliografía (Lawryshyn & Cairns, 2003; Labas
et al., 2005; 2006).
36
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
37
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
Figura II.5. Espectro de emisión típico de lámparas de baja y mediana presión (Wright y
Cairns, 2000)
38
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
39
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
40
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
Figura II.6. Dimerización del ADN. (figuras creadas con RasMol del Protein Data Bank)
41
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
visible para alimentar este proceso. Esta estructura captura el ADN después que
el dímero de timina se ha solucionado. Observe que las dos bases de timina
(color magenta) se volcaron fuera de la hélice de ADN normal y están unidos en
la superficie de la enzima, la figura del extremo inferior representa la misma
enzima desde otro ángulo.
42
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
Figura II.8. a) b) Fotorreparación. Estructuras en cinta de una proteína fotoliasa ADN (a)
Vista superior; (b) Vista lateral) con dos cofactores y la cadena de ADN. El FADH-(centro;
FAD) y MTHF (arriba; MHF) cofactores y ADN (derecha) se muestran como bolas esféricas.
43
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
Figura 8 c) y d). Las estructuras de FADH-MTHF y se muestran por separado (c) y (d). E. coli
fotoliasa se compone de dos dominios bien definidos: un N-terminal (residuos 1-131) y un
C-terminal (residuos 204-471), que están conectados entre sí con un bucle de interdominio
largo (residuos 132 - 203).
44
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
Flúor 3,03
Ozono 2,07
Permanganato 1,68
Cloro 1,36
Bromo 1,09
Yodo 0,54
45
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
46
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
II.5.1. FOTO-OXIDACIÓN.
47
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
OH +RH → R + H 2 O (II.15)
48
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
49
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
Sin embargo, es posible que un biocida actúe en uno o en los tres niveles
de interacción ejerciendo su actividad antimicrobiana. Como primera medida se
desarrollaran entonces, los sitios targets principales.
50
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
Figura II.9. Diferencias en la pared celular de las bacterias Gram (+) y Gram (-)
51
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
52
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
1) Gran rigidez, que contrarresta las fuerzas osmóticas a las que está
sometido el protoplasto (soporta presiones de unas 5 a 15 atmósferas).
Esta rigidez depende de:
i. el grado de entrecruzamiento;
53
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
54
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
55
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
56
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
II.6.2 CITOPLASMA
57
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
58
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
59
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
Figura II.13. Fotomicrografias electronicas de E. blattae (A), E. coli (B), E.fergusonii (C), E.
Herman (D) y E. vulneris (E). Barra = 1 μm. (Scheutz y Strockbine, 2005).
II.7.1.2. HÁBITAT
60
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
61
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
II.8.1. BIOCIDAS
62
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
63
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
de mercurio con resultados más realistas que los obtenidos con anterioridad por
Koch.
64
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
65
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
66
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
67
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
Disrupción de la replicación.
Lisis.
68
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
69
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
70
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
Las bacterias Gram negativas por lo general son más resistentes a los
antisépticos y desinfectantes que las Gram positivas. La membrana externa de
las bacterias Gram negativas actúa como una barrera que limita la entrada de
varios tipos de agentes antibacterianos sin relación química. Las moléculas
hidrofílicas de bajo peso molecular pasan fácilmente a través de las porinas, en
cambio las moléculas hidrofóbicas se difunden a través de la bicapa de la
membrana. Además de las vías antes descritas se ha propuesto una tercera vía
para agentes catiónicos como los Compuestos de amonio cuaternario,
biguanidas y diamidinas, los cuales dañan la membrana y facilitan su
autocaptación. Un ejemplo claro de resistencia mediada por la membrana
externa es el de P. aer uginosa que presenta diferencias en la composición del
lipopolisacárido (LPS) y el contenido de cationes como el magnesio, que
produce enlaces estables entre moléculas de LPS y como complemento a este
mecanismo, esta bacteria presenta porinas pequeñas que impiden el paso por
difusión de ciertas sustancias. Algunas cepas que son muy resistentes a
71
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
72
CAPÍTULO II. MÉTODOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
ACRÓNIMOS CAPITULO II
AA Ácido Acético
HP Peróxido de Hidrógeno
I I nactivación
K Constante cinética
LPS Lipopolisacáridos
N M icroorganismos (concentración)
NAM n-acetilmuránico
NAM n-acetilmurámico
R Remoción
Sufijos
73
CAPÍTULO III
MODELADO DE PROCESOS
DE DESINFECCIÓN
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
En el pasado, una de las razones usadas para explicar esta situación era la
carencia de: (i) el modelo conveniente del reactor y los procedimientos de
74
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
75
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
76
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
77
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
d) Los dos últimos balances van a exigir por una parte expresiones de
velocidades de reacción que participan en ellos como términos "fuente" o
"sumidero" (dependiendo si se trata de productos o de reactivos) y por
otra los valores de ciertos parámetros que caracterizan
fisicoquímicamente al sistema reaccionante (coeficiente de difusión o de
transferencia de materia, densidad, conductividad térmica, viscosidad,
etc.).
78
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
∂c ( x,t ) (III.1)
+ ∇N i ( x,t ) = R Hom,i ( x,t )
∂t
todos los flujos reacción química
velocidad de de materia homogénea del compomente i
acumulación
79
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
sólida dirigida hacia fuera de ella, y teniendo en cuenta los signos de cada flujo,
se cumple la ecuación (I I I .2):
80
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
Otros factores importantes a tener en cuenta, son las propiedades físicas y las
características geométricas del sistema lámpara-reactor. Por lo tanto, la
reacción de iniciación será espacialmente dependiente, aún en el caso de
ausencia de gradientes de concentración. Esta carencia de homogeneidad en el
campo de radiación es intrínsecamente irreductible en reactores fotoquímicos
en la práctica.
81
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
∂Eλ (III.3)
I λ ( x , Ω, t ) lim
∂A , ∂Ω , ∂x → 0 ∂A cos θ∂t ∂λ
Gλ ( x ) = ∫ I λ ( x , )d Ω Ω (III.4)
Ω
82
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
ENERGÍA
83
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
ϕ
(III. 5)
θ2
Gλ = ∫
θ
∫ϕ 2
I λ senθ dϕ dθ
1 1
λ2 θ2 ϕ2 (III. 6)
G=∫ ∫θ1 ∫ϕ1 I λ senθ dϕ dθ d λ
λ1
84
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
eλa ( x ) = κ λ ( x ) Gλ ( x ) (III. 7)
λ2 (III. 8)
e a = ∫ κ λ Gλ d λ
λ1
(III. 9)
∫λ1 ∫θ1 ∫ϕ1 κ λ
λ θ ϕ
I λ senθ d ϕ dθ d λ
2 2 2
ea =
1 ∂ I λ ,Ω ( x )
.
+∇ (I λ ,Ω ( x ) Ω ) = − Wλabs
,Ω ( x ) − Wλout
, Ω ( x ) + Wλ , Ω ( x )
-s em
+ Wλin,Ω- s ( x )
c
∂t Variación sobre
Pérdida por
Pérdida por
Ganancia por
Ganancia por
Transiente la dirección Ω absorción del medio " Out - scattering" emisión del medio " In - scattering"
(III.10)
85
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
86
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
dI λ , Ω ( x)
+ κ λ ( x) I λ ,Ω ( x) + σ λ ( x) I λ ,Ω ( x) =
ds
Pérdida por Pérdida por
Variación sobre absorción " Out - Scattering "
la dirección Ω
σ λ ( x)
p ( Ω ' Ω ) I λ , Ω ( x ') d Ω '
4π ∫ Ω '= 4π
je +
λ '
Ganancia
por emisión Ganancia por
" In - scattering "
(III.11)
87
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
88
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
Pλ (III.14)
I λ0 (θ , ϕ ) = R ,λ Υ
2π rL LL
2
Pλ (III. 15)
I λ0 (θ , ϕ ) = ∆ ρ S ( x, θ , ϕ )Υ R ,λ
4π rL LL
2 2
89
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
90
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
91
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
Figura III.2. Modelo de emisión para una lámpara tubular a lo largo de la dirección (θ,φ) en
un punto In (reactor anular).[Adaptada de Labas et. al, 2008]
s = sI ( x,θ , ϕ )
κ λ ( x, t ) ∫ ϕ κλ ( s , t )
ϕ2 θ2
a
λ ( x, t ) = λ ,Ω ( t ) exp -∫ s = sR ( x,θ , ϕ )
0
e
1
dϕ ∫θ
1
dθ senθ × I ds
(III. 17)
92
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
1 (III. 18)
r cosφ-
θ1 (φ)=tan -1
( rL2 -r2sen 2 φ ) 2
(L L -z)
(III. 19)
(L
r cosφ- r 2-r 2sen 2φ
)
1
2
-1
θ 2 (φ)=tan
-z
(r 2 -r 2 ) 1 2 (III. 20)
-φ1 =φ2 =cos -1 L
r
93
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
Donde:
94
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
N (III.22)
ln = -kt
N0
Donde:
t= tiempo
95
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
(III.23)
k=k ′C n
N (III.24)
= -k ′tC t
n
ln
N0
96
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
{
N 0 si t t 0
(III.25)
Log = -k ′(t-t 0) ) si t ≥ t 0
N0
97
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
N (III.26)
Log =k1 [1-exp(-k 2 t ]
N0
dN kN (III.27)
- =
dt 1+a(Ct)
O en la forma integrada
98
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
N (III.28)
= [1+a(Ct) ] a
-k
N0
Donde
a= coeficiente de velocidad
dN (III.29)
=-kN
dt
Donde:
99
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
N
=1 para Ct τ (III.31)
N0
-n
N Ct
= para Ct τ (III.32)
N0 τ
N (III.33)
ln =-kC n t m
N0
100
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
N (III.34)
ln =-k´ t m
N0
N m
m
nk * t
m
(III.35)
n
ln =-
k(C 0 ) 1-exp -
N0 nk m
N ( III.36)
=-k1 [1-exp(-k 2 t) ] 3
k
Log
N0
101
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
dN (III.37)
=KN x C n
dt
N
b (III.38)
Ct=a
N0
102
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
N (III.39)
Log =a+bC+Ct
N0
Este modelo en particular es tomado como base por Labas (2004) para
proponer un modelo modificado para el trabajo desarrollado en su tesis
doctoral.
103
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
R N =kq w (III.40)
104
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
dN (III.41)
=-k q w N
dt
N (III.42)
=e -k q w t
N0
105
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
106
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
107
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
108
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
Iniciación
k1 • (III.43)
H 2 O 2
3+ 3+ − → OH − + OH
Fe or Fe + O2 promotion
Propagación
• •
(III.44)
H 2 O 2 + OH → HO 2 + H 2 O
2 k
H 2 O 2 + HO 2
k3 •
→ OH +H 2 O + O 2
•
(III.45)
Terminación
•
(III.46)
2OH
k4
→ H 2O2
2HO 2
•
k5
→ H 2O2 + O2 (III.47)
• • (III.48)
OH + HO 2
k6
→ H 2O + O2
109
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
HSCW + OH •
k7
→ HSCW
*
(III.49)
BAC BIN
HSCW
BAC
× SSA B × VB × [
BAC ] ( t )
AC
AC
(III.50)
110
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
(III.53)
R 7,BAC = − k 7 [ BAC ] OH
•
(III.54)
R 7,OH = − k 7# [ BAC ] OH
•
(III.55)
BAC + OH
k7
→ BIN
•
(III.56)
111
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
R 8,BIN = − k 8 [ BIN ] OH
•
(III.59)
R 8,OH = − k 8# [ BIN ] OH
•
(III.60)
BIN + OH
k8 •
→ BDE (III.61)
BDE + OH •
k9
→ LYSATE (III.62)
Donde:
112
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
R 9,BLY = − k 9 [ BDE ] OH
•
(III.65)
R 9,OH = − k 9# [ BDE ] OH
•
(III.66)
k k k
LYP,1 + OH •
10,1
→ LYP,1,1 + OH
11,1
→ ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ LYP,1,n −1 + OH
n ,1
→ E P,1,n
k k k
LYP,2 + OH •
10, 2
→ LYP,2,1 + OH
11,2
→ ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ LYP,2,n −1 + OH
n ,2
→ E P,2,n
⋅
⋅
⋅
k k k
LYP,n-1 + OH •
10, n-1
→ LYP,n −1,1 + OH
11, n −1
→ ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ LYP,n −1,n −1 + OH
n −1, n
→ E P,n −1,n
k k k
LYP,n + OH •
10, n
→ LYP,n ,1 + OH
11, n
→ ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ LYP,n,n −1 + OH
n ,1, n
→ E P,n,n
113
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
2
R OH• = k1 [ H 2 O 2 ] - k 2 [ H 2 O 2 ] OH + k 3 [ H 2 O 2 ] HO 2 - k 4 OH -
• • •
k 6 OH HO 2 - k 7# [ BAC ] OH - k 8# [ BIN ] OH - k 9# [ BDE ] OH -
• • • • •
n
∑k LYP,i OH
•
i=1
10,i
(III.68)
114
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
2
= k 2 [ H 2O 2 ] OH - k 3 [ H 2O 2 ] HO 2 - k 5 HO 2 - k 6 OH HO 2
• • • • •
R •
HO2
(III.69)
R BAC = - k 7 [ BAC ] OH
•
(III.70)
2
0 ≅ k1 [ H 2 O 2 ] - k 2 [ H 2 O 2 ] OH + k 3 [ H 2 O 2 ] HO 2 - k 4 OH - k 6 OH HO 2
• • • • •
n
-k 7# [ BAC ] OH -k 8# [ BIN ] OH -k 9# [ BDE ] OH -∑ k10,i LYP,i OH
• • • •
i=1
(III.72)
k1 [ H 2 O 2 ]
OH =
•
n
k 2 [ H 2 O 2 ] +k 7# [ BAC ] +k 8# [ BIN ] +k 9# [ BDE ] +∑ k10,i LYP,i
i=1
(III.73)
n
El valor de ∑k
i=1
10,i LYP,i puede considerarse como proporcional a la
115
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
k1 [ H 2O2 ] (III.74)
OH =
•
k [ H O ] + k [ B ] + k # [ B ] + ( k # + α k )[ B ]
#
2 2 2 7 AC 8 IN 9 10 DE
Donde:
k1k7 ;
γA = γ0 =
k7# ;
γ1 =
k8# ; k9# + α k10 ( )
k2 k2 k2 γ 2 = k 2
R BIN =
[ BAC ][ H 2O 2 ] γ A - [ BIN ][ H 2O 2 ] γ IN (III.78)
[ H 2O 2 ] + γ 0 [ BAC ] + γ1 [ BIN ] + γ 2 [ BDE ]
116
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
Donde:
k k
γ IN = 1 8
k2
d[ j ] (III.79)
Rj = j BAC , BIN , =BDE , LYPi
dt
117
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
Sin embargo, se puede ver que el valor de γ0 es más bien pequeño, por tal
motivo es posible reducir los parámetros del modelo cuando se supone que:
118
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
119
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
120
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
Figura III.5. Resultados suponiendo que se omitió la etapa del lisado. Para CAc +CIN en función
del tiempo. Las líneas continuas representan el modelo completo, las líneas quebradas:γ2 = 0.
121
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
mayor que la k 7.
Figura III.6. Descripción gráfica de la evolución del proceso, de acuerdo al modelo. ●: Datos
experimentales; línea continua: bacterias cultivables (BAC + BIN) línea discontinua: bacterias activas,
rota y la línea de puntos: bacterias lesionadas; la línea de puntos: bacterias muertas.
122
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
Figura III.7. Descripción gráfica de la evolución del proceso, de acuerdo al modelo.●: Datos
experimentales; línea continua: bacterias cultivables (BAC + BIN); línea discontinua: bacterias
activas, rota y la línea de puntos: bacterias lesionadas; la línea de puntos: bacterias muertas
123
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
124
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
Los resultados de este trabajo fueron publicados en: Chemical Engineer ing
Jour nal 198–199 (2012), bajo el título: Chemical disinfection w ith H 2O2 - The pr oposal
of a r eaction kinetic model (388–396). Autor es: Flores Marina; Brandi Rodolfo;
Cassano Alberto y Labas Marisol (Apéndice 5-Publicaciones).
