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New People's Army

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New People's Army
Bagong Hukbong Bayan
Founders
LeaderVacant
Dates of operation1969–present[1]: 96 
Split to
Motives
Active regions1 guerrilla front (2023)[2]
Operates in 110 guerrilla fronts across 73 provinces in the Philippines (CPP claim, 2018)[3][non-primary source needed]
IdeologyCommunism
Marxism–Leninism–Maoism
National Democracy
Political positionFar-left
StatusActive
Size
  • 1,100 (2024)[4]
Part of
Allies
Opponents
Battles and warsCommunist armed conflicts in the Philippines
Designated as a terrorist group by
Website
Part of a series on
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Americas
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The current flag of the NPA

The New People's Army (Filipino: Bagong Hukbong Bayan; abbreviated NPA or BHB) is the armed wing of the Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP).[15]: 119  It acts as the CPP's principal organization, aiming to consolidate political power from what it sees as the present "bourgeois reactionary puppet government" and to aid in the "people's democratic revolution".[15]: 119  Founded on March 29, 1969,[1]: 96  by the collaboration of Jose Maria Sison and former members of the Hukbalahap led by Bernabe Buscayno, the NPA has since waged a guerrilla war based on the Maoist strategy of protracted people's war.[16] The NPA is one of the key figures in the ongoing communist rebellion in the Philippines, the longest ongoing conflict in the country.

The NPA operates and is based primarily in the Philippine countryside,[3] where the CPP alleges it has established itself in 73 out of the country's 81 provinces, across over 110 guerrilla fronts.[3][non-primary source needed] In guerrilla zones where the NPA has entrenched itself, the CPP–NPA has established a People's Democratic Government (Gobyernong Bayan), which operates independently of the Philippine government. Within these zones, income taxes which would nominally go to the government treasury instead go to the NPA, which they use to fund community services.[17]

The NPA, as represented by the National Democratic Front of the Philippines, is a party to ongoing peace talks between the People's Democratic Government and the Government of the Republic of the Philippines. Peace negotiations have reached an impasse, with the Rodrigo Duterte administration unilaterally announcing the termination of peace talks in 2019.[18] Negotiations between the GRP and the NDFP stalled on signing of the Comprehensive Agreement on Socio-Economic Reforms (CASER),[19] and the issue of localized peace talks between individual units of the NPA.[20]

The Office of the President of the Philippines designated the NPA as a terrorist group, along with the CPP.[9][10] The United States[11] and the European Union[12] have designated the CPP–NPA as "foreign terrorist organizations" in 2002 and 2005, respectively. Japan's Public Security Intelligence Agency designated the NPA as a "major international terrorist organization" (主な国際テロ組織).[13]

History

[edit]
Main article: Communist rebellion in the Philippines
Main article: Communism in the Philippines

Establishment

[edit]

The New People's Army was established on March 29, 1969, following the split of the old Communist Party (Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas-1930) into Lava and Guerrero factions. The 1960s saw a resurgence in radical ideology, following the establishment of Kabataang Makabayan and the emerging popularity of Mao Zedong Thought as an advancement of ideological Marxism-Leninism. In 1966, Jose Maria Sison, under the nom de guerre Amado Guerrero, wrote Rectify Errors and Rebuild the Party!, a treatise which criticized the old Lavaite leadership and emphasized the need to follow Mao Zedong Thought to foster re-establishment.[21] The conflict continued until December 26, 1968, when the Communist Party of the Philippines was formally re-established along Maoist lines, and the entire issue was termed the First Great Rectification Movement.

