FAMILIA 33 (2006) 23-46

Children in Antiquity and

Early Christianity: Research
History and Central Issues
Reidar Aasgaard
University of Oslo (Norway)

Sumario

Children in Antiquity and Early Christianity:

Research History and Central Issues

Dentro de los actuales estudios sobre la antigüedad (clásica y tar-

día) y el cristianismo primitivo (Nuevo Testamento y período patrísti-
co), y especialmente la cultura romana, el mundo de los niños y la
infancia ha suscitado gran interés y adquirido un desarrollo notable. A
pesar de las dificultades metodológicas, han sido puestos de relieve
diversos aspectos relativos a la vida de los niños, si bien cabe aún espe-
rar nuevas aportaciones sobre todo en lo concerniente al cristianismo
primitivo. El artículo ofrece un panorama general de la investigación y
muestra los núcleos principales del tema y en los nuevos retos plan-
teados. Se concentra principalmente en las actitudes hacia la infancia
y en las relaciones padre-niño, así como en las diferencias que, en el
entorno cultural, ha introducido el cristianismo en lo referente a la
infancia. Al final se ofrece una amplia bibliografía que puede ser útil
para profundizar en el estudio del tema.

Palabras clave: Niños, Infancia, Antigüedad Judía y Greco-Roma-

na, Nuevo Testamento, Cristianismo Primitivo, Historia Social, Historia
de la Investigación, Historia de las Ideas.

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 Abstract

Children in Antiquity and Early Christianity:

Research History and Central Issues

Children and childhood has become a field of growing interest

within modern research on Antiquity (classical and late antiquity) and
Early Christianity (New Testament and patristic times), and research
has flourished particularly within Roman studies. In spite of the met-
hodological obstacles related to the field, a diversity of aspects of chil-
dren’s life has been dealt with. Much also awaits further study, both as
material and as perspectives are concerned; this is very much the case
with the period of early Christianity. The article gives a general survey
of research and presents central issues and challenges. It focuses par-
ticularly on attitudes towards children and on parent-child relations. It
also raises the question of the difference Christianity may have made
for children. The article has an extensive bibliography as an aid for
further study.

Key Words: Children, Childhood, Roman, Greek, Jewish, Anti-

quity, New Testament, Early Christianity, Research History, Mentality
History, Social History.

***

The issue of children and childhood has been a field of growing

interest within modern scholarship, in the humanities as well as the
social and natural sciences. A similar development has taken place
during the last two decades in the study of Antiquity and early
Christianity. The aim of this article is to give a survey of research, to
present central issues and challenges, and to supply a select, but fairly
extensive, bibliography for those wishing to study the field more closely.

Methodological challenges

The study of children and childhood in Antiquity and early

Christianity is faced with some specific challenges:
(1) Adequacy of the sources. The material on children come down
to us is limited. Antiquity was basically an oral, not a written culture,
and much of what was written has been lost. Much is literary and rhe-
torical, depicting ideals rather than reality, and it also originated
within a small elite at the top of society or of church hierarchies.
Almost everything is written by men, and a disproportionate number
of sources come from limited geographical areas, primarily centres
such as Rome and Egypt. Obviously, these are serious challenges for

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 the study of children in Antiquity; however, they are not insurmounta-
ble, but can be met by conscientious and balanced work on the sour-
ces.
(2) Children are only to a limited degree made an issue in the sour-
ces. Childhood does not belong among the many standard topics of
Antiquity. Instead, it is usually dealt with in passing and in fragmentary
ways. For research this has also its benefits, however, since the issue of
children then is often handled with more disinterest, with information
showing through with less rhetorical or ideological adaptation on the
part of the authors. Thus, much can be read between the lines, e.g. of
the life conditions of children, of attitudes towards them, etc.
(3) The children are themselves by and large silent in the sources.
We meet them almost exclusively through others, viz., through adult
persons’ descriptions. Thus, the sources mainly give us outsider, not
insider views of children and their lives. In fact, this is a special version
of the general emic-etic (from the inside/the outside) problem, which
becomes particularly pressing due to our long distance in time from
the classical and early Christian world. Consequently, the sources
must be read very much with this in mind.

Children and childhood as research field

When studying children and childhood it is necessary to reflect

on what this research field comprises. We may divide the field into
these main areas:
1. Basic living conditions, esp. demography; birth/death rates (abor-
tion, infanticide, exposure, adoption); nutrition (food, etc.); health
(diseases, etc.); physical environment (clothing, housing).
2. Formation, esp. life phases (infancy, childhood, youth); upbringing
(e.g. ideals, means and contents of education, children’s culture);
gender roles.
3. Family roles, esp. children’s position and functions; parent-child
relations; sibling relations; violence and sexual exploitation;
death, burial and commemoration.
4. Societal roles, esp. children’s position in society at large (social
variation, child labour) and in religious settings (degree of parti-
cipation, functions in religious rituals).
5. Cultural roles, esp. views on the nature of children; children as
paradigms for adults; children as cultural symbols; childhood as
source for metaphor.
6. Historical change, esp. whether changes took place in the living
conditions or in the attitudes towards children in Antiquity, and
particularly with the growth of early Christianity.

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 As regards Antiquity and early Christianity research has been
done on all of these areas, but to varying degrees. We shall return to
some examples below.