125
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
x Vector posición, m
B Bacteria
C Concentración
h constante de Planck, J s
L longitud, m
N Concentración de microorganismos
r radio
126
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
t Tiempo(s)
Y Rendimiento de oxidación
LETRAS GRIEGAS
γ Frecuencia, s-1
mol -1
λ longitud de onda, m
Ω ángulo sólido, sr
127
CAPÍTULO III. MODELADO DE PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN
SUBÍNDICES
AC activa
IN I njuriada, dañda
DE muerta
i Componente i
Het heterogéneo
Hom homogéneo
128
CAPITULO IV
TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS
PROCEDIMIENTO EXPERIMENTAL
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
129
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
130
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
5. Toma de M uestra.
ii. Los tubos con agua de peptona para las diluciones seriadas.
131
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
132
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
133
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
134
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
135
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
136
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
Reacción química:
Técnica Operatoria:
Cálculos:
137
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
Reacciones químicas:
1. Reacción de Oxidación:
2. Reacción en la titulación:
I 2 +2e- → 2I
S2 O3-2 → S4 O -24 +2 e-
2S2 O3-2 +I 2 → S4 O -24 +2I 2
Técnica Operatoria:
Cálculos:
138
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
139
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
3 15 W 1 ppm 105 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
3 15 W 2 ppm 105 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
3 15 W 3 ppm 105 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
3 15 W 4 ppm 105 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
3 15 W 5 ppm 105 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
3 15 W 6 ppm 105 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
3 15 W 8 ppm 105 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
3 15 W 10 ppm 105 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
140
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
141
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
142
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
143
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
En presencia del ión ioduro (I -), una solución tamponada de APA oxida
cuantitativamente el ioduro (I -) a iodo (I 2), este último reacciona con el DPD
formando un compuesto de color purpura cuya intensidad es proporcional a la
concentración de APA presente en la solución.
144
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
145
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
146
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
147
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
La catalasa del Asper gillus niger es eficaz bajo un rango muy amplio de
pH y de temperatura, y a concentraciones de peróxido de hidrógeno más altas
que la catalasa obtenida de fuente animal. La Catalasa del Asper gillus niger es
especificado en 1000 Unidades Baker por ml.
148
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
1. Por hidrólisis:
149
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
2. Descomposición espontánea:
150
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
151
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
152
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
Lactosa 5.0
Sacarosa 5.0
Eosina 0.4
Agar bacteriologico 15
Siembra e Incubación
153
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
Escherichia coli ATCC Bueno a excelente Verdosas con brillo metálico y centro
negro azulado
154
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
Cetrimide 0.3
Agar bacteriologico 15
Almacenamiento y conservación
155
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
Siembra e Incubación.
156
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
Extracto de carne 5
Cloruro de Sodio 5
157
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
Siembra e Incubación
Preparación:
158
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
Siembra:
Por inoculación directa del material en estudio. Como diluyente: realizar las
diluciones 1:10 y 1:100, dependiendo del uso que se le quiera dar.
Incubación:
Almacenamiento:
159
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
6. Lavar repetidas veces con agua corriente hasta que no haya restos del
colorante.
8. Preparación de un frotis
160
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
161
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
Figura IV.12 a) preparación de porta objetos con agua, b) toma de muestra para la tinción;
c) fijación a la llama
162
CAPITULO IV TÉCNICAS ANALÍTICAS. PROCEDIMIENTO
EXPERIMENTAL
Materiales:
ansa.
Procedimiento:
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Materiales:
ansa.
KOH al 40%
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Procedimiento:
iii. Dividir el contenido de cada uno de los tubos en dos partes iguales. En
una mitad, investigar la presencia de acetil-metil-carbinol y en la otra
la presencia de ácidos.
Interpretación de resultados:
Voges-Proskauer
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Rojo de Metilo:
M ateriales:
ansa.
Procedimiento:
Los resultados para Escher ichia coli puede observarse en la figura I V.14
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4.0
3.6
3.2
208.71
2.8
2.4
Absorbancia
2.0
1.6
1.2
0.8
0.0
190 200 220 240 260 280 300 320
Longitud de onda [nm]
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Para ello, se trabaja con los dos medios de cultivos a utilizar en este caso.
El caldo nutritivo es diluido 1/ 20 con solución fisiológica (Roux-Ocefa), se lo
coloca en el dispositivo experimental, se lo hace circular y se encienden las
lámparas, irradiando de esta manera al cultivo. Se toman muestras a intervalos
regulares se las coloca en frascos color caramelo y se mide de cada una la
absorbancia a 253.7 nm.
En esta parte del trabajo se comprobó que los valores de las absorbancias
medidas se mantienen relativamente constantes durante un tiempo prolongado
(Figura I V.16)
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Luego de las 18 hs se realiza una dilución (1/ 2000) del cultivo activo en
nuevamente en caldo nutritivo. La dilución se realiza en dos pasos; primero se
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h
Log. conc. UFC cm 3
c
tiempo (horas)
Figura IV.18. Curva de crecimiento experimental
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0 0.2649
2 0.2599
4 0.2516
6 0.2659
8 0.2657
10 0.2767
12 0.2767
16.5 0.7614
18.5 1.2839
20.5 1.3044
22.5 1.3341
24 1.3149
27 1.3176
29.5 1.3258
32 1.2726
39 1.2771
41 1.3141
43.5 1.3027
46 1.2206
48.5 1.2676
51 1.2763
53 1.2501
68 1.2622
76 1.2535
89 1.3823
115 1.2662
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178
CAPÍTULO V
DESINFECCIÓN.
ÁCIDO PERACÉTICO COMERCIAL
UV
CAPITULO V DESINFECCIÓN APA COMERCIAL -UV
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CAPITULO V DESINFECCIÓN APA COMERCIAL -UV
segundo, con un dispositivo desarrollado para tal fin. Los frascos colectores
poseen tiosulfato de sodio y catalasa para inhibir la acción del APA y del HP
respectivamente e impedir así, que sigan ejerciendo su poder oxidante antes del
sembrado.
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+hν
CH3CO3 H → CH 3CO2 + OH (V.1)
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k
1 C
k
2→C
k
i+1→ C kn (V.4)
C → → CEc,n
Ec,0 Ec,1 Ec,i Ec,n-1
Con i = 0, 1, 2, ....i...., n y k1 = k2 = kn = k
Las ecuaciones del modelo planteadas son generales, sin embargo para
simplificar la expresión se puede suponer que la constante cinética para cada
etapa es la misma ( k 1 = k 2=……= k n = k), obteniendo así una única constante
llamada constante de inactivación.
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CAPITULO V DESINFECCIÓN APA COMERCIAL -UV
0
Debe tenerse en cuenta que la concentración inicial de bacterias es C Ec
mientras que es la concentración de aquellos que no han recibido ningún daño
es C Ec,0 .Sólo en t = O C0Ec = C Ec,0 , en cualquier otro momento C Ec,i < C0Ec
Todas las bacterias, ya sea las que no han sufrido ningún daño, como las
que sí, pero no han alcanzado el umbral límite "n", son las sobrevivientes CEc .
Debido a que el número de bacterias inactivadas o muertas (dead, por el
término en inglés), puede obtenerse a partir de la diferencia entre la
0
concentración inicial de bacterias, C Ec y la concentración de las sobrevivientes
CEc, se presenta la siguiente ecuación:
n-1 (V.5)
C Ec,dead = C0Ec - C Ec = C0Ec - ∑ C Ec,i
i=0
Para i=0
dC Ec,i (V.6)
(α E )
γ
δ
= - k i +1 (C Ec,i ) λ λ ,0
dt
Para i= 1,2,3….(n-1)
dC Ec,i (V.7)
= k i ( C Ec,i −1 ) ( ,o ) k i +1 −( C Ec,i ) ( ,o )
δ γ δ γ
λ E λα λ E λα
dt
Para i=n
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dC Ec,i
= k i ( C Ec,i-1 ) (α E )
δ γ
λ λ ,o
dt
(V.8)
(V.11)
L λ , Ω (s R , t) = L0λ , Ω (t)
(V.12)
∫θ1 φd sinθ ( Lθλ ( , , θt ) )φexp ∫sR − ( s,αt ) ds
φ2 θ2 sL
E λ ,o (s, t) = ∫ d 0
φ1
0.5 (V.13)
2 r (cos φ − 1) + rL
2 2 2
Pλ,L
L (θ, φ) = ϒ w 2 2
0
4π rL L L sinθ
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1 (V.15)
r cosφ − r 2 (cos2φ−1) + rL2 2
θ2 (φ) = tan -1
−z
(r 2 − r 2 ) 12 (V.16)
−φ1 = φ2 = cos L -1
r
(ϒ Pλ ,L ) ( 4π2 rL2 L L ) φ2 θ2
E o ( r, z, t ) = ∫ ( dφ ) ∫ dθ 2
w
×
2 r 2 ( cos 2 φ -1) + rL2
0.5
φ1 θ1
sL
r ( cos φ − 1) + r
0.5
2 2
2
L exp − ∫ α ( s, t ) ds
sR
(V.17)
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Eo φ2 θ2
sL
∫ d 2 φr ( cosθ 1)
0.5
E o ( r, z, t ) = W
∫d
2 2
r φ −exp+
2
L ∫ ( s, t ) ds− α
ψ φ1 θ1 sR
(V.19)
1 LR (V.20)
E o ( r, z, t ) = ∫ E o ( r, z, t ) dz
LR 0
La ecuación final, para ser utilizada en las ecuaciones (V.6) a (V.8) es.
γ LR ro
φ2 θ2
2 Eo W
∫ dz ∫ rdr ∫ dφ ∫ dθ
γ
E = 2 2 2×
o
( ro − ri ) LR ψ 0 ri φ1 θ1
γ
sL
r ( cos φ − 1) + rL exp − ∫ α ( s, t ) ds
0.5
2 2 2
sR
(V.21)
(V.22)
α = αEc + αc with αEc = ∑ κEc,i C Ec,i
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1 λ max (V.23)
αc =
Pc ∫
λ min λ Pλ d α λ
∧
Donde: κ [ = ] cm ( CFU ) and CEc,i [ =] CFU cm -3.
2 -1
γ=0.5
N=4
δ= (0,70,02)
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ACRONIMOS CAPITULO IV
C Concentración
h constante de Planck, J s
L longitud, m
t Tiempo(s)
V Volumen
LETRAS GRIEGAS
γ Frecuencia, s-1
mol -1
λ longitud de onda, m
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CAPITULO V DESINFECCIÓN APA COMERCIAL -UV
Ω ángulo sólido, sr
201
CAPÍTULO VI
PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN.
UTILIZANDO
ÁCIDO PERACÉTICO COMERCIAL
CAPITULO VI PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN USANDO ÁCIDO
PERACÉTICO
de la concentración a trabajar.
correspondiente).
7. Toma de M uestra.
8. Siembra.
9. Recuento.
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Figura VI.1. Inactivación de E. coli con solución comercial de APA (1 ppm). Las
barras de error están contenidas dentro del símbolo.
Figura VI.2. Inactivación de E. coli con solución comercial de APA (1.5 ppm). Las
barras de error están contenidas dentro del símbolo.
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CAPITULO VI PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN USANDO ÁCIDO
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Tipo II
Tipo III
Tipo I
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factible pensar que la fase “lag” que se observa en estas curvas no-lineales
representa la serie de etapas y condiciones que conllevan a la muerte celular,
siendo una de las condiciones más importantes la concentración del
desinfectante.
Debe notarse, que para las concentraciones superiores a los 5 mg L -1, las
gráficas son líneas rectas y se obtiene el 99,99 % de inactivación en menos de 2,1
minutos. Es interesante destacar que aproximadamente 6 mg L -1 es la
concentración usualmente aplicada en la desinfección de aguas cuando se utiliza
APA como agente desinfectante (Colgan y Gehr, 2001, Lefevre et al. 1992). Al
trabajar con estas concentraciones, es acertado pensar que los agentes oxidantes
atacan las moléculas más externas de la membrana, generando un subsecuente
rompimiento de enlaces alcanzando rápidamente la lisis celular. De esta
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Del análisis de las figuras VI .13. a VI .15. se puede observar que para obtener
el mismo nivel de desinfección (99,9%) logrado por la mezcla comercial de APA
es necesario duplicar el tiempo de contacto cuando se utiliza APA solo. Esto
puedo ser visualizado claramente en la tabla VI .1.
Tabla VI.1. Tiempo necesario para lograr el mismo nivel de inactivación: solución
comercial de APA versus APA inhibiendo peróxido.
4 180 4 300
5 120 5 290
6 90 6 150
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CAPITULO VI PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN USANDO ÁCIDO
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(VI.8)
Reacción Fenton: Fe 2+ +H 2 O 2 → Fe3+ +OH +OH -
(VI.9)
Reacción Haber-Weis:O -2 +H 2 O 2
H
→ O 2 +H 2 O+OH
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CAPITULO VI PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN USANDO ÁCIDO
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(t = 9000 s) (t = 300 s)
15 80 1 28.4
45 92 2 99.9
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CAPITULO VI PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN USANDO ÁCIDO
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APA+BACT → BSEN
APA+BSEN
vía catalasa
→ BCIN
APA+BCIN → BID
HP+BACT → BSEN
HP+BSEN
ataque de la catalasa
→ BDAN
HP+BDAN → BID
APA + BSEN → BDAM
APA+BDAN → BID
HP + BCIN → BID
BID → Lisis
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CAPITULO VI PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN USANDO ÁCIDO
PERACÉTICO
k C k C k C
BACT
APA,1 APA
→ BSEN
APA,2 APA
→ BCIN
APA,3 APA
→ BID → ... → Lisis (VI.10)
El primer contacto del APA, representado por la ecuación (VI .11), con la
célula bacteriana es con la membrana externa, esta constituye una verdadera
red de peptidoglicano y lipopolisacáridos, que le proveen integridad estructural
y la aíslan del medio circundante. Esta estructura es el “target” principal de los
biocidas fuertemente oxidantes. (Los componentes estructurales de la
membrana que son atacados por el ácido peracético, son los grupos tiol,
presente en las proteínas y enzimas transmembrana). También es posible prever
que esta alteración al normal funcionamiento celular, produzca la fosforilación
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CAPITULO VI PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN USANDO ÁCIDO
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Donde BACT es la bacteria activa, viable con la pared celular intacta y BSEN
es la bacteria que ha sufrido una alternación en los sitios target de la membrana,
cambiando su permeabilidad, el gradiente de pH, dejándola sensibilizada para
un posterior ataque.
APA+BSEN
vía catalasa
→ BCIN (VI.12a)
Una propuesta plausible para la acción del APA con la catalasa es que
produce una oxidación en los enlaces de los residuos de las proteínas,
cambiando el estado de oxidación e impidiendo que esta cumpla su función
como antioxidante. Es posible pensar en la siguiente etapa de reacción para la
inhibición del poder antioxidante de la enzima.
Donde aa son los aminoácidos que constituyen la enzima y aaRM son los
aminoácidos cuyos residuos han sido modificados (subíndice RM ).
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CAPITULO VI PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN USANDO ÁCIDO
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Para hallar las expresiones que permiten obtener los parámetros del
modelo, es necesario plantear el balance de materia correspondiente. Dado que
el reactor es un tanque de 2 litros de capacidad, que se encuentra perfectamente
mezclado, la concentración de APA se considera uniforme en todo el volumen
del reactor. Además el reactor opera en forma isotérmica, ya que la temperatura
permanece constante a 20º C mediante el uso de una camisa refrigerante.
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CAPITULO VI PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN USANDO ÁCIDO
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dC BACT
= −( k APA,1C APA ) C BACT
dt (VI.15)
dC BSEN
= − ( k APA,2 C APA ) C BSEN + ( k APA,1C APA ) C BACT (VI.16)
dt
dC BCIN
= − ( k APA,3C APA ) C BCIN + ( k APA,2 C APA ) C BSEN (VI.17)
dt
dC BID
= +( k APA,3C APA ) C BCIN (V.18)
dt
Con sus correspondientes condiciones iniciales, a tiempo igual a cero:
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CAPITULO VI PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN USANDO ÁCIDO
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2
1 N ln(C BVIA ,i ) − ln(C BVIA ,i )
EXP MOD
RMSE = ∑
N i ln(C EXP
(VI.21)
BVIA ,i )
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PERACÉTICO
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CAPITULO VI PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN USANDO ÁCIDO
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Las figuras VI . 19. a VI . 22. muestran el buen ajuste entre las predicciones
del modelo y los datos experimentales obtenidos de la inactivación de E. coli
utilizando APA como único agente oxidante.