After re-establishing the CPP, Guerrero set about to establishing the People's Army. KM cadres in Tarlac had contacted Guerrero and linked him with Bernabe Buscayno, a former member of the older Hukbong Mapagpalaya ng Bayan. Relations were established and the New People's Army was formally founded on March 29, in continuity with the previous Hukbalahap.[22][non-primary source needed] At the time the NPA only had 60 armed fighters.[23]

Initial activities

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The NPA was immediately tasked with the role of implementing the CPP's program for a People's Democratic Revolution. In the Declaration of the New People's Army, Amado Guerrero outlined the following as its main tasks:[1]: 113–117 

  1. The New People's Army Must Engage in Party Rebuilding
  2. The New People's Army Must Carry Out Agrarian Revolution, Build Rural Bases, and Advance the Armed Struggle
  3. The New People's Army Must Build the National United Front

The NPA quickly spread alongside organizational work of the CPP. By 1972, it had established 735 barrio organizing committees and 60 barrio organizing committees, governing an estimated 400,000 people all over the country.[24] The CPP used the NPA to establish barrio organizing and revolutionary committees, which served as instruments in administering the people's revolutionary government. Barrio organizing committees were established to lower land rent, eliminate usury, and ensure the "annihilation of enemy troops and the elimination of landlord despots, enemy spies, and such bad elements as cattle rustlers, extortionists, robbers, murderers, arsonists, and the like."[24] Once established, barrio revolutionary committees replaced the BOC to formally establish the area as a stronghold of the revolutionary government. The NPA at the time had 72 squads of 800 regulars armed with weapons.

Rapid expansion during the Martial Law era

[edit]

Over the next decade, the NPA expanded in response to Ferdinand Marcos and the declaration of martial law in the Philippines. The CPP and the NPA were successfully able to establish themselves in the countryside, reaching a mass base of over one million people, with 1,000 fighters armed with high-powered rifles by 1977[23] By 1981, the NPA began engaging in tactical offensives involving company-sized units emerged, particularly in the Southern Mindanao region. By 1983, the NPA fielded 5,000 high-powered rifles. By 1988, it had 10,000 high-powered rifles, with 7,000 inferior firearms. It operated in 60 guerrilla fronts across 63 provinces of the Philippines.[23]

Changes in tactics and Kampanyang Ahos

[edit]

The momentum gained in the 1980s was also given to multiple setbacks. Changes in strategy and internal conflicts within the CPP resulted in ideological, political, and organizational losses for the CPP–NPA–NDF. The CPP devised a plan called a "strategic counteroffensive" (SCO) with the aim of "leaping over" to a higher stage of armed revolution and quickly win the revolution. The SCO program led to "regularization" of units, urban partisan actions, peasant uprisings, and an insurrectionist concept of "seizing opportunities".[23]

From 1981, the NPA enjoyed strategic gains in Mindanao and was able to consolidate its forces there. However, the Mindanao Commission adopted a strategy of designating areas as Red (where military struggle was applicable) or White (where political struggle and insurrection was applicable) along with the SCO program.[25]

Problems in discipline also emerged during this time, as well as deterioration of the NPA's ability to conduct mass work. These ideological and organizational shortcomings, coupled with the Corazon Aquino administration's counter-insurgency program, Oplan Lambat Bitag, managed to severely harm the NPA and the CPP as a whole.[25][26]: 144 

In 1989, the NPA assassinated U.S. Army Colonel James "Nick" Rowe, founder of the U.S. Army Survival, Evasion, Resistance and Escape (SERE) course. Colonel Rowe was part of a military assistance program to the Philippine Army. The NPA asserts that this made him a legitimate military target.[27][28]

Second Great Rectification Movement

[edit]
Main article: Second Great Rectification Movement

By 1991, the CPP central committee had assessed the mistakes of the previous decade and carried out the Second Great Rectification Movement from 1992 until declaring a success in 1998. The Second Great Rectification Movement, however, saw splits in the CPP ranks, with rejectionists such as Filemon Lagman, Romulo Kintanar, Etta Rosales, and others leaving the CPP and forming their own groups based on ideological differences. The Alex Boncayao Brigade, notorious for its partisan activities, left the CPP with Lagman and formed the Revolutionary Proletarian Army.

In 1998, the GRP and NDFP signed the Comprehensive Agreement on Human Rights and International Humanitarian Law (CAHRIHL), which establishes rules of engagement for both parties in accordance to international rules of war.[29] The NPA, as a signatory to CAHIRHL, is bound to international agreements stated in the Geneva Convention and thus follows rules set for prisoners of war,[30] command-detonated explosives,[31] and similar rules of engagement.