Research on Greco-Roman and Jewish Antiquity

Descriptions of children in Antiquity and early Christianity often

take their point of departure in Philippe Ariès’ L’enfant et la vie fami-
liale sous l’ancien régime (Centuries of childhood, 1960). In this semi-
nal study, Ariès presented two hypotheses, (1) that children all the way
up to the 16th century lived under very bad conditions and usually expe-
rienced lack of respect from adults, and (2) that childhood was recog-
nised as a stage of life with its particular characteristics only from the
13th century on, and not fully before the 16th/17th centuries.
Ariès’ contribution was an impetus for other scholarly work on
children in Antiquity and early Christianity. His hypotheses have been
heavily criticised, and later research has been far more nuanced than
his. But his views still loom large in the views of several scholars.
The first, and early, book to deal in some detail with children in
Antiquity was W.K. Lacey, The family in Classical Greece (1968). Typical
of this book, and of research in the years to come, however, was that
children were primarily dealt with within the framework of the family,
not as an independent issue. After this, several years went by without
much being done, except for some works on youths, cf. Stephen
Bertman (1976) and Emiel Eyben (1972; 1973; 1981) –this was the period
of the “youth revolt”.
In the mid-80s, however, there was among Roman scholars a con-
siderable rise in interest in the study of the family. The central name
is that of Beryl Rawson, who gathered scholars for conferences which
resulted in the very important books The Family in Ancient Rome: New
Perspectives (1986), and Marriage, Divorce, and Children in Ancient
Rome (1991). In both books childhood was singled out as an issue in its
own right. In the wake of these contributions many other studies follo-
wed (both monographs and articles), most of them focussing on Roman
material. Much of the research on the ancient family was summarised
in Suzanne Dixon’s The Roman Family (1992).
The focus on children was gradually –from the early 1990s up to
now– singled out and strengthened in further studies by Rawson and
collaborators, such as Keith Bradley (1991), Dixon (2001), Eyben (1993;
2003), Richard P. Saller (1994), and Paul Weaver (1997). Research has
flourished and diversified, with a variety of issues related to children
being currently dealt with. Worth particular mention are Thomas
Wiedemann, Adults and Children in the Roman Empire (1989), the first
full monograph on children within a Roman setting, and the recent,

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 very valuable book by Beryl Rawson, Children and Childhood in
Roman Italy (2003); in it, she summarises a life of research on family
and children. A fresh fruit of research is also the book by Christian
Laes, Kinderen bij de Romeinen. Zees eeuwen dagelijks leven (2006).
Although research has very much centred on the Roman world,
the interest in the classical Greek tradition has also grown. Here,
however, focus has generally been on the family, and less on children
in particular, cf. Sarah B. Pomeroy (1997), Cheryl A. Cox (1998), and
Cynthia B. Patterson (1998). There are a couple of important excep-
tions to this, however, viz., Mark Golden, Children and Childhood in
Classical Athens (1990), and the recent book edited by Jenifer Neils
and John H. Oakley, Coming of Age in Ancient Greece: Images of
Childhood from the Classical Past (2003) .
Within Jewish tradition research on children is very meagre. The
most important contribution so far is the book edited by Shaye J.D.
Cohen, The Jewish Family in Antiquity (1993), in which some of the con-
tributors specially focus on children’s role within the family. Some can
also be found in the books edited by Samuel Safrai and M. Stern (1974;
1976) and by Leo G. Perdue, Families in Ancient Israel (1997), and in
some contributions by John M.G. Barclay (1997), van Jan Willem van
Henten/Athalya Brenner (2000), and Margaret Williams (2005).
Research until the 1990s has been marked by some characteris-
tics: a strong focus on Rome and on literary sources, but also an awa-
reness of the importance of family dynamics, gender differences and
social, class-related variation –the fruits of a feministic and social
scientific orientation of research. From the 1990s on, new trends have
also entered research. Worth particular mention is the interest in (1)
life course studies and its effects on the dynamics of family, e.g. Dixon’s
book from 1992, and Mary Harlow and Ray Laurence’s Growing up and
growing old in ancient Rome: A life course approach (2002).
Very important is also the awareness of the element of (2) geo-
graphical, and implicitly cultural, variation as concerns the roles of
family and children. This has resulted in regionally oriented studies, e.
g. on education: Raffaella Cribiore, Gymnastics of the Mind: Greek
Education in Hellenistic and Roman Egypt (2001). Very important books
are Véronique Dasen, Naissance et petite enfance dans l’Antiquité
(2004), which also focuses on Egyptian, Byzantine, and other traditions,
and Michele George, The Roman Family in the Empire: Rome, Italy,
and Beyond (2005), which in addition to Italy and Rome, also deals with
such diverse areas as Palestine, North Europe, Hungary, North Africa,
and Lusitania (!).
Finally, there has taken place a development towards (3) greater
diversity in the use of sources. From an emphasis on literary and
archaeological sources, research has increasingly taken art, epi-
graphy, and juridical documents into account, thus integrating a broader
set of variables against which to study ancient childhood. Particularly

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 Rawson has during the last years focused on art and epigraphy (1997;
2003), Jeannine Uzzi on art (2005), Hanne Sigismund Nielsen and
Janette McWilliam on epigraphy (1997; 2001), and Judith Evans Grubbs
on legal sources (2005).
In works on other topics, such as women and slaves, there has
also been growing awareness of children as a distinct category. And
some have made in-depth studies of special aspects of children’s life,
e.g. John Boswell on abandonment of children (1990).

Research on early Christianity

Research on early Christianity has been slower than classical

research to take on the study of family and children. However, much
work has been done on the early Christian family since the beginning
of the 1990s. Some scholars have focused on early Christian family life
in general, whereas others have dealt with particular writings or
authors, such as the canonical gospels, Paul, and church fathers (e.g.
Cappadocians). Characteristic of many of these studies is that they
also deal with figurative family language, for example of the church as
a family of God, and very often base their readings on social scientific
methodology. In these works, the issue of children has been taken up,
but not in great breadth.
Some representative New Testament contributions dealing with
the family, but also including children, are Daniel von Allmen’s early
La famille de Dieu: la symbolique familiale dans le paulinisme (1981);
Stephen C. Barton, Discipleship and Family Ties in Mark and Matthew
(1994); Halvor Moxnes (ed.), Constructing Early Christian Families (ed.,
1997); Santiago Guijarro, Fidelidades en conflicto (1998); Joseph H.
Hellerman, The Ancient Church as Family (2001); and Reidar Aasgaard,
“My Beloved Brothers and Sisters!” Christian Siblingship in Paul (2004).
Less work has been done on family life in the patristic period, but
Carol Harrison (1996) and Raymond van Dam (2003) should be mentio-
ned. The books by Carolyn Osiek/David L. Balch, Families in the New
Testament World (1997) and by Geoffrey Nathan, The Family in Late
Antiquity: The Rise of Christianity and the Endurance of Tradition
(2000) can serve as useful introductions to the New Testament and the
patristic periods respectively.
As for the issue of children in particular, it is clear that this has
been far less studied than the family generally, although there has
been a distinct rise in interest the last few years. Two early, but partly
outdated contributions, deserve mention however, viz., Simon Légasse
(1969) and H.H. Schroeder (1972).
Two more recent books deal at length with children in the New
Testament in general. The first is Peter Müller, In der Mitte der