RM SE= 8,6%
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CAPITULO VI PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN USANDO ÁCIDO
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k C k C k C
BACT
HP ,1 HP
→ BSEN
HP ,2 HP
→ BDAM
HP ,3 HP
→ BID → ... → Lisis (VI.22)
La bacteria activa (BACT) sufre una sensibilización por parte del ataque del
peróxido quedando sensibilizada para un posterior embate del desinfectante
HP+BSEN
ataque de la catalasa
→ BDAN (VI.24.a)
donde aa: son los aminoácidos que rodean al grupo hemo. El hierro se
encuentra en estado de oxidación 3+ (Fe 3+ ) y es el elemento principal del grupo.
Además, se puede observar una reacción redox, donde las especies oxidantes
son reducidas luego a su estado original.
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CAPITULO VI PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN USANDO ÁCIDO
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2H 2 O 2
enzima catalasa
→ 2H 2 O + O 2 (VI.25)
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PERACÉTICO
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CAPITULO VI PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN USANDO ÁCIDO
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dC BACT
= −( k HP,1C HP ) C BACT (VI.28)
dt
dC BSEN
= − ( k HP,2 C HP ) C BSEN + ( k HP,1C HP ) C BACT
dt (VI.29)
dC BDAM
= − ( k HP,3C HP ) C BDAM + ( k HP,2 C HP ) C BSEN
dt (VI.30)
dC BID
= +( k HP,3C HP ) C BDAM (VI.31)
dt
La concentración de bacterias viables puede ser obtenida mediante la
relación:
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CAPITULO VI PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN USANDO ÁCIDO
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CAPITULO VI PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN USANDO ÁCIDO
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CAPITULO VI PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN USANDO ÁCIDO
PERACÉTICO
Las figuras VI . 26. a VI . 29. muestran la bondad del ajuste entre las
predicciones del modelo y los datos experimentales obtenidos de la inactivación
de E. coli utilizando HP como único agente oxidante, a diferentes
concentraciones.
RSM : 1,6%
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CAPITULO VI PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN USANDO ÁCIDO
PERACÉTICO
241
CAPITULO VI PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN USANDO ÁCIDO
PERACÉTICO
k C k C k C
BACT
HP ,1 HP
→ BSEN
HP ,2 HP
→ BDAM
HP ,3 HP
→ BID (VI.33)
k C k C k C
BACT
APA ,1 APA
→ BSEN
APA ,2 APA
→ BCIN
APA ,3 APA
→ BID (VI.34)
k C k C
BSEN
APA ,5 APA
→ BDAM
APA ,4 APA
→ BID (VI.35)
k C
BCIN
HP ,4 HP
→ BID (VI.36)
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CAPITULO VI PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN USANDO ÁCIDO
PERACÉTICO
dC BACT
= − ( k APA,1C APA ) + ( k HP,1C HP ) C BACT VI.38)
dt
dC BSEN
= ( k APA,1C APA ) ( k+
HP,1C HP ) C BACT (−k APA,2 C APA )
( k+
HP,2 C HP ) ( k+
APA,5 C APA ) C BSEN
dt
(VI.39)
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CAPITULO VI PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN USANDO ÁCIDO
PERACÉTICO
dC BCIN
= ( k APA,2 C APA ) C BSEN ( k−APA,3C APA )
(k +HP,4 C HP ) C BCIN
dt
((VI.40)
dC BDAM
= ( k APA,5C APA ) + ( k HP,2 C HP ) C BSEN − ( k APA,4 C APA ) + ( k HP,3C HP ) C BDAM
dt
(VI.41)
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CAPITULO VI PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN USANDO ÁCIDO
PERACÉTICO
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CAPITULO VI PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN USANDO ÁCIDO
PERACÉTICO
246
CAPITULO VI PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN USANDO ÁCIDO
PERACÉTICO
Las figuras VI . 31. a VI . 34. muestran la bondad del ajuste entre las
predicciones del modelo y los datos experimentales obtenidos de la inactivación
de E. coli utilizando la solución comercial de APA a diferentes concentraciones.
RM SE: 7.1%
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PERACÉTICO
VI.4. CONCLUSIONES
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CAPITULO VI PROCESOS DE DESINFECCIÓN USANDO ÁCIDO
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ACRONIMOS CAPITULO VI
aa Aminoácidos
B Bacteria
HP Peróxido de Hidrógeno
K Constante cinética
Por Porfirina
V velocidad
SUFIJOS
ACT Activa
CI N Catalasa inhibida
DAM Dañada
ID I rreversiblemente Dañada
RM Residuos de aminoácidos
SEN Sensibilizada
251
CAPÍTULO VII
CONCLUSIONES
Y
PERSPECTIVAS FUTURAS
CAPITULO VII CONCLUSIONES Y PERSPECTIVAS FUTURAS
VII.1 CONCLUSIONES
Este comportamiento fue explicado teniendo en cuenta que por un lado, la mezcla
del APA absorbe radiación UV, por lo tanto consume una parte de fotones que podrían
ser utilizados para inactivar al microorganismo (efecto de competencia) y por otro lado
la fotodegradación del APA facilita la producción de especies oxidantes que atacan al
microorganismo. Estos dos efectos son antagónicos y el resultado final es un efecto
sinérgico leve.
252
CAPITULO VII CONCLUSIONES Y PERSPECTIVAS FUTURAS
253
CAPITULO VII CONCLUSIONES Y PERSPECTIVAS FUTURAS
254
CAPITULO VII CONCLUSIONES Y PERSPECTIVAS FUTURAS
255
APENDICE I
APENDICE I. ENSAYOS EXPERIMENTALES CON E. coli
256
APENDICE I. ENSAYOS EXPERIMENTALES CON E. coli
257
APENDICE I. ENSAYOS EXPERIMENTALES CON E. coli
258
APENDICE I. ENSAYOS EXPERIMENTALES CON E. coli
259
APENDICE I. ENSAYOS EXPERIMENTALES CON E. coli
Corrida N° 1 – UV-C.
Concentración de E. coli: 2,91E+05 UFC/cm3
Tiempo de Concentración de E. coli (UFC/cm3)
Retención Corrida N° 1 Corrida N° 2 Media [C] C/C0 Log [C/C0]
Hidráulico (s)
0 2,91E+05 2,91E+05 2,91E+05 1,00E+00 0,00E+00
1 2,47E+05 2,53E+05 2,50E+05 8,59E-01 -6,59E-02
2 2,26E+05 2,36E+05 2,31E+05 7,95E-01 -9,98E-02
3 1,21E+05 1,31E+05 1,26E+05 4,32E-01 -3,65E-01
4 2,68E+04 2,76E+04 2,72E+04 9,33E-02 -1,03E+00
5 4,20E+03 4,40E+03 4,30E+03 1,48E-02 -1,83E+00
6 1,75E+03 1,83E+03 1,79E+03 6,17E-03 -2,21E+00
7 8,60E+02 9,00E+02 8,80E+02 3,02E-03 -2,52E+00
8 x x x x x
Remoción/Inactivación(7 seg)= 99,70%
260
APENDICE I. ENSAYOS EXPERIMENTALES CON E. coli
261
APENDICE I. ENSAYOS EXPERIMENTALES CON E. coli
262
APENDICE I. ENSAYOS EXPERIMENTALES CON E. coli
263
APENDICE I. ENSAYOS EXPERIMENTALES CON E. coli
264
APENDICE I. ENSAYOS EXPERIMENTALES CON E. coli
265
APENDICE I. ENSAYOS EXPERIMENTALES CON E. coli
266
APENDICE I. ENSAYOS EXPERIMENTALES CON E. coli
267
APÉNDICE II
APENDICE II CATÁLOGO LAMPARA PHILIPS TUV 15
TUV T8
TUV 15W SLV
• Características Generales
Descripción del - • Características de Dimensiónes
Sistema
Longitud Casquillo- 437.4 (max) mm
Base/Casquillo G13
-Casquillo A
Forma de la lámpara T26
Longitud B de Inser- 442.1 (min), 444.5 (max) mm
Aplicación Principal Desinfección
ción
Vida útil 9000 hr
Longitud Total C 451.6 (max) mm
Diámetro D 28 (max) mm
• Característcas de la Fuente de Luz
Designación de - • Datos Producto
Color
Código de pedido 726179 40
Código de producto 871150072617940
• Características Eléctricas Nombre de Producto TUV 15W SLV
Nombre de pedido TUV 15W SLV/25
Pot. de la Lámpara 15 W
del producto
Estimada
Piezas por caja 1
Potencia Técnica de 15.9 W
Configuración de 25
la Lámpara
embalaje
Voltaje de la Lámpara 54 V
Cajas por caja exte- 25
Corriente de la 0.34 A
rior
Lámpara
Código de barras del 8711500726179
producto
• Características Medioambientales Código de barras de 8711500638618
la caja exterior
Contenido de 2.0 mg
Código logístico - 928039004005
mercurio (Hg)
12NC
Peso neto por pieza 81.600 gr
• Características relativas a UV
Radiación UVC 4.9 W
268
APENDICE II CATÁLOGO LAMPARA PHILIPS TUV 15
TUV T8
Plano de dimensiones
D
A
B
C
13
Datos fotométricos
%
100
% 100
80
80
60
60
40
40
20 20
200 300 400 500 600 700 l nm 200 300 400 500 600 700 λ [nm]
TUV T8 TUV T8
Las especificaciones están sujetas a cambios sin previo aviso. Las marcas registradas son propiedad
de Koninklijke Philips Electronics N.V. o de sus respectivos propietarios.
269
APÉNDICE III
APENDICE III MODELADO MOLECULAR CON VMD
Info) http://www.ks.uiuc.edu/Research/vmd/
Info) -------------------------------------------------------------
pdb
270
APENDICE III MODELADO MOLECULAR CON VMD
Info) Segments: 1
vmd >
271
APÉNDICE IV
APENDICE IV Pseudomonas aeruginosa
APENDICE IV
AIV. 1 HABITAD
272
APENDICE IV Pseudomonas aeruginosa
273
APENDICE IV Pseudomonas aeruginosa
274
APENDICE IV Pseudomonas aeruginosa
química capaz de proteger a la bacteria de las moléculas e iones de cloro libre residual
(Reilly, 2000).
275
APENDICE IV Pseudomonas aeruginosa
• Día 1:
A última hora de la tarde, inoculación del medio complejo con la cepa ATCC
liofilizada.
Procedimiento:
• Día 2:
Procedimiento:
NOTA: un tubo de ensayo será utilizado al día siguiente para realizar las
observaciones microscópicas; otro para realizar estrías en agar cetrimide, y el último
para plaqueos en agar cetrimide a partir de diluciones seriadas.
276
APENDICE IV Pseudomonas aeruginosa
• Día 3:
Realización de estrías.
Realización de plaqueos
Procedimiento:
Tomar 0,1 ml del tubo inoculado y descargar en otra placa de petri con
agar cetrimide.
277
APENDICE IV Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Dejar secar y llevar luego a estufa a 37°C por 24 horas para incubación
(en forma invertida).
Llevar a estufa el tubo de ensayo con el inoculo inicial por 24 horas más
a 37°C.
Observaciones microscópicas.
• Día 4:
Procedimiento:
glicerol al 15%.
Llevar al freezer.
• Día 5:
279
APENDICE IV Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Figura AIV.2 Comparación de placas de P aeruginosa: dilución (izquierda), sin diluir (derecha)
280
APENDICE IV Pseudomonas aeruginosa
281
APENDICE IV Pseudomonas aeruginosa
282
APENDICE IV Pseudomonas aeruginosa
283
APENDICE IV Pseudomonas aeruginosa
284
APENDICE IV Pseudomonas aeruginosa
285
APÉNDICE V
APENDICE V PUBLICACIONES
Chemical Engineering Journal 198–199 (2012) 388–396
h i g h l i g h t s
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The inactivation (death) of Escherichia coli bacteria in water employing hydrogen peroxide has been stud-
Received 8 February 2012 ied and a five log decrease in CFU cm?3 was achieved. The reaction kinetics was modeled as a series of
Received in revised form 29 April 2012 biochemical steps represented by pseudo-homogeneous reactions between hydroxyl radicals and the
Accepted 30 May 2012
components of the cellular walls. Afterwards, the lysate was supposed to undergo a group of parallel
Available online 9 June 2012
reactions leading to the oxidation of the chemical components of the cell. It was assumed that the initi-
ation step of hydrogen peroxide dissociation is promoted by the presence of iron or iron-superoxide com-
Keywords:
pounds. In addition the model takes into account that the reaction forming the lysate as well as the ones
Disinfection
Hydrogen peroxide
that follow the destruction of the bacterium wall, compete for the available oxidizing radicals with the
Kinetic model steps that involve the attack on active and injured bacteria. A four parameter representation shows good
Escherichia coli agreement for the whole range of employed hydrogen peroxide concentrations. The results are valid for
any form and size of the employed reactor as long as the described operating conditions (pH and concen-
trations) are maintained. This development constitutes a very general model that is capable to describe
inactivation processes whose graphical representation also shows the presence of shoulders at the begin-
ning and tailings in the end of the operation.
? 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1385-8947/$ - see front matter ? 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2012.05.107
286
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M.J. Flores et al. / Chemical Engineering Journal 198–199 (2012) 388–396 389
Nomenclature
cellular damage that leads to an irremediable outcome; i.e., its components, hindering the possibility of bacteria recovery or
death. resuscitation.
Moreover, the extreme reactivity of these radicals provides Several kinetic models to represent the disinfection process
them the means to become major participants in the toxic pro- have been published. Some of them are empirical equations such
cesses mediated by free radicals [13], a conclusion that has been as for example those proposed Chick [34], Watson [35], Hom
demonstrated by numerous studies [14–19]. In the spontaneous [36], Cerft [37], Buchnann et al. [38], Membre et al. [39] while oth-
mutagenesis and oxidative damage to DNA in Salmonella typhimu- ers, very well represented by the work of Severin et al. [40] with
rium, Storz et al. [20] found that OH? can produce a break in the their series and multi target events have a more mechanistic ap-
double chain and/or some chemical modifications in the nitrogen proach. Just recently a much direct interpretation of the involved
bases. In a study of the membrane system, Anzai et al. [21] found oxidation process has been published by Marugan et al. [41].
that hydroxyl radicals increased lipid peroxidation. The toxicity In this work we have made an attempt to develop a general
of OH? radicals generated in vivo has also been well documented model to describe the chemical disinfection reaction based on a
by Nunoshiba et al. [11]. Rincon et al. [22] studied the photocata- simplified generic interpretation of a very difficult and intricate
lytic process with TiO2 for disinfection of drinking water and pos- mechanism. Thus, the membrane disruption, the subsequent lysis
tulated that the interaction of hydroxyl radicals with bacteria led of the components of the bacteria and the oxidation of the result-
to its inactivation. ing lysate, were modeled as series of episodes followed by a se-
One of the most logical hypotheses is to consider that a quence of parallel events, in which the level of damage will
Fenton-like or Haber-Weis-like reactions [11,13,23,24] at low iron increase until the bacteria not only dies or is severely affected in
concentrations [25,26] could be the main cause of formation of the its vital functions but also, given enough time, the chemical com-
hydroxyl radical, and that this radical will be the most important ponents of the cell will be fully oxidized. Hence, this model should
product of these reactions. Even if Fenton and Fenton-like reactions be useful to characterize quite accurately simple as well as com-
are usually conducted at acidic pH, it has been shown that they can plex survival curves of inactivation. In fact, in the present context
also be effective working at circumneutral pHs [27–31]. Moreover, it appears capable of accommodating initial resistances or retards,
problems usually encountered en large scale applications will as manifested by the shoulder which appears in many survival
never be an important issue in biological systems. However, with curves as well as the observed tailings at the end of other methods.
respect to the participation of type of reactions, their inclusion This detailed description of the possible pathway through different
does not mean that one will ignore that microorganisms have steps, enhances a virtual visualization of the full process and sim-
defensive systems to inhibit the destruction of its internal oxida- plifies further actions concerning reactor design, scale-up or opti-
tion–reduction balancing [32] and some competition will always mization procedures.
be present. These considerations are one of the principal grounds
for the model presented in this report.