Since then, rejectionists have been met with reprisals. Lagman was ambushed in the University of the Philippines in 2001 by armed gunmen and slain.[32] The NPA has admitted to killing Kintanar in 2003.[33] Other rejectionists, like Rosales and Walden Bello continue as members of the social-democratic Akbayan party. Ricardo Reyes is active in local politics, having last attempted to secure the mayoralty of Pasig in 2010.

Post-Rectification

[edit]

The CPP declared the Second Great Rectification Movement as having been "conclusively won" in 1998. Since then, it has re-affirmed that the CPP is in absolute command of the NPA, outlining that its most pressing task is to "defeat and destroy the US-created and US-supported reactionary Armed Forces of the Philippines.[34]

Since then, it has continued to wage a protracted people's war through the use of guerrilla tactics, while steadily expanding. In 2002, President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo requested for the United States Department of State to declare the CPP-NPA as a foreign terrorist group, which was granted on August 2.[11] This was in line with her counter-insurgency program, Oplan Bantay Laya, which aimed to end the conflict between the AFP and the NPA. In 2005, the European Union Common Foreign and Security Policy included the NPA as a terrorist group.[12] Despite these efforts, the NPA has declared Oplan Bantay Laya I a "failure", citing that it did not lose a single guerrilla front despite the AFP's efforts of concentrating its forces in 300 to 600 barrios at any given time.[35]

In 2005, the NPA reported that its strength had surpassed its previous peak in 2005. Arroyo, at this time, had replaced OBL1 with Oplan Bantay Laya 2, which aimed at "ending the revolutionary movement by 2010".[35] OBL2, along with what the CPP identified as "conservatism" in the ranks, led to a decline in NPA strength until 2009.[36][non-primary source needed]

During the administration of Benigno Aquino III, OBL2 was replaced by Oplan Bayanihan, which had a more "people-centered" approach compared to OBL's military-heavy tactics.[37] NPA membership, at this time, steadily rose. By 2017, NPA strength had surpassed the previous 2005 peak by 3%.[36][non-primary source needed]

As of 2018, its strength is tallied at greater than the 5,600 rifles recorded in the CPP's 1985 plenum.[3][non-primary source needed] The Central Committee has stated in its 2017 Congress that it has a five-year plan with aims to "carry forward the antifascist, antifeudal and anti-imperialist movement and overthrow the tyrannical US-Duterte regime, and bring the protracted people's war to the advanced phase of the strategic defensive, in order to reach the threshold of the strategic stalemate".[36][non-primary source needed] The five-year plan:

  1. Aims to develop 7 to 10 advanced regions in terms of strength, spread, and advancement of guerrilla warfare, with approximately 20,000 Red fighters spread across the country.
  2. Calls for the development of sub-regions, with one or two undersized companies and 9 to 15 horizontal platoons, interlocked across three to five company-sized guerrilla fronts.
  3. Aims for every region and sub-region should have one company-sized unit for every nine platoon-sized units, with recruitment campaigns utilized to achieve this goal.

The CPP five-year plan emphasizes the need to combat conservatism in the NPA ranks, the importance of mass-work in building and strengthening Party groups, and the intensification of guerrilla warfare against enemy targets.

The NPA has a long record of attacking mining corporations and logging companies which they accuse of harming the forests of the Philippines. In 2011 in revenge for the murder of anti-mining activist Rabenio Sungit, the NPA attacked three mines in Mindanao, causing 190 million dollars in damages.[38] Some corporations willing to pay NPA taxes for local social programs are allowed to continue operating within NPA territory, those who do not are often attacked by the NPA who burn their equipment.[39]