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 Gemeinde: Kinder im Neuen Testament (1992), to date the most tho-
rough study. He analyses the New Testament material on the back-
ground of socio-historical sources, with focus primarily on the synoptic
gospels. Some attention is also paid to the letters, although relatively
sparingly in the case of Paul. The book by William A. Strange, Children
in the Early Church (1996), is briefer and more popular, but is
somewhat more attentive to differences among the synoptic gospels
than Müller. Some scholars have dealt with children in the New
Testament in articles, particularly James Francis (1996) and Judith M.
Gundry-Volf (2000; 2001). Some studies taking up more specific issues
related to children have also been published, such as Bettina Eltrop on
Matthew (1996) and Taeseong Roh on the “familia Dei” in the synoptic
gospels (2001). Of special interest is Peter Balla (2003), who we shall
return to below.
Studies which deal with children in patristic times are compa-
rably few. The early book by Michael Gärtner, Die Familienerziehung
in der alten Kirche (1985) deserves mention, since it has relatively
extensive analyses both of the upbringing of children in early
Christianity in general and in John Chrysostom in particular. The
Ph.D. thesis by Sarah Currie, Childhood and Christianity from Paul to
the Council of Chalcedon (1993) also surveys quite a bit of material. A
number of articles deal with special figures or limited issues, particu-
larly Graham Gould (1994, eastern Fathers), Vigen Guroian (2001, John
Chrysostom), Ellen M. Stortz (2001, Augustine), and Blake Leyerle
(1997, John Chrysostom). The reception historical study of Sherman W.
Gray, The least of my brothers: Matthew 25, 31-46 (1989) is also worth
mention. In addition, Wiedemann and Nathan (above) have separate
chapters on children in early Christianity.
The clearly most comprehensive contribution is the recent mono-
graph by O.M. Bakke, When Children Became People: The Birth of
Childhood in Early Christianity (2005), which deals with central topics
on children from the NT to Augustine. After a presentation of children
in the Greco-Roman world, it turns to patristic views about children’s
characteristics, and then to issues related to birth (e.g. abortion),
sexuality, education, participation in worship, and to problems of com-
bining Christian living (e.g. asceticism) and having children. The book
has good surveys and discussions of central sources and is highly ser-
viceable as an introduction to the patristic period in particular.
However, it is brief on the NT; and material on several early Fathers,
and art and epigraphic material is not included. Some topics are also
only briefly mentioned, such as children’s responsibilities within the
family, and the illnesses, death, and commemoration of children.
Worth special mention is also Marcia J. Bunge (ed.), The Child in
Christian Thought (2001), which presents the ideas of many central his-
torical figures and writings from the NT and to modern times. The
book gives an excellent general survey, but also several in-depth stu-

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 dies, and can serve a backcloth for the study of early Christianity as far
as perspectives, methods, and material are concerned.
Research on children in early Christianity is, if not still in its
childhood, then at least in its youth, and clearly still has much to catch
up with from work done on other material, particularly in the Roman
field. Little has e.g. been done on early Christian children in relation
to gender, social class, and regional perspectives. One obvious merit
on the part of early Christianity scholars, however, has been their
efforts to bridge the gap to classical studies. Both fields have traditio-
nally formed rather separate scholarly traditions, but important ini-
tiatives have been taken by scholars such as Moxnes and collaborators
(particularly the Early Christian families group within the Society of
Biblical Literature), and by Balch and Osiek (eds.) in Early Christian
families in context: an interdisciplinary dialogue (2003).

Example 1: attitudes towards children

Research on attitudes towards children in Antiquity and early

Christianity can serve as one example of scholarly discussions within
the field. There has on this point taken place a development from one-
sidedness to a far more diversified view. Ariès’ early book, which
depicted Antiquity as a dark age for children (see above), dealt rather
superficially with the material. Later research went into much more
detail, and has nuanced and partly refuted his claims. However, his
spirit still lives on in some works, for example in Tony Chartrand-
Burke’s thesis on the Infancy Gospel of Thomas (2001), in which people
in Antiquity are denied the capacity for insight into the life of children.
Rawson (2003) represents a more balanced view. By means of a
broad variety of sources she tries to show that there was far more
understanding and empathy with children than has been acknowled-
ged, and that adults in Antiquity also were very much aware of chil-
dren’s psychological development and able to adapt to such factors.
At the other end of the spectrum, we also find scholars presenting
a rosier picture of childhood, and especially in the early Empire, such as
Paul Veyne, “La famille et l’amour sous le haut-empire romain” (1978).
This spectrum of opinions clearly mirrors differences in opinion
about children in Antiquity and early Christianity, but it also highlights
some methodological challenges as to the concept of “attitude”, which
are important to reflect on:
(1) When speaking of attitudes, what levels does one then refer to,
that of ideas (how children were valued) or that of practice (what roles,
etc., children had in the society and the family)? Clearly, the two levels
are intertwined, but there is little agreement as to the relationship
between them. Dixon (1991) holds that there was considerable tension