For disinfection purposes, the non-persistent characteristic of 2. Experimental
hydrogen peroxide becomes a disadvantage to maintain the water
quality in the distribution system. However, its use is widely 2.1. The reacting system
spread because it is relatively inexpensive, easily removed when
desired and unlikely to be hazardous to health if used properly In all experimental runs we employed a well-stirred, cylindrical
[33]. In addition, it does not give rise to disinfection byproducts, batch reactor, having a total reaction volume of 2000 cm3. Stirring
as it is the case of other strong oxidants. But even more impor- was achieved with an external orbital shaking device. A cooling
tantly, the consequence of the hydrogen peroxide action leads to jacket connected to a thermostatic bath (Haake) surrounds the
a complete and irreversible destruction of the bacteria reactor to keep the reacting system at a constant temperature of
287
APENDICE V PUBLICACIONES
390 M.J. Flores et al. / Chemical Engineering Journal 198–199 (2012) 388–396
20 ?C. The top of the reactor has provisions for sampling, pH and hydrogen peroxide to make sure that the starting solution was free
temperature measurements (see Fig. 1). from other inactivating agents.
Each sample was examined with the following measurements:
absorbance at 350 nm (spectrophotometric analysis) for hydrogen
2.2. Chemicals peroxide and CFU counting using specific Petrifilm™ plates (3 M
Microbiology Products) for E. coli and coliform bacteria. This meth-
The following chemical were used: hydrogen peroxide (Merck, od has been recognized by the American Public Health Association
pro-analysis 30%), Catalase (from Aspergillus niger, Biochemika), in Standard Methods for the examination of Dairy Products [43]
Ammonium molybdate (Cicarelli, pro-analysis), Potassium iodide and the Association of Official Analytical Chemists International
(Cicarelli, pro-analysis), Potassium acid phthalate (Cicarelli, 95% in Official Methods of Analysis (AOAC) [47] as equivalent to the
pro-analysis), Physiological saline solution (Roux-Ocefa), Nutrient conventional plate method for this type of microorganism. Dilu-
broth (Biokar Diagnostics), Sodium hydroxide (Cicarelli, pro-analy- tions of the samples to obtain the optimum concentrations for
sis) and Peptone water (Biokar Diagnostic). the CFU counting method were made with a sterile peptone water
solution. To quench the hydrogen peroxide action during the time
interval between sampling and spread plating, a known fraction of
2.3. Experimental procedure the sample was mixed with the required amount of catalase solu-
tion. Control experiments were conducted to ensure that the em-
Throughout this work E. coli strain ATCC 8739 was used. The ployed concentrations of catalase solutions did not affect bacteria
purity of the strain was verified by conventional methods concentrations. After spreading the plates with the appropriate
[42,43]. The culture was grown in a complex medium (Nutrient volume of sample they were incubated for 24 h at 37 ?C.
broth) that had beef extract as the main component. Therefore,
the broth composition was: tryptone: 10 g L?1, beef extract
5 g L?1 and NaCl: 5 g L?1. 3. Kinetic model proposal
The working solution was prepared from a culture that had
reached the stationary phase of growing and, afterwards, was The key point is to search for one acceptable assumption con-
brought to a 1/1000 dilution with physiological saline. This cerning the possible place where the action of ROS can take place.
dilution helped to ensure that there was no bacteria growth during According to Dalrymple et al. [2] in the case of bacteria there are
the disinfection run due to the fact that the growing culture three sites of the cell that could be the targets for ROS invasion:
concentration was sufficiently diluted [44,45]. An atomic spectros- (1) The peptidoglycan layer, (2) the lipopolysaccharide layer
copy analysis (Perkin-Elmer-5000 AAnalyst) detected traces of iron (found only in Gram-negative bacteria) and (3) the phospholipid
and copper ions in the growing culture (Cu = 7.7 lg g?1 and bilayer. In this study E. coli was the chosen bacteria to work with
Fe = 43 lg g?1). and consequently the three layers will be present. Chemical-reac-
The prepared culture was mixed with the desired amount of tive agents like hydrogen peroxide may display some target spec-
hydrogen peroxide and distilled water. The hydrogen peroxide ificity like membrane thiol groups and ribosomes but, frequently,
concentrations varied between 15 and 300 ppm. They were mea- hydroxyl radicals have sufficient reactivity to interact with differ-
sured with colorimetric techniques at 350 nm, according to Allen ent cellular components obscuring the direct primary damage. It
et al. [46] with a Perkin-Elmer-330 spectrophotometer. All initial is very likely that, this could be the way to break down the cell
concentrations (at t = 0) were in the order of 105 CFU cm?3 and membrane. Once this action occurs, ROS could still act on intracel-
afterwards, samples were withdrawn at different time intervals lular vulnerable sites such as enzymes, coenzymes and nucleic
for several determinations. The exact value of the bacteria’s initial acids. The enzymatic system appears to be one of the most impor-
concentration was measured for each experiment. Runs were tant and irreplaceable reconstructive agent for bacteria reactiva-
duplicated and samples subjected to triplicate determinations. tion in UVC disinfection. Consequently, if the disruption of the
The initial pH was 7 and remained practically constant during all cellular wall is not enough, this effect of hydrogen peroxide on
the runs. In addition, experiments were carried out without intracellular components could explain why oxidative disinfection
is always an irreversible process.
With regard to the most plausible mechanisms for producing
damage on components of the cell several detailed studies have
been reported, many of them still under discussion. Nevertheless,
it is recognized that the process constitute a large sequence of a
complex network of interconnected steps before reaching what
might be called the ‘‘final product’’ (inactivation). The fundamental
question is to know if only one simple reaction path is sufficient or
if it is necessary to resort to more than one to complete the pur-
sued objective and, in this case, whether or not it is indispensable
to model all the steps involved in the oxidation of the lysis prod-
ucts to adequately represent the disinfection operation leading to
cell death.
In view of these difficulties, and searching for some form of
plausible, simplified and at the same time, conceptually undis-
torted representation of all these processes, one could try to adopt
a model that takes into account the previously mentioned actions
on the biological metabolism, without assigning a detailed compo-
sition to each of the representative family of cell components. Once
this model is mathematically stated, it will be necessary to find out
the minimum set of kinetic parameters that are required to depict,
Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the experimental reactor setup. within an acceptable error, the series or series–parallel events that
288
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M.J. Flores et al. / Chemical Engineering Journal 198–199 (2012) 388–396 391
lead to the dead of the bacteria. In this sense, the membrane dis- an initiation step promoted by iron (III) or iron (III)-superoxide to
ruption, the subsequent lysis of the components of the bacteria split the hydrogen peroxide, the following sequence can be
and the oxidation of the resulting lysate, can be modeled as series proposed:
of episodes followed by a sequence of parallel events, in which the
level of damage will increase until the bacteria is severely affected 3.1.1. Initiation
in its vital functions [1,41,48] without pursuing further oxidation
reactions if they are not necessary. k1
? ?
The kinetic model put forward here for E. coli disinfection is a H2 O2 ??????????????????
?! OH þ OH ð1Þ
Fe2þ þH2 O2 or Fe3þ þO??
2 promotion
conceptual modification of the one described by Marugan et al.
[41] where a reaction pathway is proposed for the undamaged, Note that, when the reaction is written as above, without
damaged and inactivated populations of bacteria and particularly, including specifically the Fe3+ or the Fe3þ þ O??
2 promotion, k1 is
for the structural mechanism of the bacteria decease. Instead of not known.
considering the attachment of titanium dioxide particles on the
bacterium wall that afterwards is followed by the classical oxida- 3.1.2. Propagation
tive mechanism of the photocatalytic system, in this work we be-
gin by considering the full sequence of hydroxyl radicals
formation and then, explicitly takes into account that there is k2
H2 O2 þ OH? ?! HO?2 þ H2 O ð2Þ
one attack on the cell membrane components according to Dal-
rymple et al. [2] that could involve one or more steps until the cell k3
anatomy is disrupted causing the bacteria’s death; i.e. it is neither H2 O2 þ HO?2 ?! OH? þ H2 O þ O2 ð3Þ
active, nor culturable [49]. At this point a lysate is achieved. After-
wards, the most important families of cells components are in- 3.1.3. Termination
volved in a net of parallel-series oxidative reactions that can
compete with the active and injured cells for the hydroxyl radicals
k4
and thus affecting the disinfection rate. 2OH? ?! H2 O2 ð4Þ
In modeling the intrinsic reaction kinetics of disinfection with
hydrogen peroxide one of the major difficulties is to include the k5
2HO?2 ?! H2 O2 þ O2 ð5Þ
iron or iron-superoxide participation in the mechanism to produc-
ing hydroxyl radicals [11,13]; i.e. the Fenton-like or Haber-Weis- k6
like reactions: OH? þ HO?2 ?! H2 O þ O2 ð6Þ
Fe2þ þ H2 O2 ! Fe3þ þ ? OH þ OH? All these steps have been studied in details for several years
3þ 2þ now and are fully accepted in the scientific literature Buxton
Fe þ H2 O2 ! Fe þ ? O2 H þ H þ
et al. [50], Laat and Gallard [51], Zalazar et al. [52] just to mention
or a few examples.
Fe3þ þ O??
2 ! Fe
2þ
þ O2 3.1.4. Membrane disruption
Fe2þ þ H2 O2 ! Fe3þ þ OH? þ OH? The process that ends up with the membrane breakdown may
be treated by resorting to a pseudo-homogeneous interpretation
There are two reasons for this complication: (1) The real mech- of the intricate network of superficial reactions that leads to the
anistic interaction of iron compounds inside the cell to explain the rupture of the protective envelope. Let HSCW jBAC represent a hypo-
effects produced by the oxidative radicals is not fully understood thetical species of the components of the cell wall of the active bac-
yet and (2) the concentrations of the ferric and the superoxide ions teria whose concentration can be expressed in units of mol cm?2
are not precisely known. and that reacts with the OH? radical. This composition is the same
One artificial way to deal with this problem is to assume that for every bacterium of a given family of bacteria. Then,
the reaction is effectively mediated by iron or the couple ferric-
superoxide ions, that they are at constant concentrations and that k?7
HSCW jBAC þ OH? ?! HSCW jBIN
this process can be included as part of a hypothetical kinetic step.
The respective pseudo specific constant of this stage represents the At this point, it is possible to think of SSAjBAC as the specific
mechanism to generate the hydroxyl radicals. superficial area per unit volume of one cell (in units of cm2 cm?3),
VjBAC as the volume of one cell per CFU (in units of cm3 CFU?1) and
3.1. A proposal of a tentative reaction representation of the bacteria [BAC] as the whole instantaneous concentration of the active bacte-
death ria (in units of CFU cm?3 of reacting medium). The concentration of
hypothetical species per unit volume of the fluid may be calculated
The reactions that lead the hydroxyl radical generation are from the above mentioned superficial concentration of this species
known to the point that, if desired, all the values of the specific ki- as:
netic constants of each step have been well established. Assuming
289
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392 M.J. Flores et al. / Chemical Engineering Journal 198–199 (2012) 388–396
Taking into account averaging values for specific family of bac- of view the activity of the OH? radicals can be interpreted in terms
h i
teria, HSCW jBAC in the cell wall, SSAjBAC and VjBAC may be assumed of several parallel-series reactions with an undefined number of
hypothetical components of the resulting lysis. In the model they
almost constant. Then,
are represented by LYP;1 ; LYP;2 ; . . . LYP;n?1 ; LYP;n , that correspond to
½HSCW jBAC ? ? SSAjBAC ? VjBAC important groups of compounds which, after ulterior oxidations
will produce the end products of the disinfection process:
¼ constant k7
|{z}
Pseudo-homogeneous volumetric kinetic constant
þOH? þOH? þOH?
¼
?
k7 ?½HSCW jBAC ? ? SSAjBAC ? VjBAC LYP;1 ! LYP;1;1 ! ? ? ? LYP;1;n?1 ! EP;1;n
|{z}
þOH? þOH? þOH?
Superficial kinetic constant LYP;2 ! LYP;2;1 ! ? ? ? LYP;2;n?1 ! EP;2;n
However, it is very unlikely that just one hydroxyl radical will ..
. ð10Þ
produce a serious damage to the cell wall. Neither the number of
moles of OH? which are necessary to consider that the bacterium þOH? þOH? þOH?
LYP;n?1 ! LYP;n?1;1 ! ? ? ? LYP;n?1;n?1 ! EP;n?1;n
has been injured, nor the number of bacterium that form a CFU
are known. It is always possible to conceive an oxidation yield as þOH? þOH? þOH?
LYP;n ! LYP;n;1 ! ? ? ? LYP;n;n?1 ! EP;n;n
the ratio of injured CFU with respect to the spent hydroxyl radicals
to produce this event:
where:
?
k9 ¼ k9 ?½HSCW jBDE ? ? SSAjBDE ? VjBDE
|{z} |{z}
Pseudo-homogeneous volumetric kinetic constant Superficial kinetic constant
Once the anatomic morphology of the cell has been altered pro- RHO?2 ¼ k2 ½H2 O2 ?½OH? ? ? k3 ½H2 O2 ?½HO?2 ? ? k5 ½HO?2 ?2 ? k6 ½OH? ?
ducing the lysate, the OH? can interact with its internal compo-
? ½HO?2 ? ð12Þ
nents in typical homogeneous reactions. From the chemical point
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M.J. Flores et al. / Chemical Engineering Journal 198–199 (2012) 388–396 393
The reaction rate expression for the Active and Injured bacteria ½BAC ?½H2 O2 ?cA ? ½BIN ?½H2 O2 ?cIN
RBIN ¼ ð19Þ
are: ½H2 O2 ? þ c0 ½BAC ? þ c1 ½BIN ? þ c2 ½BDE ?
? ?
k1 k8
RBAC ¼ ?k7 ½BAC ?½OH? ? ð13Þ where cIN ¼ k2
Applying the Micro Steady State Assumption (MSSA), from steps Fig. 2 displays all the experimental data obtained in this work.
(1) to (6) the hydroxyl radical concentration (OH?) can be readily Two direct conclusions can be extracted from these results. The
calculated. first is that concentrations of hydrogen peroxide below approxi-
Additionally, on the basis of previous confirmed evidences it is mately 300 ppm are impractical regardless the disinfection time.
assumed that the rates of termination steps (4) and (6) are negligi- The second is that in all cases, the required processing extent does
ble as compared with (5) that is the predominant chain termina- not appear to offer an attractive prospect for large-scale
tion step and that stage (2) is the predominant propagation step applications.
[53–55]; then the hydroxyl radical concentration is: Moreover, from these results, it was not considered necessary a
further increase in the concentration of hydrogen peroxide be-
k1 ½H2 O2 ? cause, having reached five orders of magnitude in the change of
½OH? ? ¼ n
ð15Þ
# # #
X the CFU population, the evolution of the figure suggests that a
k2 ½H2 O2 ? þ k7 ½BAC ? þ k8 ½BIN ? þ k9 ½BDE ? þ k10;i ½LYP;i ?
i¼1
small reduction in the processing time would not have introduced
P a major improvement in the above mentioned disadvantageous
The value of ni¼1 k10;i ½LYP;i ? may be considered proportional to circumstance.
the concentration of dead bacteria. This simplification is possible A significant portion of the curves exhibits a linear behavior.
because it involves the same level of arbitrariness that all the terms However, simple first-order kinetics, as one knows, cannot repre-
included in the summation symbol. sent the shoulder that is shown at the beginning of all experiments.
n
X Later we will see another advantage that has this model showing
k10;i ½LYP;i ? ¼ ak10 ½BDE ? ð16Þ some aspects of the process that the first-order approximation
i¼1 would not be able to unveil.
Experiments were carried out in an isothermal, well mixed,
k1 ½H2 O2 ? batch reactor. Then the analysis was made with a very simple mass
½OH? ? ¼ # # #
ð17Þ
k2 ½H2 O2 ? þ k7 ½BAC ? þ k8 ½BIN ? þ ðk9 þ ak10 Þ½BDE ? balance:
Replacing Eq. (17) in into Eq. (13) and rearranging the result the d½E?
final expression for the disappearance rate of Active bacteria is: Rj ¼ E ¼ BAC ; BIN ; BDE ; LYPi ð20Þ
dt
cA ½BAC ?½H2 O2 ? (
RBAC ¼ ? ð18Þ
½H2 O2 ? þ c0 ½BAC ? þ c1 ½BIN ? þ c2 ½BDE ? ½BAC ? ¼ ½BAC ?0 for BAC
t¼0
½E? ¼ 0 for E ¼ BIN ; BDE ; LYPi
where
? ? # # # The simulation results for I = BAC + BIN (surviving bacteria) were
k1 k 7 k7 k8 ðk9 þ ak10 Þ
cA ¼ ; c0 ¼ ; c1 ¼ ; c2 ¼ compared with the data obtained from the cell culture of the sam-
k2 k2 k2 k2
pling employing a non-linear, multiparameter optimization com-
Similarly, replacing Eq. (17) into Eq. (14) and operating on the puter program, in order to obtain the values of the kinetic
result, the final expression for the disappearance rate of injured constants ck for k = A, B, 0, 1 and 2.
bacteria is:
Fig. 2. Simulation results with the five parameters model (solid lines) compared Fig. 3. Simulations results with the four parameters model (solid lines) compared
with experimental data. The plot portrays the values of culturable cells. with experimental data. The plot portrays the values of culturable cells.