Ceasefires

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  • In November 27, 1986, the Philippine government and rebels signed a 60-day ceasefire. This deal was rescinded in January 1987 following the events of the Mendiola massacre, where police fired on protesters and killed 13 farmers, injuring 30 more.
  • The peace talks between the two sides were intermittent and inconclusive since 1986, bogging down in 2012 when the government refused to free political prisoners. They resumed in August 2016, when Duterte released 19 rebel leaders from jail. However, President Duterte scrapped talks in February 2017, when rebels ambushed an army convoy, breaking a unilateral ceasefire that had held for five months. Both sides returned to the negotiating table on April 1, 2017.
  • In April 2017, peace talks between the National Democratic Front and the Philippine government brokered by Norway took place in the Netherlands, hoping to reach a political settlement in twelve months to end the conflict. This was the second time the two sides agreed on a bilateral truce since November 1986.[40]
  • As of 2019, the Duterte administration unilaterally declared the end of peace talks between the GRP and the NDFP, focusing instead on their counter-insurgency program Oplan Kapanatagan and what it terms as a "whole-of-nation" approach.[41][42]

Ideology and policies

[edit]

The NPA, being the primary organization of the CPP, follows a theoretical ideology of Marxism-Leninism-Maoism.[15]: 119  It regards the Philippines as a semi-colonial, semi-feudal state where political and economic power is concentrated on a local class of landlords and comprador bourgeoisie, aided by foreign imperialists, chief of which is United States imperialism. The CPP regards a two-stage revolution of People's Democratic Revolution followed by socialist reconstruction as the path to achieve socialism and wrest control away from the bourgeois.[16]

The NPA regards itself as waging a revolution ultimately stemming from the "unfinished" revolution of the Katipunan, calling itself a revolution of the "new type"; whereas the Katipunan waged a "bourgeois democratic revolution of the old type, the NPA is waging a "proletarian socialist revolution" in the same vein as the October Revolution in Russia.[16]

The CPP-NPA regards three things as central to waging revolution: armed struggle, agrarian revolution, and the building of mass-bases in the countryside. The NPA, aside from being a military force, also puts emphasis in carrying out land reform and organizational work to ensure that villages become bases of the people's democratic government.[15]: 120 

Ideologies regarding armed struggle

[edit]

The CPP regards armed struggle as a necessary component of revolution coinciding with the Party's organizational work. The NPA, as the central agent of armed struggle, serves to achieve its central task of "destroying and dismantling the rule of the enemy and taking their political power".[16] In waging armed revolution, the NPA follows the strategic line of protracted people's war by "encircling the cities from the countryside until conditions are ripe for seizing the cities through a strategic offensive".[43]: 48 [non-primary source needed]

The NPA identifies three stages in waging armed struggle: strategic defensive, strategic stalemate, and strategic offensive.[15]: 120–1  It regards itself as yet unable to conduct symmetric warfare in the urban centers and thus regards the people's war as being in a stage of strategic defensive moving to a stage of strategic stalemate.[43]: 50  During the stage of strategic defensive, the NPA "maintains the initiative in tactical offensives against the strategic military advantage of the enemy", making use of guerrilla tactics to attack targets and defend guerrilla zones, while armed partisans perform special roles in the cities.[15]: 121  The second stage is strategic stalemate, where fighting force is more or less equal, while the last stage is that of strategic offensive, where the NPA has developed its strength capable of assaulting military camps and cities.

Promotion of LGBT rights

[edit]

The NPA has explicitly allowed the recruitment of sexual and gender minorities. Many queer Filipinos join the NPA due to the lack of LGBT rights in the Philippines, and they believe that queer liberation can be achieved through a communist revolution. To the NPA, one's ability and willingness to serve the cause takes precedence over one's sexual orientation and gender identity; the CPP had recognized "the right to form samesex relationships and changing one's gender" since 1992.[44] Kaira Zoe Alburo writes that gay NPA recruits challenge the concept of a hegemonic, "heterosexualized" masculinity in the army in that by enlisting, they create a "new man" who exists outside of the heterosexual ideal of a "real man patterned on being strong, aggressive, and skilled in the art of war".[45]