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 between ideals and actual practice, and maybe even conflict: reality
could be much harsher and quite different from descriptions in the
sources. On the basis of rhetorical considerations, Bakke (2005),
however, is more confident in a correspondence between idea and
reality, i.e. between what the sources say and what was practised.
(2) Was there one specific attitude? Should we rather speak of
attitudes in the plural, even of conflicting attitudes? For example,
children seem to be more negatively valued in literary than in epi-
graphic sources. And within the New Testament children appear to be
more highly valued in the gospels than in the letters.
(3) How do we measure attitudes towards children? Were children
highly valued, or devalued? The answer will very much depend on the
standards against which we measure. According to modern standards,
children probably can not be said to be highly regarded. Measured
against similar groups in Antiquity, however, the answer may be quite
different. It remains an open question whether attitudes towards chil-
dren were more negative than towards others, at least when we mea-
sure them against other marginalized groups such as slaves, elderly,
and disabled.
In spite of these methodological objections, there is still much to
say about the issue of attitudes. Although the sources only to a limited
degree give access to “reality”, they nevertheless very much reflect
general mentalities, i.e. popular ideas and ideals. For example, chil-
dren were often seen as unfinished human beings, as adults-to-be. The
apex of humanity was the grown-up, mature man. This was the stan-
dard against which children and others were measured, and which set
the terms for how children were to be treated and brought up. Thus,
the ideal for a child’s formation was not to give room for play or to sti-
mulate its creative abilities (cf. modern ideals), but to prepare them for
their adult obligations, e.g. as a housewife or as a man of profession. In
spite of this, however, there is –as noted– a growing recognition among
scholars that the ancients to a considerable extent were able to iden-
tify with children, and to sense the characteristics in children’s physi-
cal and mental development. This is not least evidenced in the ancient
literature concerned with education and the school system (pedagogi-
cal handbooks).
At the same time, children were also made objects of admiration,
particularly by being idealised (as “pure”) or sentimentalised (“sweet”
and “funny”). This can be seen as a positive evaluation of children, but
may equally well be reflecting needs of adults to touch up the harsh
realities of their own lives.
Children were also very often viewed as liminal beings. As not-
fully-human they were seen as beings on the threshold of another
world, who in their purity were able to mediate truths from the gods.
Children’s roles in Greco-Roman religions as oracles and as partakers
in religious processions may reflect this. Similar ideas can also be pre-

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 sent in early Christian worship, in which children could function as
choir members and readers.
One particular field of scholarly study has been the use of chil-
dren as source for metaphor; here, notions about childhood serve as
means to express ideas about other things. This is a very interesting
field, since it shows how the issue of children could be used rhetori-
cally for a diverse number of purposes, while at the same time also
revealing certain attitudes towards the children themselves. In this
kind of usage, children could be presented as models for adult life. For
example, in art children figures often served as symbols for happiness,
and the emperor Augustus also used children imagery as means for
creating a notion about the durability and future prosperity of the
empire; see the works by Wiedemann (1989), Rawson (2001; 2003), and
Beth Severy (2003).
The metaphorical use of childhood language has very much been
an area of focus in research on early Christianity, more than in classi-
cal studies. This clearly has to do with the exceptionally frequent use
of such language, particularly in the New Testament, cf. the works by
von Allmen (1981), Sandnes (1994), Moxnes (1997), Roh (2001), Trevor J.
Burke (2003), Aasgaard (2004), but also in patristic sources, cf.
Hellerman (2001).

Example 2: parent-child relations

Considerable research has also been done on parent-child rela-

tions. This is no wonder, given the emphasis on family and hierarchy in
the classical world. It is, however important to be aware that much
of the material deals with parents and adult children, and not children
in their minors.
Golden (1990) and Barry S. Strauss (1993) have focussed on
parent-child relations in the classical Greek period and –partly– the
Hellenistic period, as have also Pomeroy (1997), Patterson (1998), and
Cox (1998). Far more research, however, has been done on the Roman
period, and a significant amount of this is concerned with parent-
daughter relations. An early study was made by Judith P. Hallett
(1984), followed by a number of others, such as Dixon (1988) and Eva
Marie Lassen (1990). Saller (1994) devotes chapters to questions about
the authority of the father, discipline, and inheritance in the Roman
family. Wiedemann (1989) has some material, but presents it less sys-
tematically than might be expected. A number of articles deal with
both general features and special aspects of parent-child relations, e.
g. Eyben (1991), Rawson (1991), Saller (1991), and Bradley (1991). Rawson
also deals with it at length in her latest book (2003).

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 Much of the limited research on the Jewish family has been done
on parent-child relations. Worth particular notice are the articles by
O. Larry Yarbrough, Adele Reinhartz, and Ross S. Kraemer in the book
edited by Cohen (1993). Very recently, Andreas Michel has focused on
violence towards children, including parental violence, in the Old
Testament (2003).
Parent-child relations have also been important within research
on early Christianity, and several of these contributions deal extensi-
vely with the Greco-Roman and Jewish context of the Christian mate-
rial. Examples are works by Guijarro on the historical Jesus and the
Synoptics (1998; 2000), Harry Jungbauer on the love of parents com-
mand in the New Testament (2002), and Burke on 1 Thessalonians
(2003). Much material on the patristic period can be found in Nathan
(2000), Guroian (2001), Hellerman (2001), and Bakke (2005).
Research has focused much on the fundamental power structures
of parent-child relations, and traditionally emphasized its hierarchical
and patriarchal character. In addition the character of parent-child
obligations have been much dealt with. Here, scholars have highligh-
ted the obligation of parents to provide children with their basic
needs, to give them basic instruction, to serve as moral models, and to
secure inheritance for them. In return, children were to function as
working power, to secure parents’ old age, to provide for them a
decent burial, and to carry on the family traditions. Mutually, parents
and children should serve as a social network, show each other mutual
respect, strive to avoid conflict and preserve internal harmony, and
also defend family honour vis-à-vis outsiders.
Traditionally, scholarship (taking its point of departure in Roman
legal material) presented parent-child relations as strongly hierarchi-
cal, with fathers having an almost omnipotent position. During the last
two decades, however, a much greater variety of sources has been con-
sulted, with the picture becoming far more balanced, showing that
there were many restrictions on the “patria potestas”. This clearly
indicates that one must apply a set of variables in order to get an
appropriate picture of parent-child relations.
Within classical studies, scholars have paid special attention to
certain perspectives and issues, such as the range of formal parent-
child relations (adoption, stepchildren, foundlings), e.g. Rawson (2003)
and Laes (2003); gender (father/daughter, mother/son etc.), e.g. Dixon
(1988; 1992); class, e.g. Dixon (2001) and Rawson (2003); inheritance, e.g.
Champlin (1991) and Saller (1991; 1994); formation (aims, methods, vio-
lence), e.g. Saller (1991); emotional relations (degree of intimacy,
mourning), e.g. Dixon (1991), Saller (1997) and Rawson (2003); conflicts
(sexual exploitation, generational and inheritance conflicts), e.g.
Bertman (1976), Dixon (1997) and Grubbs (2005).
Parent-child relations have generally received less attention as
far as early Christianity is concerned. There are two notable excep-