291
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394 M.J. Flores et al. / Chemical Engineering Journal 198–199 (2012) 388–396
The obtained values of the kinetics parameters were c2 = 0 (either because k9 = 0 or ak10 = 0 or both are cero). The re-
sults are shown in Fig. 4.
cA ¼ ð2:7 ? 0:1Þ ? 10?3 cm3 mol?1 s?1 It becomes clear that with this assumption the model predicts a
cIN ¼ ð9:6 ? 3:1Þ ? 10?3 cm3 mol?1 s?1 much faster degradation of the bacteria. The implication is that the
existing competition for the OH? radicals should have been wrongly
c0 ¼ ð1:5 ? 0:2Þ ? 10?10 mol CFU?1 disregarded if c0 is made equal to zero, permitting to conclude that
c1 ¼ ð4:9 ? 2:2Þ ? 10?8 mol CFU?1 at least the step corresponding to the formation of the lysate can-
c2 ¼ ð1:7 ? 0:2Þ ? 10?8 mol CFU?1 not be ignored. The isolation of the effect corresponding to either
k9 or ak10 cannot be obtained from this model, but certainly ak10
With these parameters, the agreement with the experimental cannot be different from zero if k9 is equal to zero before.
data is shown in Fig. 3. The simulation results fit quite well all The model also provides good information about the way in
the experimental data for the whole range of explored hydrogen which the inactivation reaction proceeds. With the obtained
peroxide concentrations. parameters it is possible to follow the changes in concentration
However, it can be seen that the value of c0 is rather small. It is of the active, injured and dead bacteria. They are shown in Figs.
possible to reduce the parameters of the model if we assume that: 5 and 6 for two different concentrations of hydrogen peroxide.
c0 ½BAC ? ? ½H2 O2 ? þ c1 ½BIN ? þ c2 ½BDE ? ð21Þ It becomes clear that the life of the injured bacteria is very short
and its concentration never reaches very high values. This effect
Rearranging the resulting equations, the final expressions for can be seen by looking at the values of the obtained parameters.
Active and Injured bacteria result: From these two figures it can also be observed a consistent
cA ½BAC ?½H2 O2 ? behavior. When lower concentrations of hydrogen peroxide are
RBAC ¼ ? ð22Þ
½H2 O2 ? þ c1 ½BIN ? þ c2 ½BDE ?
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M.J. Flores et al. / Chemical Engineering Journal 198–199 (2012) 388–396 395
used (45 ppm) the survival of a major number of active and injured Acknowledgments
bacteria is seen, indicating that the oxidation is not sufficiently in-
tense to overcome the resistance of the cell wall. Conversely, at The authors are grateful to Universidad Nacional del Litoral
higher concentrations, (185 ppm) the number of survival and (UNL), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas
undamaged bacteria gradually decreases and there is a breaking (CONICET), and Agencia Nacional de Promoción Científica y Técnica
of the bacteria envelope in a shorter time. Then, very rapidly, it (ANPCyT) for its financial support.
changes from the state of injured bacteria to one of irreversible
death. For that reason, the concentration of injured bacteria is al-
ways low. This is, at the same time, a confirmation that oxidant References
concentration is the most important factor to affect bacterial target
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358 © IWA Publishing 2014 Water Science & Technology | 69.2 | 2014
ABSTRACT
Marina J. Flores
The chemical inactivation of Escherichia coli employing a commercial mixture of peracetic acid (PAA)
Maia R. Lescano
was studied. For this purpose, experiments were carried out using dilutions of the unmodified Rodolfo J. Brandi
Alberto E. Cassano
mixture, and also the same mixture but altered with hydrogen peroxide (HP) previously inhibited. Marisol D. Labas (corresponding author)
INTEC (Universidad Nacional del Litoral and
Also, these results were compared to those obtained before employing HP alone. It was found that CONICET),
Guemes 3450-CP 3000,
the mixture is much more efficient than HP and PAA acting separately. Furthermore, it was found
Santa Fe,
that PAA without HP is much more efficient than HP alone. A plausible explanation is presented. The Argentina
E-mail: [email protected]
homolysis of PAA would give rise to a chain reaction that generates a significant number of highly
Rodolfo J. Brandi
oxidizing radicals. An attacking scheme to bacteria in two stages is proposed, where the initial step, Alberto E. Cassano
Marisol D. Labas
mainly caused by PAA, is very fast and eliminates some specific components of the bacteria that Facultad de Ingeniería y Ciencias Hídricas (FICH),
Universidad Nacional del Litoral,
would otherwise inhibit the parallel action of HP. Thereafter, the emergence of a potentiating
Ciudad Universitaria,
synergetic action of the second oxidant seems to be immediately unveiled. Ruta Nacional N 168 – Km 472,4,
W
INTRODUCTION
Water disinfection is carried out to prevent the spread of of hydroxyl radicals (Caretti et al. ; Caretti & Lubello
human pathogens that may be present in wastewater efflu- ), PAA is a stronger biocide for a wide spectrum of micro-
ents. The efficient inactivation of pathogenic bacteria, organisms (Baldry ; Baldry & French ), while HP
viruses and protozoan parasites from water and wastewaters requires much larger doses for the same level of inactivation
is critical, since sewage discharges may increase the risks of (Wagner et al. ). Some of the desirable attributes of PAA
waterborne infections. Studies have pointed out that are the easiness of treatment implementation, its broad spec-
untreated wastewater is the first contributor of bacteria to trum of activity even in the presence of heterogeneous
the aquatic ecosystem. Chlorine is the most commonly organic matter, and a minor dependence on the pH.
used disinfectant but can also have an important drawback Regarding the specific mechanism of the PAA attack
such as disinfection by-products (Nieuwenhuijsen et al. against microorganisms, one may speculate that PAA func-
). tions in a similar way to other peroxides and oxidizing
Peracetic acid (PAA) is a strong oxidant. Its oxidation agents; thus, possibly PAA disrupts sulfhydryl (–SH) and di-
potential is larger than the one of chlorine or chlorine dioxide sulphide (S–S) bonds in proteins and enzymes, and then
(Kitis ; Rossi et al. ) and it is a much more potent breaks important components in the membranes and
antimicrobial agent than hydrogen peroxide (HP), being inside the cell by oxidative disruption (Malchesky ).
rapidly active at low concentrations. The equilibrium state An important advantage of PAA is that it inactivates cata-
of commercial PAA is a mixture of peracetic and acetic lase, an enzyme that is known to act by inhibiting highly
acid, as well as water and HP. Although HP also contributes oxidant hydroxyl radicals (Block ). Additionally, intra-
to the inactivation power of the mixture and to the formation cellular PAA action may oxidize essential enzymes,
doi: 10.2166/wst.2013.721
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359 M. J. Flores et al. | Water disinfection using a commercial mixture of peracetic acid Water Science & Technology | 69.2 | 2014
impairing vital biochemical pathways, active transport The bacterial inoculums remained in the stove for 24
across membranes and intracellular solute concentrations hours at a constant temperature of 37 C. The solution
W
(Kitis ). used for the experimental runs was prepared from a culture
Different ways have been proposed to explain the that had reached the beginning of the stationary phase of
chemical inactivation process. It can be thought that the oxi- growth and afterwards was brought to a 1/1000 dilution
dizing action takes place on the cellular wall or that, after with physiological saline. This dilution ensured that there
regular or facilitated diffusion, the oxidant acts on the com- was no bacteria growth during the inactivation run because
ponents of the interior of the bacteria or that in fact it the growing culture concentration was sufficiently diluted.
operates with a combination of both processes. However, The prepared culture was mixed with the desired concen-
for optimization purposes, it is also very relevant to explain tration of PAA in the reactor.
why PAA behaves in a manner so different than the one The initial concentrations of bacteria a t ¼ 0 were always
observed applying other disinfectants, for example, HP. around 105 CFU (colony forming units) mL?1. Afterwards,
Research studies that show the synergistic effect samples were withdrawn at different intervals. To quench
between the PAA and HP are virtually non-existent, with the PAA and HP action during the time interval between
the exception of the work of Alasri et al. (). In this sampling and spread plating, a known volume of the sample
work an experimental study adding different amounts of was mixed with the required amount of sodium thiosulfate
HP to a PAA solution was performed in order to observe (200 μL) and catalase (500 μL) solutions respectively. These
those synergistic effects. experiments were very effective in achieving their goals,
Therefore, for practical purposes, it is important to study which were twofold. Different concentrations of catalase
the inactivation results produced by the mixture and identify and thiosulfate were tested until the obtained combination
the mechanism of the observed oxidation activity. Due to of the concentration of both compounds showed that (i) the
this fact, the use of commercial PAA as an alternative disin- desired inhibition was obtained and (ii) this combination
fectant was studied in this report. Its efficiency was tested did not affect in any way the existing population of bacteria.
employing a microbial indicator of water contamination, The plates were incubated for 24 h at 37 C in an EMB
W
Escherichia coli, commonly used in this process. (Eosin Methylene Blue) plate. Runs were duplicated and
samples were subjected to triplicate determinations.
sampling, pH and temperature measurements. For the give a straight line (type I), or curves with different shoulders
experimental runs, a PAA commercial mixture (Química (type II), or curves with shoulders and tails (type III). Thus,
Agroindustrial Neo: PAA 15% v/v; HP 20%; acetic acid when the disinfectant concentration is changed, each family
25% and water 40%) was used. It is important to study sep- of curves represents more markedly the phenomenon that
arately the effect of the two oxidizing components of the prevails in the different circumstances of the process.
mixture. Therefore, the reactant was also investigated free Curves named ‘Type I’ show clearly a rapid inactivation,
from HP. Inhibition of HP was achieved using catalase with a small shoulder and an important portion of their tra-
(from Aspergillus niger, Biochemika), allowing in this way jectory having the characteristics of a straight line. Those of
the study of the efficiency of PAA alone. ‘Type II’ do not allow distinguishing with precision if they
Escherichia coli strain ATCC 8739 was used throughout are the result of a very slow inactivation or a shoulder that
this work. The culture was grown in a complex medium: a extends for a very long time. Those of ‘Type III’ show a
nutrient broth. The complete broth composition was: tryp- marked shoulder and tail, and therefore these cannot be rep-
tone: 10 g L?1; beef extract: 5 g L?1; and NaCl: 5 g L?1. resented by a straight line.
297
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H2O2 (mg L?1) Inactivation (%) PAA (mg L?1) Inactivation (%)
15 80 1 28.4
45 92 2 99.9
160 99.9 5 > 99.99
185 99.99 15 > 99.99
a
From Labas et al. (2009).
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361 M. J. Flores et al. | Water disinfection using a commercial mixture of peracetic acid Water Science & Technology | 69.2 | 2014
Interpretation of the obtained results Rokhina et al. (). These authors have shown that a
chain reaction occurs with a pathway described as follows:
The following explanation of the results is based on the
hypothesis that chemical inactivation is just a particular CH3 C( ¼ O)OOH ! CH3 C( ¼ O)O? þ HO? (1)
case of a rather unusual oxidation reaction mechanism.
Table 2 shows an interesting comparison between the inac- CH3 C( ¼ O)OOH þ HO? ! CH3 C( ¼ O)? þ O2 þ H2 O
tivating activity using HP intervening solely, PAA acting
(2)
alone and the commercial mixture of HP and PAA.
From Table 2, it can be seen that to achieve 99.9% inac-
tivation, the dose required is 24,000 and 22.5 mg min L?1 CH3 C( ¼ O)OOH þ HO? ! CH3 C( ¼ O)OO? þ H2 O (3)
for HP and PAA respectively (the HP is 1,067 times
slower than the PAA alone), and the inactivation process CH3 C( ¼ O)O? ! H3 C? þ CO2 (4)
with the mixture requires a dose of 8.16 mg min L?1 and
inactivation is 2.76 times faster than with PAA alone. Fur- 2 CH3 Cð¼ OÞO? → ?
← 2 H3 C þ 2 CO þ O2 (4a)
thermore it can be seen that the effect of the mixture is
greater than the sum of the individual effects of the two iso-
H3 C? þ O2 ! OOCH?3 (5)
lated disinfectants. Clearly there is a potentiating synergistic
effect between HP and PAA.
The commercial mixture shows a unique result, which CH3 C( ¼ O)O? þ HO? ! CH3 C( ¼ O)OOH (6)
raises the thought of the existence of a very distinct mechan-
ism of action. The generation of strong oxidative radicals Reaction (1), which represents the initiation step, is very
from HP results from a well-known mechanism. The important because it forms the radical HO? and it was found
action of the HP is based primarily on the oxidation to be the rate controlling step. The authors claim that all the
caused by hydroxyl radicals almost exclusively. On the generated radical species are active contributors to any oxi-
other hand, one can venture to say that, in the case of the dation mechanism but HO? , and to some extent the
PAA, something substantially different takes place. H3 C? radicals, are the most significant ones. The reaction
requires the presence of an eligible catalyst that should be
PAA oxidation mechanism of the types usually encountered in Fenton or Fenton-like
reactions (Bianchini et al. ). It has been shown that
There may be more than one possible explanation to inter- the existing intra- or extra-cellular Fe2þ is able to produce
pret the results of inactivation of Escherichia coli with the this type of reaction (Imlay & Linn ). It is important
PAA. In this work, a tentative interpretation of the data is to note that only traces of some transition metal compounds
proposed, which advances a new approach to explain are needed to induce the reactions mentioned above (Li
chemical inactivation processes for microorganisms. It is et al. ; Nieto-Juarez et al. ; Jung et al. ).
the result of adapting chemical oxidation reactions pro- Free radicals such as peroxy radicals, the superoxide
duced by the presence of hydroperoxide groups on anion, and the hydroxyl radical are responsible for many
organic substances. of the possible damaging reactions (McDonell & Russell
The explanation proposed for the fast oxidation rate of ; Denyer & Maillard ). The chain reactions rep-
PAA considers the homolytic PAA reaction proposed by resented by Equations (1)–(6) may provide an adequate
Bach et al. () and studied and confirmed in details by explanation for the rapid kinetics of inactivation by PAA.
Disinfectant Percent inactivation Concentration (mg L?1) Reaction time (min) Dose; D99.9 (mg min L?1) Reference
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Potentiated, synergetic effect of HP in the rate of inactivation as compared with the one
observed when PAA acts alone (potentiating synergism).
From the dose results presented in Table 2, it can be con-
cluded that the efficiency of HP is much lower than that
of PAA acting alone. Moreover, a potentiating synergistic CONCLUSIONS
effect when working with the commercial mixture, having
both PAA and HP, can be surely inferred. From the results Water disinfection employing a commercial mixture of PAA
presented in Figure 2, it should be noted that this enhance- was studied. Experiments have demonstrated that there is a
ment happens only after the PAA has initiated the attack much greater inactivation efficiency of PAA (after inhibition
against the cell, indicating that the protecting systems that of HP existing in the mixture) than that of HP alone.
existed before have been removed and only then can HP The inactivation process with the commercial mixture of
participate actively in the rapid inactivation reaction. PAA (5 to 8 mg L?1) is 2.76 times faster than with PAA
Considering the above reasoning, as a first approxi- alone. It can be seen that the effect of the mixture is greater
mation to the inactivation reaction modeling with the PAA than the sum of the individual effects of the two isolated dis-
commercial mixture, the following scheme incorporating infectants. A potentiating synergetic effect of the existing HP
the bacteria attack in two stages can be proposed: in the commercial mixture was found.
A tentative interpretation for the formation of strong oxi-
BAct → BInj → BDe (7) dant species, based on a chain reaction and a scheme of
HP(very slow) HP(very fast)
attack on bacteria in two stages, has been proposed to
explain the observed results.