Same-gender marriage is permitted by the NPA. In 1998, the CPP released the document On Proletarian Relationship of the Sexes, which outlined how romantic relationships and marriages should work under the army. The document also covered same-gender relationships, and with its implementation, the queer rights of sexual and gender minorities in the army became more recognized.[44] In 2005, the NPA conducted the first recorded gay marriage in the history of the Philippines.[45]

The former Filipino president Duterte mocked the NPA's acceptance of LGBT members, erroneously claiming that '40 percent' of NPA members are gay.[46] Duterte also claimed that NPA guerrillas once attempted to sexually seduce his son.[47] NPA co-founder Jose Maria Sison confirmed that the NPA openly accepted LGBT people and called Duterte's claims "unbelievable".[48]

International relations

[edit]

The Philippine Army had apprehended Eduardo Quitoriano in 1994, who was a NPA liaison officer to the Japanese Red Army and involved in a money laundering case in Switzerland.[49]

It is reported that the NPA had supported the Naxalites (of India) during the Naxalite–Maoist insurgency by providing training and technical support.[50]

The CPP-NPA received large-scale support, in the form of arms, $7 million and logistical support, from the Gaddafi government in Libya according to a US Secretary of State.[51][52]

[edit]

Under the Anti-Subversion Act of 1957

[edit]

At the time of its inception, Government of the Philippines automatically outlawed the NPA (along with the CPP) through the Anti-Subversion Act of 1957 which had branded the Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas-1930 (PKP) and the Hukbalahap as an "organized conspiracy". As splinter groups which had roots to the PKP, the ban extended to the CPP-NPA.[53]

Repeal of the Anti-Subversion Act of 1957

[edit]

The Anti-Subversion Act of 1957 was repealed by President Fidel Ramos in October 1992, decriminalizing membership in the NPA and CPP.[54][55]

Tagging as "Terrorist Organization" during the Duterte administration

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In December 2017, President Rodrigo Duterte declared the NPA along with the CPP as terrorist organizations.[9][10] In agreement were the European Union,[12] New Zealand and the United States.[14]

The Anti-Terror Council of the Philippines designated CPP-NPA as a terrorist organization in the Philippines on December 9, 2020.[56]

The Manila Regional Trial Court has junked a proscription case by the Department of Justice seeking to designate the CPP-NPA as a terrorist organization on September 22, 2022.[57] The court concluded that the constitution and program of the CPP-NPA, including its justification for armed struggle, fall under "rebellion" and do not constitute the legal definition of "terrorism".