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 tions to this, however; both are due to the special character of the
Christian material. (1) Extensive work has been done on metaphorical
parent-child language (God as father and Christians as children etc.),
within the synoptic gospels, e.g. by Sandnes (1994) and Andries van
Aarde (2001); on John, e.g. by Reinhartz (1999); on Paul, e.g. by Beverly
R. Gaventa (1990; 1996), Mary Katherine Birge (2002), and Aasgaard
(2004); and on 1-3 John, e.g. Dietrich Rusam (1993). (2) Important work
has also been done on parent-child conflicts arising from persons joi-
ning the early Christian groups, both on children’s loyalty conflicts
towards parents, e.g. Barton (1994), Sandnes (1994), and Guijarro
(2001), and on parents’ towards their children, e.g. Bakke (2005).
A good example of a nuanced discussion of parent-child relations
in the New Testament is Peter Balla, The Child-Parent Relationship in
the New Testament and Its Environment (2003). Balla analyses New
Testament texts within the setting of Antiquity in general, and focuses
particularly on children’s obligations and rights towards parents. He
regards this to be a “from down below” perspective which has been
neglected in previous research. Balla aims at explaining two seeming
tensions in the New Testament material: the tension between the early
Jesus followers’ breakaway from their family and the social stability
reflected in the household codes of the late NT letters, and the tension
between the exhortations in the gospels to honour one’s parents, and
to leave or hate them. These tensions have in previous research often
been used as indications of early Christians being in conflict with their
social environment, and with the Christian community serving as a
family of God to substitute the “old” family. Balla’s view is –in my opi-
nion correctly– that these tensions have been considerably exaggera-
ted: the early Christians were all the time, inter alia motivated by
Jesus’ own attitudes, concerned with preserving the old social struc-
tures, and thus also with honouring their parents. Expressions such as
to “leave” and “hate” one’s parents were to a large extent hyperbolic,
with parallels in non-Christian material. Their intention was to empha-
sise the radical aspect of Christian loyalty towards Jesus: honouring
God should have higher priority than honouring one’s parents. But it
was only in exceptional cases that loyalties collided, since by living up
to current expectations about honouring one’s parents one also
honoured God.
Interestingly, Balla also focuses on limitations set on children’s
obligations towards parents, and shows that children on occasion had
the right to disobey, e.g. if parents were mentally or morally depraved
or their will conflicted with that of the Torah.
Balla’s view partly coincides with that of Guijarro (1998; 2001).
However, Guijarro emphasises more strongly the seriousness of chil-
dren’s conflicts with parents, particularly among the earliest Jesus
believers (e.g. those belonging to the Q milieu). Jesus and the early
Christians were not at all anti-familial. But when households did not

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 tolerate that family members became Christian, this often led to the
social ostracism reflected in the New Testament “conflict sayings”.
The issue of parent-children conflict is also taken up by Bakke
(2005), but from the opposite angle: when loyalties towards children
become problematic for parents. In a chapter, Bakke discusses patris-
tic material in which parents leave their children for the sake of a
higher cause, to follow the will of God, e.g. to do missionary work, to
live ascetic lives, or even to suffer martyrdom. Viewed together, these
contributions leave us with a complex total impression, indicating that
perceptions of the same relationship, the parent-child relation, could
differ much when viewed from the perspective of parents or of chil-
dren respectively.

Historical change: did Christianity make any difference

for children?

Did there take place a change or development over time in how

children were viewed and treated? This is a question which is someti-
mes, often implicitly, raised within research. The question is impor-
tant, and fully legitimate, since it has to do with how ideology or
mentalities interact with general living conditions over time, and with
how new identities are shaped from encounters between old and new
faiths, e.g. in the case of the new Christian religion.
Classical scholars differ as to whether they think that the ques-
tion can be answered, and many are very reluctant to judge as to
whether the sources allow us to make any such inferences at all.
However, some are inclined to see changes taking place around the 1st
century A.D. with the Empire replacing the Roman Republic, thus
introducing a period of greater political and economical stability, with
an improvement of general living conditions and an upgrading of the
valuation of family life and –consequently– of children. But since most
scholars have only investigated into limited aspects of the issue, few
have ventured more comprehensive discussions of such a question.
Scholars on early Christianity have also dealt with the matter,
with some, e.g. Currie (1993), being rather uncritical as concerns the
effect –and positive effect– of nascent Christianity. Other scholars hold
the opposite position; e.g. according to Nathan (2000) there occur
with the Christian religion only small and superficial changes as con-
cerns the lives of children; instead, Christianity largely forwards tra-
ditional attitudes, both as concerns ideas and practice.
Generally, however, scholars take a more nuanced stand. E.g.
Wiedemann (1989) and Bakke (2005) discuss the matter, and hold that
Christianity brought changes to the attitudes to children. And
although it is not always clear whether the individual changes should

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 be interpreted as positive or negative, they serve in sum fundamen-
tally to upgrade the position of children. Bakke and others focus on the
following areas on which changes are likely to have taken place:
1. Ideologically: the idea of all humans being created in the image
of God affected attitudes to children, both positively (they were regar-
ded fully human) and more negatively (they were in a fallen condition
and afflicted by sin).
2. Abortion/infanticide/exposure. Christianity was negative to
such practice. It shared this attitude with some philosophical groups
and with Judaism, but the view became much more widely dissemina-
ted with the growth of Christianity.
3. Sexual relations between children and adults. Early
Christianity had a far more restrictive view than Antiquity in general,
not least motivated by its emphasis on asceticism and on sexual mode-
ration and abstinence.
4. Formation and educational curriculum. Changes gradually
took place, partly in ethical ideals, partly in cultural heritage, with
Biblical material supplanting classical material.
5. Parents’ involvement in children’s formation. Early Christianity
put greater emphasis on parents’ responsibility for the formation and
ideological education of their children, with the aim being to make
them into “good Christians”.
6. Moral conduct. Since Christian children were expected to
defend not only the honour of their family, but also of the Christian
community and faith, stricter demands were put upon them as con-
cerns moral conduct. Some sources even seem to emphasise more
than was customary the need for using physical force as a means of
formation.
As can be seen, these factors can, depending on how they are
valued individually and in sum, be viewed as contributing both positi-
vely and negatively to the living conditions of early Christian children.
Nonetheless, they show that it is not possible to make simple evalua-
tions in one or another direction, but that a variety of factors must be
taken into account in attempts to assess the effects of political changes
in the Roman Empire or of the growth of the Christian movement.