BAct → BInj → BDe (8)
PAA(very fast) PAA(fast)
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363 M. J. Flores et al. | Water disinfection using a commercial mixture of peracetic acid Water Science & Technology | 69.2 | 2014
peracetic acid, hydrogen peroxide and UV. Annali di Lefevre, F., Audic, J. M. & Ferrand, F. Peracetic acid
Chimica 92 (9), 783–793. disinfection of secondary effluents discharged off coastal
Block, S. S. Peroxygen compounds. In: Disinfection, seawater. Water Science Technology 25 (12), 155–164.
Sterilization, and Preservation (S. S. Block, ed.). 4th edn, Lea Li, B., Gutierrez, P. & Blought, N. Trace determination of
& Febiger, Philadelphia, pp. 185–201. hydroxyl radical in biological systems. Analytical Chemistry
Caretti, C. & Lubello, C. Wastewater disinfection with PAA 69 (21), 4295–4302.
and UV combined treatment: a pilot plant study. Water Res. Malchesky, P. S. Peracetic acid and its application to medical
37 (10), 2365–2371. instrument sterilization. Artificial Organs 17 (3), 147–152.
Caretti, C., Lubello, C. & Gori, R. Comparison between PAA/ McDonell, G. & Russell, D. Antiseptics and disinfectants:
UV and H2O2/UV disinfection for wastewater reuse. Water activity, action and resistance. Clinical Microbiological
Supply 2 (1), 205–212. Review 12 (1), 147–179.
Colgan, S. & Gehr, R. Disinfection. Water Environmental Nieto-Juarez, J., Pierzchala, K., Sienkiewicz, A. & Kohn, T.
Technology 13 (11), 29–33. Inactivation of MS2 coliphage in Fenton and Fenton like
Denyer, S. P. & Maillard, J. Y. Cellular impermeability and systems: role of transition metals, hydrogen peroxide and
uptake of biocides and antibiotics in gram-negative bacteria. sunlight. Environmental Science & Technology 44 (9),
Journal Applied Microbiology Symposium Supplement 92 (1), 3351–3356.
35–45. Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J., Toledano, M. B. & Elliott, P. Uptake
Galvan, J., Sanz, V. & de Marcos, S. Selective peracetic acid of chlorination disinfection by-products; a review and a
determination in the presence of hydrogen peroxide using a discussion of its implications for exposure assessment in
label free enzymatic method based on catalase. Analytical epidemiologic studies. Journal of Exposure Analysis and
and Bioanalytical Chemistry 398 (5), 2127–2124. Environmental Epidemiology 10 (6), 586–599.
Imlay, J. A. & Linn, S. Toxic DNA damage by hydrogen Rokhina, E. V., Makarova, K., Golovina, E. A., Van As, H. &
peroxide through the Fenton reaction in vivo and in vitro. Virkutyte, J. Free radical reaction pathway
Science 240 (4852), 640–642. thermochemistry of peracetic acid homolysis, and its
Jung, Y., Park, J. Y., Ko, S. O. & Kim, Y. H. Stabilization of application for phenol degradation: spectroscopic study and
hydrogen peroxide using phthalic acid in the Fenton and quantum chemistry calculations. Environmental Science &
Fenton-like oxidation. Chemosphere 90 (2), 812–819. Technology 44 (17), 6815–6821.
Kitis, M. Disinfection of wastewater with peracetic acid: a Rossi, S., Antonelli, M., Mezzanote, V. & Nurizzo, C.
review. Environmental International 30 (1), 47–55. Peracetic acid disinfection: a feasible alternative to
Labas, M. D., Zalazar, C. S., Brandi, R. J. & Cassano, A. E. wastewater chlorination. Water Environmental Research 79
Reaction kinetics of bacteria disinfection employing (4), 341–350.
hydrogen peroxide. Biochemical Engineering Journal 38 (1), Wagner, M., Brumelis, D. & Gehr, R. Disinfection of
78–87. wastewater by hydrogen peroxide or peracetic acid:
Labas, M. D., Brandi, R. J., Zalazar, C. S. & Cassano, A. E. development of procedures for measurement of residual
Water disinfection with UVC radiation and H2O2, A disinfectant and application to a physicochemically treated
comparative study. Photochemical Photobiology Sciences 8 municipal effluent. Water Environmental Research 74 (1),
(5), 670–676. 33–50.
First received 30 June 2013; accepted in revised form 15 October 2013. Available online 29 October 2013
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CHAPTER 15
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Human society requires water for drinking, sanitation, cleaning, production of food and energy,
and support of commercial and industrial activities.
Water in nature can contain a variety of contaminants such as minerals, salts, heavy metals,
organic compounds, radioactive residues and living materials, for example parasites, fungi, and
bacteria (US EPA, 2003). In rural and urban areas of low-income countries, millions of the most
vulnerable people lack access to improved water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services. Unsafe
water from all sources contributes significantly to the global burden of disease, principally through
the waterborne transmission of gastrointestinal infections such as cholera, typhoid, hepatitis, and a
wide range of agents that cause diarrhea and even death. Thus, cheap and effective water treatment
systems that can be used at different scales, from single-point water sources to small-community
water supplies, can make a valuable contribution to reducing the burden of disease by improving
access to safe water (Ahmed et al., 2011).
Microbiological contamination is a widespread problem and water is one of the most important
vehicles for disseminating this type of pollution, contributing to the dispersion of bacteria, yeasts,
fungi, spores, etc. Part of this contamination is the product of an uncontrolled discharge of
biological wastes or the usage of domestic sewage systems without the corresponding treatment.
Typically, these problems are very often solved with chlorine (or its derivatives) disinfec-
tion, an old, low cost water treatment technology that is very efficient and has an extensive use.
Alongside these advantages, it is well-known the existence of an important drawback resulting
from the toxicity of some of the chlorine disinfection by-products (DBPs) produced by the inter-
action of chlorine and chlorine derivatives with organic substances either naturally existing in
water, or resulting from improperly treated industrial or sanitary wastes (McDonnel and Russell,
1999). Some of these DBPs have been already included in the existing lists of substances having
mutagenic or carcinogenic properties.
During the last years, organizations of different origin have insisted in the need for a gradual
substitution of chlorine for water disinfection and requested for more research efforts aimed at
developing efficient alternatives having reasonable costs (Ahmed et al., 2010). Global reduction
of chemical deposition into the environment is necessary.
Addressing these problems calls out for a tremendous amount of research to be conducted to
identify robust new methods of purifying water at lower cost and with less energy, while at the
same time minimizing the use of chemicals and impact on the environment.
In the latest advances in water purification and disinfection, mainly in the oxidation of toxic
organic compounds, persistent and cumulative, are used the new technologies of advanced oxida-
tion processes (AOPs), which are methods that involved chemical or photochemical generation
and use of species transitional powerful as the hydroxyl radical (OH• ).
This work contains a comprehensive, albeit reduced, report on some of the processes in use,
the kinetic modeling that accompany several of them and the theories behind those proposals,
especially when they have been developed by us, in relation to technologies for water disinfection.
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Five disinfection methods were compared: (i) UV disinfection, (ii) hydrogen peroxide disin-
fection, (iii) peracetic acid disinfection (iv) peracetic acid + UV disinfection and (v) Hydrogen
peroxide + UV disinfection. The main target of the study was trying to understand and interpret
the differences that exist between the different procedures. In addition, we were searching for
quantitative information in order to get an idea, as approximate as possible, about operating con-
ditions and final results, with the aim of being able to distinguish among them, which might be
the most efficient, economical and environmentally friendly method.
15.2 DISINFECTION
Disinfection is the process used to reduce the number of pathogenic microbes in the water (US
EPA, 2003).
The most common and widespread health risk associated with drinking water is contamination,
either directly or indirectly, by human or animal excreta and the microorganisms contained in
feces. Drinking such contaminated water or using it in food preparation may cause new cases
of infection. Pathogenic (disease-causing) organisms of concern include bacteria, viruses and
protozoa.
The disinfection process has been routinely carried out since the dawn of the 20th century to
eradicate and inactivate the pathogens from water used for drinking purpose. Disinfectants in
addition to removing pathogens from drinking water, serve as oxidants in water treatment. They
are also used for (i) removing taste and color; (ii) oxidizing iron and manganese; (iii) improving
coagulation and filtration efficiency; (iv) preventing algal growth in sedimentation basins and
filters, and (v) preventing biological regrowth in the water distribution system (US EPA, 1989).
Disinfection may be chemical, physical or a combination of both. Many disinfectants are
used alone or in combinations (e.g. hydrogen peroxide and peracetic acid) in the health-care
setting. These include alcohols, chlorine and chlorine compounds, formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde,
ortho-phthalaldehyde, hydrogen peroxide, iodophors, peracetic acid, phenolics, and quaternary
ammonium compounds. A viable alternative could be the use of chemical agents plus UV radiation
to avoid revival of microorganisms. Disinfection kinetic models are the basis for assessing the
disinfection performance and the design of contactor systems (Trussell and Chao, 1977). Over
the years, a number of kinetic models have been proposed for the formulation of disinfection
design criteria.
Model adequacy is dependent upon the robustness of the underlying inactivation rate law. If
the model accounts for the disappearance, the most cited are: Chick (1908); Watson (1909); Gard
(1957); Selleck et al. (1978); Hom (1972), Hass (1999); Severin et al. (1983) among others.
A summary of some water disinfection processes with kinetic modeling and used devices that
have been developed by us (case studies) in Table 15.1.
All these experiments were conducted with pure water. In practical cases, usually the water
will have impurities. Both organic residues as well as inorganic salts affect the efficiency of the
process, either because they consume the oxidizing agent (when applicable) or because according
to their size, they can help bacteria to be concealed behind these substances affecting the capacity
of penetration of radiation when this treatment is applied. In any practical application, these
considerations will have to be born in mind.
15.3 UV DISINFECTION
UV disinfection is using the ultraviolet light with appropriate wavelengths to penetrate the cells of
microorganisms and destroying the molecular structure of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) or RNA
(ribonucleic acid). It results in growing cell death and (or) regenerative cell death. Thereby, the
microorganism cannot reproduce (Smith, 2011). UV disinfection is a physical method. It does not
add any substance to the water, and operates without any side effects. It is better than chlorination
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Disinfection Microorganism
process model Reactor Kinetic model/mechanism approach
UVC Escherichia coli Well stirrer batch Modified Severin model (proposed by Labas
ATCC 8739 annular reactor(*) et al., 2009).
Hydrogen Escherichia coli Well stirrer batch Series parallel pseudo-chemical steps (proposed
peroxide ATCC 8739 annular reactor(*) by Flores et al., 2012).
Peracetic acid Escherichia coli Well stirrer batch An extended series parallel pseudo-chemical
ATCC 8739 annular reactor(*) steps (described in this work).
UV/Hydrogen Escherichia coli Well stirrer batch Modified Severin model (proposed by Labas
peroxide ATCC 8739 annular reactor(*) et al., 2009).
UV/Peracetic Escherichia coli Well stirrer batch Mechanistic approach (described in this work).
acid ATCC 8739 annular reactor(*)
(*) In all experiments, a well-stirred batch annular reactor having a total reaction volume of 2000 cm3 was
employed. The internal radius is ri = 3.7 cm and the external one is ro = 7.5 cm. Stirring was achieved
with a custom made, strong, eccentrically operated, orbital shaking device. A cooling jacket connected to
a thermostatic bath (Haake) surrounds the reactor to keep the reacting system at a constant temperature of
20◦ C. See also Figure 15.1.
Figure 15.1. Experimental reactor. The lamp shown in the figure was used only in those experiments that
required UVC radiation.
about in that aspect. It is usually combined with other substances, for example: UV + H2 O2 ,
UV + H2 O2 + O3 , UV + TiO2 , in order to obtain better disinfection results (US EPA, 2006).
Among the advantages of the use of UV disinfection of water can be mentioned:
• No addition of chemicals.
• Neither pH nor temperature-dependent.
• Specific inactivation mechanism.
• Effective against parasites
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Figure 15.2. DNA damage UV-induced. (a) thymine-thymine cyclobutane pyrimide dimer and (b) thymine-
cytosine dimer. Where T: thymine and C: cytosine.
The absorption of large UV doses of the proteins present in the cell membranes leads to rupture
of these membranes and, consequently, to cell death. In contrast, absorption of lower UV doses of
the DNA may disrupt the ability of the microorganism to reproduce, preventing ulterior infection
of the medium.
The effective UV wavelength range can be divided into four different bands: UVA (400–
315 nm), UVB (315–280 nm), UVC (280–200 nm) and vacuum ultraviolet light (200–100 nm).
UVB and UVC light are always used for the disinfection of drinking water treatment, since they
have higher germicidal properties (Harm, 1980). However, the lamp market has been moving
slowly toward sources of radiation usually knows as germicidal lamps with preponderant almost
monochromatic radiation in the UVC (λ = 253.7).
Different forms of DNA lesion have been found to result from UVC-induced damage: some
molecules present in the DNA, such as purines and pyrimidines, absorb strong ultraviolet radiation
(maximum at 254 nm) and undergo chemical changes, such as dimers and hydrates. The two
major UV-induced DNA lesions are cyclobutane-pyrimidine dimers, CPDs, (see also Fig. 15.2)
and Dewar valence isomers (Häder and Sinha, 2005). The dimerization has been considered the
main cause of mutagenic effects resulting from UV radiation.
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Excision repair: Dark repair pathway function by replacing the damaged DNA with a new,
undamaged nucleotides based on the information on the complementary DNA strand (Britt,
1996; Hader and Sinha, 2005).
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of an hour with the reactor completely empty. This procedure was applied in the four different
cases described in this work.
with i = 0, 1, 2, . . ., i, . . ., n and k1 = k2 = kn = k
0
It should be noticed that the initial concentration of bacteria is CEc whereas CEc,0 is the concen-
0
tration of those that have not received any damage. Only at t = 0, CEc = CEc,0 . At any other time
0
CEc,i < CEc . CEc,i is the concentration of a given state of damage (state i) in the microorganism
that has reached the level of injured “i” “and “n” is the threshold limit” equal to the number of
events needed to reach inactivation thus n represents inactivated “species” that have suffered an
usually quasi-irreversible damage an can be counted as dead bacteria. The total number of existing
“species” is n + 1 in order to account for the species that have not yet received any injury.
All bacteria, either the ones that have no damage or the others that have received some level
of damage, but have not reached the threshold limit “n”, are survival bacteria CEc. Because the
number of inactivated or death bacteria can be obtained from the difference between the initial
0
concentration CEc and the concentration of survival bacteria CEc
n−1
?
0 0
CEc,dead = CEc − CEc = CEc − CEc,i (15.2)
i=0
It is possible to write the equivalent to a mass balance (bacteria inventory) for each species:
For i = 0:
dCEc,i
= −ki+1 (CEc,i )δ ?(αλ Eλ,0 )γ ? (15.3)
dt
For i = 1, 2, . . . , n − 1:
dCEc,i ? ?
= ki (CEc,i−1 )δ ?(αλ Eλ,o )γ ? − ki+1 (CEc,i )δ (αλ Eλ,o )γ (15.4)
dt
For i = n:
dCEc,i ? ?
= ki (CEc,i−1 )δ (αλ Eλ,o )γ (15.5)
dt
Equations (15.3) to (15.5) need the value of the fluence rate as a function of position and time.
From the definition of the fluence rate:
?
Eλ,o (x, t) = Lλ,? (x, t) d? (15.6)
?
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Thus, it can be obtained if the value of the radiance (radiation power) is known. From the
radiative transfer equation for homogeneous media:
dLλ,? (s,t)
+ αλ (s,t)Lλ,? (s,t) = 0 (15.7)
ds
where Lλ,? is the spectral radiance of wavelength λ and direction ?.
With the boundary condition:
Lλ,? (sR ,t) = L0λ,? (t) (15.8)
Equation (15.7) can be formally integrated and substituted into Equation (15.6). For conve-
nience, the solid angle may be written in terms of a spherical coordinate system, resulting in the
following result:
? φ2 ? θ2 ? ? sL ?
0
Eλ,o (s, t) = dφ dθ sin θ(Lλ (θ, φ, t)) exp − α(s, t) ds (15.9)
φ1 θ1 sR
To calculate the radiation field inside the reactor, an emission model for the lamp is needed.