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b c Sison, Jose Maria (2013). "Declaration of the New People's Army". Foundation for resuming the Philippine revolution : selected writings, 1968 to 1972. International Network for Philippine Studies. ISBN 978-1-62847-920-1.
  2. ^ Mendoza, John Eric (July 5, 2023). "NPA only has one active guerrilla front, says AFP chief". Inquirer.net. Retrieved July 11, 2023.
  3. ^ a b c d "Great Achievements of the CPP in 50 Years of Waging Revolution". September 8, 2018. Archived from the original on December 7, 2022. Retrieved December 4, 2019.
  4. ^ Espiritu, Rex (November 9, 2024). "AFP eyes eliminating last 4 NPA guerrilla fronts by year-end".
  5. ^ "Arms for Philippines NPA" (PDF).
  6. ^ "The Philippines' Maoist Guerillas Vow to Resist 'Imperialist China'". The Geopolitics. July 17, 2021. Archived from the original on March 29, 2023.
  7. ^ "The Maoist Guerrillas of the Philippines Are Now Pointing Their Guns at China". The News Lens. April 29, 2019. Archived from the original on December 6, 2022.
  8. ^ "(Outlawed) Philippine Communist Party declares war on Chinese companies". AsiaNews. Archived from the original on November 5, 2022.
  9. ^ a b c Ballaran, Jhoanna (December 5, 2017). "Duterte declares CPP, NPA as terrorist organizations". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Archived from the original on December 6, 2017. Retrieved September 17, 2020.
  10. ^ a b c "Proclamation No. 374, s. 2017" (PDF). Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines. December 5, 2017. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 15, 2017. Retrieved September 17, 2020.
  11. ^ a b c "Foreign Terrorist Organizations". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on May 15, 2019. Retrieved September 18, 2020.
  12. ^ a b c d "Council Implementing Regulation (EU) 2020/1128". EUR-Lex. July 30, 2020. Archived from the original on September 17, 2020. Retrieved September 18, 2020.
  13. ^ a b "主な国際テロ組織、世界のテロ・武装組織等の概要及び最近の動向" [Overview of major international terrorist organizations, global terrorist and armed groups, etc., and recent trends] (in Japanese). Public Security Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on January 17, 2023. Retrieved January 19, 2023.
  14. ^ a b "Lists associated with Resolution 1373". New Zealand Police. Archived from the original on November 19, 2020. Retrieved March 2, 2020.
  15. ^ a b c d e f Sison, Jose Maria (2013). "Basic Rules of the New People's Army". Foundation for resuming the Philippine revolution : selected writings, 1968 to 1972. International Network for Philippine Studies. ISBN 978-1-62847-920-1.
  16. ^ a b c d Guerrero, Amado (December 1, 1974). Specific Characteristics of Our People's War.
  17. ^ Cupin, Bea (June 10, 2016). "NPA has 'right' to collect revolutionary tax – NDF". Rappler. Retrieved March 20, 2019.
  18. ^ "Duterte announces 'permanent termination' of peace talks with Reds". ABS-CBN News. Retrieved December 4, 2019.
  19. ^ IV, Antonio L. Colina (April 4, 2017). "NDF: CASER first, then ceasefire, or sign both simultaneously | MindaNews". Retrieved March 20, 2019.
  20. ^ "Gov't insists on localized peace talks with Reds". MindaNews. April 16, 2019. Retrieved December 4, 2019.
  21. ^ Guerrero, Amado (1966). Rectify Errors and Rebuild the Party!.
  22. ^ "ON NINOY AQUINO'S RELATIONS WITH CPP & NPA". josemariasison.org. October 2010. Archived from the original on July 7, 2023. Retrieved December 4, 2019.
  23. ^ a b c d Liwanag, Armando. Brief Review of the History of the CPP.
  24. ^ a b Guerrero, Amado (March 3, 1972). "Summing Up Our Experience After Three Years". Ang Bayan.
  25. ^ a b CPP Executive Committee (November 30, 1992). General Review of Important Events and Decisions.
  26. ^ Patricio N. Abinales (2008). "Kahos Revisited: The Mindanao Commission and Its Narrative of a Tragedy". In Rutten, Rosanne (ed.). Brokering a revolution : cadres in a Philippine insurgency. Ateneo de Manila University Press. ISBN 978-971-550-553-6.
  27. ^ "U.S. Gives Philippines Lukewarm Reminder to Keep Col. Rowe's Killers in Jail". Archived from the original on March 28, 2008.
  28. ^ "Bio, Rowe, James N. Nick". Retrieved October 24, 2018.
  29. ^ Fonbuena, Carmela. "PH gov't, NDF approve peace pact frameworks". Rappler. Retrieved December 4, 2019.