Antiquity and early Christianity from the perspective

of children?

There is still much research to be done on children and child-

hood in Antiquity and early Christianity. This is the case with the early
Christian material in particular; here, there is clearly a need for more

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 in-depth studies of special topics, of individual writings and authors,
and of epigraphic sources and art.
One issue should be especially mentioned here, however. Except
from some attempts, e.g. by Rawson, Balla, and Bakke, few scholars
have tried to view the sources systematically from the perspective of
the children themselves. Although there are (as noted above) conside-
rable problems inherent in such an approach, there is in my opinion
more material on this in the ancient sources than has been commonly
acknowledged. The sources have for example not been sufficiently
combed on matters such as children’s toys, stories, school exercises,
dressing, diseases, and gender roles. Thus, I think that we should ven-
ture to inquire more deeply into questions such as: what was everyday
life like for children, in Antiquity and in early Christianity? What did
they do? What did they learn? To what degree was their environment
adapted to their needs? How did they themselves have to adapt? What
signs do we find of a “children’s culture”? How did they see themselves?
Some scholars have also voiced the need for a Christian theology
of childhood (e.g. Bonnie Miller-McLemore 2003; Joyce Ann Mercer
2005). Although this is a perspective foreign to the ancient sources
themselves, it is fully warranted from our modern point of view. Just as
we for a time have had feminist and liberationist readings of the
ancient material, we should now also promote a “childish” reading, an
interpretation of the sources from the perspective and interests of
children. Within research on early Christianity it has for very long
been the time of adults. It ought now to be the time of children, for
letting the children come. They should no longer be stopped.

Select bibliography on children in Antiquity and Early

Christianity

(Entries are sorted according to main emphases, but may also

contain material pertaining to other sections).

General

Ariès, Ph., L’enfant et la vie familiale sous l’ancien régime, Paris:

Librairie Plon, 1960 (English edition: Centuries of Childhood. Harmon-
dsworth: Penguin, 1962).

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 Barton, S. (ed.), The Family in Theological Perspective, Edinburgh:
T & T Clark, 1996.
Bunge, M. J. (ed.), The Child in Christian Thought, Grand Rapids,
MI/Cambridge, UK: William B. Eerdmans, 2001.
Dasen, V. (ed.), Naissance et petite enfance dans l’antiquité: Actes
du Colloque de Fribourg, 28 Novembre-1er Décembre 2001, Fribourg/
Göttingen: Academic/Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2004.
Wood, D. (ed.), The Church and Childhood, Studies in Church
History 31, Oxford: Blackwell, 1994.

Greek

Bertman, S. (ed.), The Conflict of Generations in Ancient Greece and

Rome, Amsterdam: Grüner, 1976.
Cox, C.A., Household Interests: Property, Marriage Strategies, and Family
Dynamics in Ancient Athens, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press, 1998.
Golden, M., Children and Childhood in Classical Athens, Baltimore:
The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990.
Lacey, W.K., The Family in Classical Greece, Aspects of Greek and
Roman Life, London: Thames and Hudson, 1968.
Neils, J., Oakley, J.H., Coming of Age in Ancient Greece: Images of
Childhood from the Classical Past, New Haven/London: Yale
University Press, 2003.
Patterson, C.B., The Family in Greek History, Cambridge, MA/London:
Harvard University Press, 1998.
Pomeroy, S.B., Families in Classical and Hellenistic Greece: Represen-
tations and Realities, Oxford: Clarendon, 1997.
Strauss, B.S. Fathers and Sons in Athens: Ideology and Society in the
Era of the Peloponnesian War, London: Routledge, 1993.

Roman

Binkowski, E., Rawson, B., “Sources for the Study of the Roman Family”,
in Rawson (1986), 243-57.
Boswell, J., The Kindness of Strangers: The Abandonment of Children
in Western Europe from Late Antiquity to the Renaissance, New
York: Vintage/Random House, 1990.

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 Bradley, K., Discovering the Roman Family: Studies in Roman Social
History, New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991.
Champlin, E., Final Judgments. Duty and Emotion in Roman Wills, 200
B.C.-A.D. 250, Berkeley/Los Angeles/Oxford: University of California
Press, 1991.
Corbier, M., “Divorce and Adoption as Roman Familial Strategies”, in
Rawson (1991), 47-78.
Corbier, M., “Child Exposure and Abandonment”, in Dixon (2001), 52-
73.
Cribiore, R.., Gymnastics of the Mind: Greek Education in Hellenistic
and Roman Egypt, Princeton/Oxford: Princeton University Press,
2001.
Dixon, S., The Roman Mother, London/Sydney: Croom Helm, 1988.
Dixon, S., “The Sentimental Ideal of the Roman Family”, in Rawson
(1991), 99-113.
Dixon, S., The Roman Family, Baltimore/London: The Johns Hopkins
University Press, 1992.
Dixon, S., “Conflict in the Roman Family”, in Rawson/Weaver (1997),
149-67.
Dixon, S. (ed.), Childhood, Class and Kin in the Roman World, London/
New York: Routledge, 2001.
Eyben, E., “Antiquity’s View of Puberty”, in Latomus 31 (1972): 677-97.
Eyben, E., De Jonge Romein: Volgens De Literaire Bronnen Der Periode
Ca. 200 V. Chr. Tot Ca 500 N. Chr, Brussel: Paleis der Academin,
1977.
Eyben, E., “Was the Roman ‘Youth’ an ‘Adult’ Socially?”, in L’Antiquite
Classique 50 (1981): 328-50.
Eyben, E., “Fathers and Sons”, in Rawson (1991), 114-43.
Eyben, E., Restless Youth in Ancient Rome, London/New York: Routledge,
1993.
Eyben, E., Laes C., Houdt T. van, Amor - Roma: Liefde en erotiek in
Rome, Leuven: Davidsfonds, 2003.
Gallivan, P., Wilkins, P., “Familial Structures in Roman Italy: A Regional
Approach”, in Rawson/Weaver (1997), 239-79.
George, M. (ed.), The Roman Family in the Empire: Rome, Italy, and
Beyond, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Grubbs, J.E., “Parent-Child Conflict in the Roman Family: The Evidence
of the Code of Justinian”, in George (2005), 93-128.
Hallett, J.P., Fathers and Daughters in Roman Society. Women and the
Elite Family, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984.