With this purpose, the three dimensional source with volumetric emission model proposed by
Cassano et al. (1995) will be applied. As shown in the Appendix for integrating Equation (15.9)
the following boundary conditions apply:
For the value of: L0 (θ, φ)
? ? 0.5
Pλ,L 2[r 2 (cos2 φ − 1) + rL2 ]
L0 (θ,φ) = ϒw (15.10)
4π 2 rL2 LL sin θ
ϒ w is an average value of the reactor wall transmittance. (Notice that the subscript λ has been
dropped because this work is carried out with monochromatic radiation).
And for the limiting angles are:
? ?
2 2 2 ½
−1 r cos φ − [r (cos φ − 1) + rL ]
θ1 (φ) = tan (15.11)
(LL − z)
? ½
?
r cos φ − [r2 (cos2 φ − 1) + rL2 ]
−1
θ2 (φ) = tan (15.12)
−z
? ?
−1 (r 2 − rL2 )½
−φ1 = φ2 = cos (15.13)
r
The final equation that can be solved with the help of numerical integration is:
⎧φ ⎡ s ⎤⎫
?2 ?θ2 ?L
(ϒw Pλ,L )(4π 2 rL2 LL )sin θ ⎨ 0.5
⎬
Eo (r, z, t) = 0.5
(dφ) dθ 2 [r 2 (cos2 φ − 1) + rL2 ] exp⎣− α(s, t)ds⎦
2[r 2 (cos2 φ − 1) + r 2 ] ⎩
L
⎭
φ1 θ1 sR
(15.14)
However, the value of Pλ,L is not always well known (it is provided by the lamp manufacturer)
and invariably changes along the time of operation of the useful life of the radiation source. When
the fluence rate at the reactor wall can be measured with actinometer methods (Murov et al.,
1993; Zalazar et al., 2005), it is convenient to use an alternative form of Equation (15.14). This
is particularly always possible in laboratory research work.
? ?
lamp reactor characteristics
E?0|W ? = f (15.15)
System geometry
with E?0|W ? being the fluence rate at the reactor wall.
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Therefore, with the help of the elaborate algebraic artifice it is possible to transform Equation
(15.14) into the following expression:
⎡ ⎤
?φ2 ?θ2 ?sL
? E o |W ? 0.5
Eo (r, z, t) = dφ dθ 2[r 2 (cos2 φ − 1) + rL2 ] exp⎣− α(s,t)ds⎦ (15.16)
ψ
φ1 θ1 sR
where ψ is a geometric factor that always should be computed because LR , rL and ri are known:
?LR φ?2 (ri ) (φ,ri ,z)
θ2 ?
1 0.5
ψ= dz dφ dθ 2[r 2 (cos2 φ − 1) + rL2 ] (15.17)
LR
0 φ1 (ri ) θ1 (φ,ri ,z)
Notice the difference between Equations (15.14) and (15.16); in the second, ri is a constant.
Eo |W /ψ gives the boundary condition just before the absorption process produced by the reacting
medium commences at r = ri . ψ accounts for the geometrical relationship that expresses the
relative location of the lamp (with all its dimensions) and the inner wall of the reactor at r = ri .
It is clear that, with the exception of the wall compound transmission coefficient given by ϒW ,
from the lamp until the point at r = ri , the medium is transparent. Eo |W is the value that can be
obtained with potassium ferrioxalate actinometry (Murov et al., 1993; Zalazar et al., 2005).
Finally, since for a reactor of constant cross sectional area, the volume average is reduced to an
integral over the reactor length, the volume average of Eo (r, z, t) must be calculated according to:
?
1 LR
?Eo (r,z,t)? = Eo (r,z,t) dz (15.18)
LR 0
(15.19)
The linear napierian radiation absorption coefficient of the system (α) is defined as:
?
α = αEc + αc with αEc = κEc,i CEc,i (15.20)
?
1 λmax
and αc = αλ Pλ dλ (15.21)
Pc λmin
∧
where κ[=]cm2 (CFU)−1 and CEc,i [=]CFU cm−3 .
In order to facilitated the understanding of the development of the limits of integration of
Equation (15.19), in the appendix included at the end of the main text, it has been added a figure
to explain clearly the meaning of all the variables used to obtain Equations (15.10) to (15.13).
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Figure 15.3. Results employing UVC radiation, with different lamps. Dotted lines and solid lines are results
from the model. (Reproduced from Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences; Reference:
Labas et al., 2009. Reproduced by permission of The Royal Society of Chemistry: www.
res.org/pbs).
The antimicrobial and/or antiseptic properties of hydrogen peroxide have been known for many
years because of its efficacy and reasonable manipulation safety (Dalrymple et al., 2010; Labas
et al., 2006). It is effective against a wide spectrum of bacteria, yeast, molds, viruses and spore
forming organism (Cords et al., 2005; Labas et al., 2008). The cytotoxic effect exerted by hydrogen
peroxide on microorganisms depends on the cell type used, its physiological state, length of
exposure, environmental condition, H2 O2 concentration used and the cell culture media employed
(Labas et al., 2008; Raffellini et al., 2010). According to its concentration hydrogen peroxide
can act as bacteriostatic or as bactericide. The cytotoxic effects of H2 O2 on Escherichia coli have
been extensively studied (Labas et al., 2005; 2008; Raffellini et al., 2010).
For water disinfection purposes, the non-persistent characteristic of hydrogen peroxide becomes
a disadvantage to maintain the water quality in the distribution system. However, its use is widely
spread because it is relatively inexpensive, is easily removed when desired and is unlikely to be
health hazardous if used properly.
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The peptidoglycan layer, (ii) the lipopolysaccharide layer (found only in Gram-negative bacteria)
and (iii) the phospholipid bilayer. In this study Escherichia coli was the chose bacteria and
consequently the three layers will be present.
After the attack to the membrane, the oxidation of the products resulting from the lysis of the
bacteria, was modeled as a series of chemical events, which leads to its dead or to an irreversible
damage. The pathway of the kinetic model includes: active (BAC ), inactive (BIN ) and death (BDE )
population of bacteria, as well as several additional chemical products of the lysis with the generic
denomination of LYP1 , LYP2 , . . . , LYPn .
The kinetic model developed in this work was successfully validated with experimental data.
Note that, when the reaction is written as above, without including specifically the Fe3+ or the
Fe3+ + O•−
2 promotion, k1 is not known.
The formation of hydroxyl radicals is proposed according to the following path:
Propagation:
k2
H2 O2 + OH• −−−→ HO•2 + H2 O (15.23)
k3
H2 O2 + HO•2 −−−→ OH• + H2 O + O2 (15.24)
Termination:
k4
2OH• −−−→ H2 O2 (15.25)
k5
2HO•2 −−−→ H2 O2 + O2 (15.26)
k6
OH• + HO•2 −−−→ H2 O + O2 (15.27)
15.4.2.2.1 Membrane disruption
The process that ends up with the membrane breakdown may be treated by resorting to a pseudo
homogeneous interpretation of the intricate network of superficial reactions that leads to the
rupture of the protective envelope. Let HSCW|B represent a hypothetical species of the components
of the cell wall of the active bacteria whose concentration can be expressed in units of mol cm−2
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and that reacts with the OH• radical. This composition is, on the average, the same one for every
specific bacterium species. Then,
k7∗
HSCW |BAC + OH• −−−→ HSCW |BIN (15.28)
At this point, it is possible to think of SSA|BAC as the specific superficial area per unit volume of
one cell (in units of cm2 cm−3 ), V|BAC as the volume of one cell per CFU (in units of cm3 CFU−1 )
and [BAC ] as the whole instantaneous concentration of the active bacteria (in units of CFU cm−3
of reacting medium). The concentration of hypothetical species per unit volume of the fluid may
be calculated from the abovementioned superficial concentration of this species as:
[ HSCW |B ] × SSA|B × V |BAC × [B ](t) (15.29)
? ?? AC? ? ?? AC? ? ?? ? ? AC
?? ?
Superficial concentration of Superficial area per unit volume of Instantaneous concentration of
hypotetical species volume of bacterium one CFU active bateria per unit volume
of one bacterium
? ?? ?
Instantaneous representation of the total volumetric
concentration of hypotetical species of the active bacteria
Taking into account averaging values specific bacterium species, [HSCW |BAC ] in the cell wall,
SSA|BAC and V |BAC may be assumed almost constant. Then:
[HSCW |BAC ] × SSA|BAC × V |BAC = constant (15.30)
? ?
k7 = k7∗ × HSCW |BAC × SSA|BAC × V |BAC (15.31)
???? ????
Pseudo homogeneous Superficial
volumetric kinetic constant kinetic constant
However, it is very unlikely that just one hydroxyl radical will produce a serious damage to
the cell wall. Neither the number of moles of which OH• that are necessary to consider that
the bacterium has been injured, nor the number of bacterium that form a CFU are known. It is
always possible to conceive an oxidation yield as the ratio of injured CFU with respect to the
spent hydroxyl radicals to produce this event:
k7 Injured CFU CFU cm3
k7# = ; Y7 = • [=] ; k7# [=] (15.32)
Y7 OH spent in this event mol CFU s
In order to have the proper application of this yield as well as achieving unit’s homogeneity it
must be considered that:
R7,OH = −k7∗ [BAC ][OH• ] (15.33)
With this pseudo homogeneous, biological reaction approach, step 15.28 can be finally
expressed as:
k7
BAC + OH• −−−→ BIN (15.34)
In a similar way, the same procedure can be applied to the injured bacteria in the reaction with
the OH• radicals according to:
? ?
k8 = k8∗ × HSCW |BIN × SSA|BIN × V |BIN (15.35)
???? ????
Pseudo homogeneous Superficial
volumetric kinetic constant kinetic constant
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Once the anatomic morphology of the cell has been altered producing the lysate, the OH•
can interact with its internal components in typical homogeneous reactions. From the chemical
point of view the activity of the OH• radicals can be interpreted in terms of several parallel-series
reactions with an undefined number of hypothetical components of the resulting lysis. In the
model they are represented by LYP,1 , LYP,2 ,…,LYP,n−1 , LYP,n that correspond to important groups
of compounds which, after ulterior oxidations will produce the end products of the disinfection
process:
+OH• +OH• +OH•
LYP,1 −−−−−−→ LYP,1 −−−−−−→ · · · · · LYP,1,n−1 −−−−−−→ EP1,n (15.40)
• • •
+OH +OH +OH
LYP,n−2 −−−−−−→ LYP,n−2,1 −−−−−−→ · · · · · LYP,n−2,n−1 −−−−−−→ EP,n−2,n (15.41)
+OH• +OH• +OH•
LYP,n - 1 −−−−−−→ LYP,n−1,1 −−−−−−→ · · · · · LYP,n−1,n−1 −−−−−−→ EP,n−1,n (15.42)
+OH• +OH• +OH•
LYP,n −−−−−−→ LYP,n,1 −−−−−−→ · · · · · LYP,n,n−1 −−−−−−→ EP,n,n (15.43)
where: ? ?
k1 k7 k7# k8# (k9# + αk10 )
γA = ; γ0 = ; γ1 = ; γ2 = (15.45)
k2 k2 k2 k2
The final expression for the disappearance rate of injured bacteria is:
[BAC ][H2 O2 ]γA − [BIN ][H2 O2 ]γIN
RBIN = (15.46)
[H2 O2 ] + γ0 [BAC ] + γ1 [BIN ] + γ2 [BDE ]
where: ? ?
k1 k8
γIN = (15.47)
k2
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Figure 15.4. Graphical description of the concentration evolution of the principal species existing in the
reacting medium as seen by the model. The plot follows changes in concentration of the
active, injured and dead bacteria at (a) 45 µg/cm3 and (b) 185 µg/cm3 of concentration of
H2 O2 . Experimental data: Solid line: culturable bacteria (BAC + BIN ); broken line: Active
bacteria; broken and dotted line: Injured bacteria; dotted line: Dead bacteria. (Reproduced
from Chemical Engineering Journal, Vol. 198–199/edition N◦ 1, Flores et al.; Pages 388–396;
Reproduced with permission from Elsevier).
Peracetic acid (PAA) use increased in the recent years because of its ecologically beneficial
properties (the reaction products are oxygen, water, and acetic acid) and its relative low cost.
However, the most remarkable attributes of PAA are: the broad spectrum of activity even in the
presence of heterogeneous organic matter, the absence of persistent toxic or mutagenic residual
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byproducts, no quenching requisites, small dependence of pH, short contact time requirements
and effectiveness for primary and secondary effluents. PAA is also characterized by its easy
technical preparation. The equilibrium state of its commercial solution is shown in the following
equation:
H+
−−
CH3 COOOH + H2 O ←−−−−
−−−−
→
−− CH3 COOH + H2 O (15.48)
PAA is a strong oxidant and disinfectant. Its oxidation potential is larger than that of chlorine or
chlorine dioxide. PAA is a more potent antimicrobial agent than hydrogen peroxide, being rapidly
active at low concentrations against a wide spectrum of microorganisms (Baldry, 1983; Baldry and
French, 1989b; Fraser et al., 1984). Its demonstrated effectiveness against V. cholera suggested
it should be a significant element in cholera control efforts. It is know that the PAA disinfection
capabilities are due to its ability to generate strongly oxidant chemical species such as the O− 2
superoxide radical or its conjugated base HO•2 , and the hydroxyl radical OH• . The damaging
effects of the bacteria cellular components seems to be produced by a particular phenomenon
called oxidative stress, resulting from those reactive oxygen species known as ROS (Labas et al.,
2006).
15.5.2 Case study: water disinfection with peracetic acid in clear water conditions
This study was aimed at evaluating the disinfection efficiency of the PAA commercial solution
(15%) with the usual indicator of fecal contamination, Escherichia coli. The disinfection aptitude
of PAA was studied at different concentrations (1, 1.5, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 mg L−1 ) as well as various
inactivation times. The reacting system used in all experiments was an annular, well-mixed batch
reactor having a total volume of 2000 cm3 . The feasibility of PAA for water efficient water
disinfection has been verified in this work: a 99.99% reduction of E. coli CFU was achieved,
with doses ranging from 1 to 6 mg L−1 and 5 minutes of contact time. A kinetic disinfection
mechanism is proposed to explain the obtained results.
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of sodium thiosulfate and catalase solution respectively. Control experiments were conducted
to ensure that the employed concentrations of thiosulfate and catalase solutions did not affect
bacteria concentrations. The plates were incubated, after spreading them with the appropriate
volume of sample, for 24 h at 37◦ C in EMB plate.
H3 C• + O2 → OOCH3• (15.53)
• •
CH3 C(=O)O + HO → CH3 C(=O)OOH (15.54)
Equation (15.53) is only important in oxygen saturated environments. It was found that Equation
(15.49) is the rate controlling step. The authors claim that all the generated radical species are
active contributors to the degradation mechanism but OH• and to some extent the H3 C radicals,
are the most significant ones. The reaction requires the presence of an eligible catalyst that should
be of the types usually encountered in Fenton or Fenton-like reactions. In our reacting system
employing AAS (Perkin-Elmer-5000 AAnalyst) we always found traces of cooper and iron species.
Thus, this reaction could provide the necessary conditions for a fast attack to different components
of the microbial cellular membrane. Additionally, at pH between 5 and 10 the following reaction
is also possible (Koubet, 1964; Yuan et al., 1997):
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In the literature, the principal applications of these processes refer to the oxidation of organic
compounds, dissolved inorganic compounds and other pollutants that are toxic and/or refractory
to biological treatments. Few references were found, however, regarding their use for wastewater
disinfection (Caretti and Lubello, 2003).
Contrary to other advanced oxidation processes (UV/H2 O2 , O3 /H2 O2 , O3 /UV, TiO2 /UV),
numerous bibliographic references for the combined treatment between peracetic acid (PAA)
and UV do not exist (Caretti and Lubello, 2003). PAA based product consist of equilibrium
mixtures of peracetic acid, hydrogen peroxide, acetic acid and water in different proportions
where hydrogen peroxide plays different roles, being implied in the restoration of the equilibrium
between the different species after consumption of PAA but also acting as an oxidizing biocide
itself (Bianchini et al., 2002).
The biocide action of PAA and H2 O2 can be attributed to the production of highly reactive
radicals, above all the hydroxyl radical OH• originated by the cleavage of the peroxidic bond.
In the absence of UV irradiation, Fenton reactions, which are catalyzed by transition metal ions
traces are usually responsible for radical creation. In the presence of UV irradiation, radicals can
be photochemically produced by the cleavage of the O-O bond by UV light (Bianchini et al.,
2002).