  30. ^ Manlupig, Karlos. "NPA plans release of 15 soldiers, militiamen". newsinfo.inquirer.net. Retrieved December 4, 2019.
  31. ^ Gregorio, Joseph. "AFP and PNP lying; Red fighters only use command-detonated explosives—CPDF". kodao.org. Retrieved December 4, 2019.
  32. ^ "'Popoy' slain in UP ambush". philstar.com. Retrieved December 5, 2019.
  33. ^ "NPA admits killing Kintanar". gulfnews.com. Retrieved December 5, 2019.
  34. ^ Liwanag, Armando (December 26, 1998). Hail the 30th Anniversary of the Communist Party of the Philippines.
  35. ^ a b Resist and frustrate Oplan Bantay Laya II. Communist Party of the Philippines. July 12, 2007.
  36. ^ a b c Sison, Jose Maria. "The Filipino people's revolutionary armed struggle for national and social liberation in the past 50 years". cpp.ph. Archived from the original on December 6, 2019. Retrieved December 6, 2019.
  37. ^ "AFP junks 'Bantay Laya' vs rebels, adopts 'Bayanihan'". ABS-CBN News. Archived from the original on September 20, 2019. Retrieved December 5, 2019.
  38. ^ Holden, William N. (May 29, 2014). "The New People's Army and Neoliberal Mining in the Philippines: A Struggle against Primitive Accumulation". Capitalism Nature Socialism. 25 (3): 61–62. doi:10.1080/10455752.2014.922109. S2CID 143384962.
  39. ^ "Inside the New People's Army (Part 2)". RedFish Documentaries. April 19, 2018. Archived from the original on November 17, 2021. Retrieved May 14, 2020.
  40. ^ Villamor, Felipe (April 5, 2017). "Philippines and Communist Rebels Agree to a Temporary Cease-Fire". The New York Times. Retrieved September 1, 2019.
  41. ^ Roque, EJ (March 21, 2019). "Duterte permanently ends peace talks with Reds". Philippine News Agency. Archived from the original on March 22, 2019. Retrieved September 17, 2020.
  42. ^ Ranada, Pia. "Duterte signs proclamation labeling CPP-NPA as terrorist group". Rappler. Retrieved December 4, 2019.
  43. ^ a b Constitution and Program (PDF). 2016. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 6, 2019.
  44. ^ a b Briones, Jervy (September 20, 2022). "Rainbow Guerrillas: Gay and Lesbian Narratives inside the Revolutionary Movement in Mindanao". Kritika Kultura (39): 498–519. doi:10.13185/KK2022.003923 (inactive November 1, 2024). ISSN 2094-6937.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  45. ^ a b Alburo, Kaira Zoe K. (January 2011). "Brothers, Lovers, and Revolution: Negotiating Military Masculinity and Homosexual Identity in a Revolutionary Movement in the Philippines". Asia-Pacific Social Science Review. 11. no 2: 27–28 – via ResearchGate.
  46. ^ Jackman, Josh (February 26, 2019). "Philippines president Rodrigo Duterte claims '40 percent' of rebels are gay". Pink News. Archived from the original on September 22, 2022. Retrieved May 5, 2020.
  47. ^ Romero, Alexis (February 25, 2019). "40% of NPA rebels are gay – Duterte". Phil Star Global. Retrieved May 5, 2020.
  48. ^ Glauert, Rik (February 27, 2019). "Philippine president claims 40% of country's communist rebels are gay". Gay Star News. Archived from the original on September 22, 2022. Retrieved May 5, 2020.
  49. ^ Mickolus, Edward F. and Simmons, Susan L. (2014). The 50 Worst Terrorist Attacks. p. 8.
  50. ^ "Philippine reds export armed struggle". Archived from the original on April 22, 2010. Retrieved September 1, 2019.
  51. ^ "Libyan terrorism: The case against Gaddafi. - Free Online Library".
  52. ^ "WikiLeaks cable: Gaddafi funded, trained CPP-NPA rebels". September 6, 2011.
  53. ^ "Anti-Subversion Act". Chan Robles Virtual Law Library. Archived from the original on June 20, 1957. Retrieved September 12, 2015.
  54. ^ "Ramos legalises Communist Party, frees 48 rebels". New Straits Times. Reuter. September 23, 1992. Retrieved September 12, 2015.
  55. ^ "An Act Repealing Republic Act Numbered One Thousand Seven Hundred, as Amended, Otherwise Known as the Anti-Subversion Act". Archived from the original on September 22, 1992. Retrieved September 12, 2015.
  56. ^ "Anti-Terrorism Council designates CPP, NPA as terrorist groups". Archived from the original on December 4, 2022.
  57. ^ Manila court junks govt's case to declare CPP, NPA as terrorist groups
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