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 Harlow, M., Laurence, R., Growing up and Growing old in Ancient Rome:
A Life Course Approach, London/New York: Routledge, 2002.
Laes, C., “Desperately Different? Delicia Children in the Roman Household”,
in Balch/Osiek (2003), 298-324.
Laes, C., Kinderen bij de Romeinen. Zes eeuwen dagelijks leven,
Leuven: Davidsfonds, 2006.
Lassen, E.M, “Den Romerske Fadersskikkelse”, Ph.D., Odense: Odense
University, 1990.
Lassen, E.M., “The Roman Family: Ideal and Metaphor”, in Moxnes
(1997), 103-20.
McWilliam, J., “Children among the Dead: The Influence of Urban Life
on the Commemoration of Children on Tombstone Inscriptions”,
in Dixon (2001), 74-98.
Nielsen, H.S., “Interpreting Epithets in Roman Epitaphs”, in Rawson/
Weaver (1997), 169-204.
Nielsen, H.S., “The Value of Epithets in Pagan and Christian Epitaphs”,
in Dixon (2001), 165-77.
Rawson, B. (ed.), The Family in Ancient Rome: New Perspectives,
London/Sydney: Croom Helm, 1986.
Rawson, B. (ed.), Marriage, Divorce, and Children in Ancient Rome.
Canberra/Oxford: Humanities Research Centre/Clarendon,
1991.
Rawson, B., “Adult-Child Relationships in Roman Society”, in Rawson
(1991), 7-30.
Rawson, B., “The Iconography of Roman Childhood”, in Rawson/
Weaver (1997), 205-32.
Rawson, B., “Children as Cultural Symbols: Imperial Ideology in the
Second Century”, in Dixon (2001), 21-42.
Rawson, B., Children and Childhood in Roman Italy, Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2003.
Rawson, B., Weaver, P. (eds.), The Roman Family in Italy: Status, Sentiment,
Space. Canberra/Oxford: Humanities Research Centre/Clarendon,
1997.
Saller, R.P., “Patria Potestas and the Stereotype of the Roman Family”,
Continuity and Change 1/1986: 7-22.
Saller, R.P., “Corporal Punishment, Authority, and Obedience in the
Roman Household”, in Rawson (1991), 144-65.
Saller, R.P., “Roman Heirship Strategies in Principle and in Practice”,
in Saller, R.P., Kertzer, D.I. (eds.), The Family in Italy from
Antiquity to the Present, New Haven/London: Yale University
Press, 1991, 26-47.

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 Saller, R.P., Patriarchy, Property, and Death in the Roman Family,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
Saller, R.P., “Roman Kinship: Structure and Sentiment”, in Rawson/
Weaver (1997), 7-34.
Severy, B., Augustus and the Family at the Birth of the Roman Empire,
New York/London: Routledge, 2003.
Uzzi, J., Children in the Visual Arts of Ancient Rome, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2005.
Veyne, P., “La famille et l’amour sous le haut-empire romain”, Annales:
économies, sociétés, civilisations 33/1978: 35-63.
Wiedemann, Th., Adults and Children in the Roman Empire, London:
Routledge, 1989.

Hebrew Bible/Jewish

Barclay, J.M.G, “The Family as the Bearer of Religion in Judaism and

Early Christianity”, in Moxnes (1997), 66-80.
Barton, S.C., “The Relativisation of Family Ties in the Jewish and
Graeco-Roman Traditions”, in Moxnes (1997), 81-100.
Cohen, S.J.D. (ed.), The Jewish Family in Antiquity, Atlanta, GA.: Scholars,
1993.
Henten, J.W. van, Brenner, A. (eds.), Families and Family Relations as
Represented in Early Judaisms and Early Christianities: Texts and
Fictions, Leiden: Deo, 2000.
Kraemer, D., “Images of Childhood and Adolescence in Talmudic
Literature”, in Kraemer, D. (ed.), The Jewish Family: Metaphor
and Memory, New York: Oxford University Press, 1989, 65-80.
Kraemer, R.S., “Jewish Mothers and Daughters in the Greco-Roman
World”, in Cohen (1993), 89-112.
Michel, A., Gott und Gewalt gegen Kinder im Alten Testament,
Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2003.
Perdue, L.G. (et. al., eds.), Families in Ancient Israel, Louisville, KY.:
Westminster John Knox, 1997.
Reinhartz, A., “Parents and Children: A Philonic Perspective”, in
Cohen (1993), 61-88.
Safrai, S., Stern, M. (eds.), The Jewish People in the First Century. Vol. 1,
Assen/Amsterdam: Van Gorcum, 1974.
Safrai, S., Stern, M. (eds.), The Jewish People in the First Century, Vol. 2,
Assen/Amsterdam: Van Gorcum, 1976.

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 Williams, M., “The Jewish Family in Judaea from Pompey to Hadrian -
The Limits of Romanization”, in George (2005), 159-82.
Yarbrough, O.L, “Parents and Children in the Jewish Family of
Antiquity”, in Cohen (1993), 39-59.

New Testament

General

Balch, D.L., Osiek, C. (eds.), Early Christian Families in Context: An

Interdisciplinary Dialogue, Grand Rapids/Cambridge, UK: Eerdmans,
2003.
Balla, P., The Child-Parent Relationship in the New Testament and Its
Environment, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2003.
Francis, J., “Children and Childhood in the New Testament”, in Barton
(1996), 65-85.
Gundry-Volf, J.M., “The Least and the Greatest: Children in the New
Testament”, in Bunge (2001), 29-60.
Jungbauer, H., “Ehre Vater und Mutter”: Der Weg des Elterngebots in
der biblischen Tradition, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2002.
Moxnes, H. (ed.), Constructing Early Christian Families: Family as
Social Reality and Metaphor, London/New York: Routledge, 1997.
Müller, P., In der Mitte der Gemeinde: Kinder im Neuen Testament,
Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1992.
Osiek, C., Balch, D.L., Families in the New Testament World: Households
and House Churches, Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox,
1997.
Sandnes, K.O., A New Family: Conversion and Ecclesiology in the Early
Church with Cross-Cultural Comparisons, Bern et al.: Peter Lang,
1994.
Strange, W.A., Children in the Early Church: Children in the Ancient World,
the New Testament and the Early Church, Carlisle: Paternoster, 1996.