15.6.1 Case study: disinfection of water with peracetic acid and its combination with UVC
15.6.1.1 Experimental procedure
The experimental procedure, the culture media preparation and handling and conditioning of the
bacterium has been detailed in Section 15.3.2.1.
Samples were taken every 1 second, with a sampling device especially designed for that purpose.
En all the disinfection experiments the plates were incubated, after spreading them with the
appropriate volume of sample, for 24 h at 37◦ C in EMB plate.
As mentioned in 15.3.2.1, in this case, the system was irradiated, in distinct experiments, with
two tubular lamps of different power, placed on the centerline of the annular space and separate
from the polluted water by a concentric quartz tube. In these cases, the lamps were turned on,
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allowing 30 minutes for stabilizing their operation. The sample at t = 0 was taken at the same time
that the lamp shutters were taken off. Afterwards, samples were taken at different time intervals
for several measurements.
CH3 CO•2 rapidly declines forming CH•3 and CO2 while the molecule of peracetic acid can sub-
sequently react with the OH• radicals produced, according to the following reactions of addition
and subtraction of labile hydrogen:
The presence of hydrogen peroxide within the commercial product of the PAA contributes not
only to the formation of new PAA as soon as it is consumed, but also to the formation of new
hydroxyl radicals.
According to Keller et al. (2008), the photodissociation of the PAA can follow one or even
more than one of the following three possible reaction pathways:
CH3 CO3 H−→CH3 CO•2 + OH• → CH3 + CO2 + OH• (secondary) (15.59)
The first reaction (15.59) is initiated by a homolytic O-O bond cleavage to generate two
photoproducts.
Equation (15.60) follows a concerted mechanism with simultaneous fission of an O-O bond
and a C-C bond:
CH3 COH → CH3 + CO2 + OH• (15.60)
Equation (15.61) is also stepwise reaction but instead begins with a C-C bond cleavage:
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Publications concerning kinetic studies of the combined use of UVC radiation and hydrogen
peroxide are very limited. Sundstrom et al. (1992) proposed two kinetic models: a mixed second
order model and an application of the typical Series-event model. Later Gardner and Sharma
(1992) described the inactivation of spores of B. subtilis in terms of a kinetic expression derived
from the Multi-Target model. Just recently, Alkan et al. (2007) studied inactivation working with
coliform bacteria in superficial waters and interpreted their results calculating the coefficients of
the Chick–Watson model.
However, there is no consensus concerning the most certain mechanism that explains the
action of H2 O2 /UV in disinfection process. Sundstrom et al. (1992) employing bacteria such as
Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis found a beneficial effect on the rate because of the addition
of hydrogen peroxide on the other hand, Rajala-Mustonen and Heinomen-Tanski (1995) found
the opposite result.
Rincon and Pulgarin (2004) found a synergistic effect of low wavelength UV radiation and low
concentrations of hydrogen peroxide (less than 10 ppm). Bayliss and Waites (1979) and Standard
et al. (1983) found an acceptable effectiveness of the method to inactivate vegetative cells and
spores employing rather large concentrations of H2 O2 .
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Figure 15.7. Results employing UVC plus hydrogen peroxide. 15 W nominal input power lamp. Dot-
ted lines, dotted and broken lines, broken lines and solid lines are results from the model.
(Reproduced from Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences; Reference: Labas et al., 2009).
Reproduced by permission of The Royal Society of Chemistry: www. res.org/pbs).
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Figure 15.8. Results employing UVC plus hydrogen peroxide. 40 W nominal input power lamp. Dot-
ted lines, dotted and broken lines, broken lines and solid lines are results from the model.
(Reproduced from Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences; Reference: Labas et al., 2009.
Reproduced by permission of The Royal Society of Chemistry: www. res.org/pbs).
15.8 CONCLUSIONS
Disinfection by ultra-violet light (UV) is accepted as being the most effective in removing
pathogenic organisms. However, since the process typically consumes a great deal of power it is
both expensive to operate and has a large carbon footprint. Depending on the financial resources
existing, the water distribution rate needed and the quality of the source water the choice of
treatment may vary.
Throughout the industrialized world and advanced developing countries, large efforts are made
investigating alternative disinfection/oxidation practices. This chapter is a brief account of the
possibilities of peracetic acid and hydrogen peroxide as additional optional choices for water
treatment plants.
From this point of view, our preliminary results seem to suggest that peracetic acid may be
considered as a good alternative oxidant for water treatment processes of water, since potentially
produces less unwanted byproducts, becoming an environmentally friendly agent.
A second final consideration indicates that it is important to complete the development of very
rigorous and reliable modeling of all the involved kinetics. This means to carry out work with
waters having more realistic compositions; i.e., considering cases that may contain organic matter
or inorganic salts that could severely affect the process efficiency. This additional information
will facilitate the proposal of reactor design and scaling-up methods that are necessary to help
out with the application of commercial competitive processes.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to Universidad Nacional del Litoral (UNL), Consejo Nacional de Inves-
tigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), and Agencia Nacional de Promoción Científica
y Técnica (ANPCyT) for its financial support. We also thank the editorials that allowed us the
reproduction of some graph.
Graphics 15.4.1 (a) Reprinted from Chemical Engineering Journal , Vol. 198–199/edition N◦ 1,
Authors: Marina J. Flores, Rodolfo J. Brandi, Alberto E. Cassano, Marisol D. Labas, “Chemical
disinfection with H 2 O2 – The proposal of a reaction kinetic model”, Pages 388–396, Copyright
(2013), with permission from Elsevier.
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Graphics 15.4.1 (b) Reprinted from Chemical Engineering Journal , Vol. 198–199/edition N◦ 1,
Authors: Marina J. Flores, Rodolfo J. Brandi, Alberto E. Cassano, Marisol D. Labas, “Chemical
disinfection with H 2 O2 – The proposal of a reaction kinetic model”, Pages 388–396, Copyright
(2013), with permission from Elsevier.
Graphic 15.3.2 has been reproduced from Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences; Reference:
Labas et al., 2009, “Water disinfection with UVC radiation and H 2 O2 . A comparative study”.
Reproduced by permission of The Royal Society of Chemistry: www. res.org/pbs.
Graphics 15.7.1 has been reproduced from Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences; Refer-
ence: Labas et al., 2009, “Water disinfection with UVC radiation and H 2 O2 . A comparative study”.
Reproduced by permission of The Royal Society of Chemistry: www. res.org/pbs.
Graphics 15.7.2. has been reproduced from Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences; Ref-
erence: Labas et al., 2009, “Water disinfection with UVC radiation and H 2 O2 . A comparative
study”. Reproduced by permission of The Royal Society of Chemistry: www. res.org/pbs.
APPENDIX
Obviously, no radiation comes from the space defined by the solid angle 4π − ?s and the only
non-zero integral is the first. The final result can be written in terms of a spherical coordinate
system with origin at the point of incidence I (See Figs. 15.A-1a,b); then:
⎡ ⎤
? φ2 ? θ2 s̄=s(x,θ,ϕ)
?
⎢ ⎥
Eλ,o (x,t) = dφ dθ sin θLλ,? (θ, φ,t) exp⎣− κs (t,s̄)d s̄⎦ (15.A-2)
φ1 θ1
s̄=sR (θ,ϕ)
Equation (15.A-2) provides, in mathematical form, all the elements needed to compute the flu-
ence rate in homogeneous media. With an emission model for the lamp and the proper integration
limits for the lamp radiation contributions to an arbitrary point of incidence (In ), it is the possible
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Figure 15.A1. (a) Limits of integration for the source, (b) The extended, voluminal, isotropic emission
source model (adapted from Cassano et al., 1995).
to calculate the local value of the radiation energy absorbed per unit time and unit reaction volume
at any point of the reactor. For monochromatic radiation, this is the value required to formulate
the kinetics expressed by Equations (15.3) to (15.5).
As indicated before, the modeling of the lamp emission should provide the boundary condition
for the radiative transfer equation inside the reactor. There are lamps that produce an arc that emits
radiation by itself and, consequently, photons come out directly from such an arc. The whole lamp
volume makes emission. For example, this is the case of mercury arc low, medium and high-
pressure tubular lamps. We speak in these cases of “voluminal emission”. Voluminal emission
may be safely modeled as an isotropic emission; in this case the spectral radiance associated with
each bundle of radiation originated in some element of volume of the lamp is independent of
direction, and the associated emitted energy (per unit time and unit area) is also isotropic.
The following assumptions are made (Cassano et al. (1995)):
1. The emitters of the radiation source are uniformly distributed over the region of emission (a
volume).
2. In terms of Specific Intensities each elementary extension of emission has an isotropic emission
but the outgoing radiation energy is also isotropic when the emitting element is a volume.
3. Any emission element of the lamp emits per unit time, and for a given wavelength, an amount
of energy proportional to its extension and independent of its position inside the lamp volume.
4. When emission is voluminal, each of the differential volumes of emission is transparent to the
emission of its surroundings (an approximation which is not important if one works with the
information about the lamp output).
5. The lamp is a perfect cylinder bounded by mathematical surfaces with zero thickness. Hence,
any bundle of radiation coming from inside does not change its intensity or direction when
it crosses this boundary (an approximation which is not important if one works with the
information about the lamp output).
6. The lamp is long enough; consequently, neglecting end effects, the emission produced by the
lamp along its central axis is uniform. This assumption does not impose uniformity on the
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radiation field generated along the direction of the central axis. All what is said here is that
“end effects” are neglected.
7. Emission from the lamp is at steady state.
8. The lamp has a length LL and a radius rL.
9. A spherical coordinate systems located at each point of radiation reception (In) inside the
reactor can characterize the arriving Specific Intensity (also called radiance). It is necessary
to know the distance from such a point to the centerline of the lamp and two pairs of angular
coordinates [(θ1, θ2), (φ1,φ2)] that define the extension of the useful emitting volume of the
lamp.
Since a volume produces emission, the general radiative transfer equation (Alfano and Cassano,
2009) can be applied inside the lamp. There is no absorption (assumption 4) and no scattering.
The resulting equation is:
dLλ,? (s, t) e
= jλ?, (s, t) (15.A-4)
ds
Here, s is a directional coordinate in a three-dimensional space. From assumptions 2, 3 and 6,
emission is isotropic (independent of direction) and uniform (independent of position). Hence, at
steady state:
Lλ? (0) = 0 (15.A-5)
In the lamp, along the direction ?, at s = 0, there is no entrance of radiation; this situation
provides the required boundary condition for Equation (15.8):
s= 0 Lλ? (0) = 0 (15.A-6)
Integrating from s = 0 to s = ss (see Fig. 15.A-1) and using the following change of coordinates:
ds = −dρ (15.A-7)
s = ss ρ = ρ1 (15.A-9)
ρ1 and ρ2 are defined in Figure 15.A-1. Then, one gets:
Lλ? (ss ) = jλe [?ρs (x, θ, φ)] (15.A-10)
with:
[?ρs (x, θ, φ)] = ρ2 (x, θ, φ) − ρ1 (x, θ, φ) (15.A-11)
It must be remarked that, as it should have been expected, ?ρs is a function of the position x in
the reactor and the direction of the incoming radiation given by the spherical coordinates (θ, φ).
Once more, from s = ss to s = sR there is no emission, no scattering and no absorption (the
medium has been assumed to be diactinic); from assumption 5 there is no refraction or reflection
at the lamp boundaries, then:
dLλ? (s)
=0 (15.A-12)
ds
Consequently:
L0λ (θ, ϕ) = Lλ? (sR ) = Lλ? (ss )ϒR,λ? (15.A-13)
Finally, the boundary condition is:
L0λ (θ, ϕ) = jλe [?ρs (r, θ, ϕ)]ϒR,λ? (15.A-14)
Reflection and absorption at the reactor wall were accounted for by means of the wall
transmission coefficient ϒR,λ .
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The value of jλe must be related to the monochromatic lamp output power Pλ,s . By definition,
jλe is the energy emitted per unit volume, unit solid angle of emission and unit time; then:
dPλ,s = jλe dVe d? (15.A-15)
? ?
Pλ,s = jλe dVe d? (15.A-16)
?S VS
From Equations (15.A-11) and (15.A-14) we must know the values of ρ2 (x, θ, φ) and ρ1 (x, θ, φ).
In order to know these values one must obtain explicit expressions for the independent variable
ρ, at the positions indicated by Equations (15.A-7) and (15.A-8). In the case of our reactor they
are seen in Figure 15.A-1. Let us consider a point located in an arbitrary position In , having
coordinates x(r, z, β). Let us look at an arbitrary direction (θ, φ).
Using the nomenclature indicated in Figure 15.A-1, from standard analytic geometry, the
equation of the boundary surface of the radiation source (a cylinder) in spherical coordinates is
written as follows:
ρ2 sin2 θ − 2ρ(sin θ cos φ)r + (r 2 − rL2 ) = 0 (15.A-18)
The two solutions of this quadratic equation are precisely the values of ρ; i.e., they are the
intersections of the ρ coordinate with the front and rear parts of the lamp at any value of θ and φ:
r cos φ ± (r 2 cos2 φ − r 2 + rL2 )½
ρ1,2 = (15.A-19)
sin θ
Finally, the following value for ?ρS is obtained:
½
2[r 2 (cos2 ϕ − 1) + rL2 ]
?ρs = (15.A-20)
sin θ
Equations (15.A-14), (15.A-17) and (15.A-20) provide the boundary condition for the emission
model, i.e.:
½
Pλ,S ϒR,λ? [r 2 (cos2 ϕ − 1) + rL2 ]
L0λ (x, θ, ϕ) = (15.A-21)
2π 2 rL2 LL sin θ
It must be noticed that either in Equation (15.A-21), all the characteristics of the lamp and
the relative position of the reactor with respect to the lamp are included. When this value is
used to calculate the photon absorption rate that is required to formulate the reaction rate inside
the reactor, this information is fully incorporated into the mass balances, i.e., we have the lamp
characteristics and its position inside the reactor incorporated as part of the design methodology.
Limits of integration for the variables θ and φ
The spectral radiance is a function of the directional coordinates. The limits of integration for the
independent variables θ and φ must be obtained.
Limits for the independent variable θ
Limiting rays coming from the lamp and reaching the generic point (r, β, z) inside the reactor
must satisfy two conditions:
(i) if the ray limits the value of θ, its equation (a straight line in space) must have a common
solution with the equation of the circumference that define the opaque zone (or lamp ends) of
the upper and lower parts of the lamp; however, for any plane at constant φ (a plane in r−z)
there are two values of θ that satisfy this condition for both the upper and lower boundaries;
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(ii) to eliminate this ambiguity a second restriction on θ must be imposed: one must choose the
angle corresponding to the intersection of the ray with that portion of the circumference that,
limited by the two generatrix lines corresponding to the limiting angles of φ, is closer to the
generic point (r, β, z), as indicated in the figure.
From Figure 15.A-1:
(LL − z) = ρ1 cos θ1 (15.A-22)
−z = ρ1 cos θ2 (15.A-23)
and with Equation (15.A-19):
? ½
?
−1 r cos φ − [r 2 (cos2 φ − 1) + rL2 ]
θ1 (φ) = tan (15.A-24)
(LL − z)
? ½
?
−1 r cos φ − [r 2 (cos2 φ − 1) + rL2 ]
θ2 (φ) = tan (15.A-25)
−z
Limits for the independent variable φ
The limiting rays in the φ-direction, for any value of the angle θ, must be tangent to the lamp
boundary at points located on the two generatrix lines of the cylinder (see Fig. 15.A-1). These
values can be obtained by imposing a restriction in the values of ρ1 and ρ2. At the limiting points,
since ?ρ = 0, both intersections of the ρ-coordinate with the lamp boundary must coincide,
i.e., in a projection of the lamp on the x-y plane, the limiting rays are tangent to the directrix
circumference of the lamp. This means that the condition in space is:
ρ1 = ρ 2 (15.A-26)
and since φ can only take on values in the first and fourth (negative value) quadrants, we have:
? ?
2 2 ½
(r − r )
−φ1 = φ2 = cos−1 L
(15.A-28)
r
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American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C., 1984.
Baldry, M.G.C.: The bactericidal, fungicidal, and sporicidal properties of hydrogen peroxide and peracetic
acid. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 54 (1983), pp. 417– 423.
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Wiley, New York, 1988, pp. 91–116.
Baldry, M,G.C. & French, M.S.: Disinfection of sewage effluent with peracetic acid. Water Sci. Technol. 21
(1989b), pp. 203–206.
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