Jesus/Gospels

Aarde, A. van, Fatherless in Galilee: Jesus as Child of God, Harrisburg,

Pa.: Trinity Int., 2001.
Barton, S.C., Discipleship and Family Ties in Mark and Matthew,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.

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 Eltrop, B., Denn solchen gehrt das Himmelreich: Kinder im
Mattähusevangelium. Eine feministisch-sozialgeschichtliche
Untersuchung, Stuttgart: Ulrich E. Grauer, 1996.
Gray, S.W., The Least of My Brothers: Matthew 25, 31-46, A History of
Interpretation, Atlanta, Ga.: Scholars, 1989.
Guijarro Oporto, S., Fidelidades en conflicto: La ruptura con la familia
por causa del discipulado y de la misión en la tradición sinóptica,
Salamanca: Publicaciones Universidad Pontificia Salamanca,
1998.
Guijarro Oporto, S., “Dios Padre en la actuación de Jesús”, Estudios
Trinitarios 34/2000: 33-69.
Guijarro Oporto, S., “Kingdom and Family in Conflict: A Contribution
to the Study of the Historical Jesus”, in Pilch, J.J. (ed.), Social
Scientific Models for Interpreting the Bible: Essays by the Context
Group in Honor of Bruce J. Malina, Leiden/Boston/Köln: Brill,
2001, 210-38.
Gundry-Volf, J.M., “‘To Such as These Belongs the Reign of God’: Jesus
and Children”, Theology Today 56/2000: 469-80.
Légasse, S., Jésus et l’enfant: “Enfants”, “Petits” et “Simples” dans la
tradition synoptique, Paris: Lecoffre, 1969.
Reinhartz, A. (ed.), God the Father in the Gospel of John, Semeia 85,
Atlanta, Ga.: SBL, 1999.
Roh, T., Die Familia Dei in den synoptischen Evangelien: Eine redak-
tions-und sozialgeschichtliche Untersuchung zu einem
urchristlichen Bildfeld, Freiburg/Göttingen: Universitätsverlag/
Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2001.
Schroeder, H.-H., Eltern und Kinder in der Verkündigung Jesu: Eine
hermeneutische und exegetische Untersuchung, Hamburg-
Bergstedt: Herbert Reich/Evangelischer, 1972.

Letters

Aasgaard, R., “My Beloved Brothers and Sisters!” Christian Siblingship

in Paul, London/New York: T&T Clark Int./Continuum, 2004.
Allmen, D. von, La famille de Dieu: La symbolique familiale dans le
paulinisme, Fribourg/Göttingen: Editions Universitaires,
Fribourg/Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1981.
Bartchy, S.S., “Who Should Be Called Father? Paul of Tarsus between
the Jesus Tradition and Patria Potestas”, BTB 33/2003: 135-47.
Birge, M.K., The Language of Belonging: A Rhetorical Analysis of
Kinship Language in First Corinthians, Leuven: Peeters, 2002.

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 Burke, T.J., “Pauline Paternity in 1 Thessalonians”, Tyndale Bulletin
51/2000: 59-80.
Burke, T.J., Family Matters: A Socio-Historical Study of Kinship
Metaphors in 1 Thessalonians, London/New York: T&T Clark
International/Continuum, 2003.
Burke, T.J., “Paul’s Role as ‘Father’ to His Corinthian ‘Children’ in
Socio-Historical Context (1 Corinthians 4:14-21)”, in Burke, T.J.,
Elliott, J.K. (eds.), Paul and the Corinthians: Studies on a
Community in Conflict. Essays in Honour of Margaret Thrall,
Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2003, 95-113.
Gaventa, B.R., “The Maternity of Paul: An Exegetical Study of
Galatians 4:19”, in Fortna, R.T., Gaventa, B.R. (eds.), The
Conversation Continues: Studies in Paul and John in Honor of J.
Louis Martyn, Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon, 1990, 189-201.
Gaventa, B.R., “Mother’s Milk and Ministry in 1 Corinthians 3”, in
Lovering, E.H., Sumney, J.L. (eds.), Theology and Ethics in Paul
and His Interpreters, Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon, 1996, 101-13.
Joubert, S.J., “Managing the Household: Paul as Paterfamilias of the
Christian Household Group in Corinth”, in Esler, Ph.H. (ed.), In
Modelling Early Christianity: Social-Scientific Studies of the New
Testament in Its Context, London/New York: Routledge, 1995, 213-23.
Malherbe, A. J., “God’s New Family in Thessalonica”, in White, L.M.,
Yarbrough, O.L. (ed.), The Social World of the First Christians:
Essays in Honor of Wayne A. Meeks, Minneapolis: Fortress, 1995,
116-25.
Rusam, D., Die Gemeinschaft der Kinder Gottes: Das Motiv der
Gotteskindschaft und die Gemeinden der johanneischen Briefe,
Stuttgart/Berlin/Köln: Kohlhammer, 1993.
White, J.L., “God’s Paternity as Root Metaphor in Paul’s Conception of
Community”, Forum 8/1992: 271-95.
Yarbrough, O. L., “Parents and Children in the Letters of Paul”, in
White, L.M., Yarbrough, O.L. (ed.), The Social World of the First
Christians: Essays in Honor of Wayne A. Meeks, Minneapolis:
Fortress, 1995, 126-41.

Patristic Period

Bakke, O.M., When Children Became People: The Birth of Childhood in

Early Christianity, Minneapolis: Fortress, 2005.
Chartrand-Burke, Tony, “The Infancy Gospel of Thomas: The Text, Its
Origins, and Its Transmission”, Ph.D., University of Toronto, 2001.

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