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Luwians

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The Luwians /ˈluːwiənz/ (also known as Luvians) were an ancient people in Anatolia who spoke the Luwian language. During the Bronze Age, Luwians formed part of the population of the Hittite Empire and adjoining states such as Kizzuwatna. During the Hittite New Kingdom, Luwian replaced Hittite as the empire's dominant language. In the early Iron Age, a number of Luwian-speaking Neo-Hittite states arose in northern Syria. The Luwians are known largely from their language, and it is unclear to what extent they formed a unified cultural or political group.

Etymology

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"Luwian" is an exonym first used by the Hittites as an "ethno-linguistic term referring to the area where Luwian was spoken"[1] in Bronze Age Anatolia. It has been suggested that the name is a foreign ethnic designation (Assyrian) borrowed from another foreign ethnic designation (Hurrian) - nuwā-um.[2] An alternate derivation is ascribed to the Luwian lūwa meaning "plain."[3]

Origins

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lu-lu-bi. . . . .𒇻𒇻𒉈

There is no consensus on Luwian origins or their entry point into Anatolia,[4][5][6] only that Indo-European speakers were intrusive to Anatolia.[4] Archaeology confirms disruption sometime after 2157 BC subsequent to 500 years of archaeological stability,[7] within the earliest known geographical area of luwili[8] and proximate to the location where Luwian names appear in Assyrian records.[3] The Konya plain is a plausible candidate for the initial settlement of the Luwians.[9]

Chronologically their arrival in the land of Luwiya is associated with the beginning of Gutian rule in Mesopotamia in 2141 BC. Gutian language was believed to be related to Tocharian languages of the Indo-European family "with its speakers remaining together with other dialect groupings in the original Indo-European territory" and constituting "the first eastward migratory wave, preceding even the Indo-Iranian migrations."[10] Linguistically it has been determined that "Nesite, Luwian and Palaic genetically separated over a relatively brief period of time - probably no more than a thousand years," [11] and sustained contacts between Nesite and Luvian (or Luvic) are probably to be dated back to the late third millennium BC.[3] A common origin in the Tarim Basin appears likely,[12] though some believe the respective languages "offer no evidence for an alleged common eastward movement of pre-Tocharian and pre-Anatolian speakers."[4]

The Gutians first appeared in the Zagros Mountains circa the 2400s BC[13][14] in modern day Lorestan.[15] The inhabitants were to become known known as Lurs, a mixture of pre-Iranic tribes of western Iran, aboriginal Iranian tribes, Gutians and Kassites originating from Central Asia.[16][17] Their pre-Indo-European component may have been the Hurrian-related lu-lu-bi,[18] - more commonly known as Lullu,[19][20][21][22] who according to Mesopotamian inscriptions rebelled against the Gutian king Erridupizir[23] circa 2141–2138 BC. They have been called two different populations from the same area,[24] and over the course of several hundred years mixing was inevitable.[25] This connection and the linguistics in support have been cautiously proposed in support of the origin of the Luwians of Anatolia.[26]

Geography

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Land of Luwiya

The linguist Ylla Yakubovich has given the most succinct quote concerning the Luwians, stating:

The Hittite laws contain a handful of references to the country named Luviya, which is not accompanied by the geographic identification of this region, while a number of other texts introduce passages that were expected to be uttered luwili (in the Luvian language), even though not all of them are actually recorded in Luvian. This is all the historical information that is available about Luviya and the Luvians.[3]

Nevertheless, archaeology suggests the arrival of Luwians at Acemhöyük sometime after 2157 BC[27][28] and westward expansion thereafter.[29][30][4][31] They are believed to have settled south-central Anatolia,[32] the southern end of the Sakarya River valley,[33] modern İzmir[34] and most if not all of southwestern Anatolia.[35][36] Lycian, Lydian, Sidetic, Pisidian and Carian all evolved from Luwian.[25]

History

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Luwian storm god Tarḫunz in the National Museum of Aleppo.

Middle Bronze Age

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Luwians first appear in the historical record around 2000 BC, with the presence of personal names and loan words in Old Assyrian Empire documents from the Assyrian colony of Kültepe, dating from between 1950 and 1700 BC (Middle Chronology), which shows that Luwian and Hittite were already two distinct languages at this point. The Luwians most likely lived in southern and western Anatolia, perhaps with a political centre at Purushanda. The Assyrian colonists and traders who were present in Anatolia at this time refer to the local people as nuwaʿum without any differentiation. This term seems to derive from the name of the Luwians, with the change from l/n resulting from the mediation of Hurrian.

Linguistic models suggest the existence of a common Luwian-speaking state circa 2000 BC, stretching from the central Anatolian plateau (modern Konya) northward to the western bend of the Maraššantiya (where modern Ankara, Kırıkkale and Kırşehir provinces meet).[3][37] The region was dominated by the kingdom of Purushanda,[38][3] the etymology of which suggests a takeover of Hattic lands by Luwian elites[39] and a region made up of an eclectic mix of Luwian-speaking Luwians, Hattic-speaking Luwians, Luwian-speaking Hattians and Hattic-speaking Hattians.[40]

Archaeology at Acemhöyük has confirmed the remains of central Anatolian, Mesopotamian and north Syrian pottery - as well as traces of monumental structures - which tree ring analysis establish 2157 BC as the final dating for wood used in construction, providing a plausible terminus a quo for the Luwian takeover of the region.[41]

Hittite period

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Statue from the Post-Hittite period, representing king Šuppiluliuma, ruler of the Luwian state of Pattin (Unqi)

The Old Hittite laws from the 17th century BC contain cases relating to the then independent regions of Palā and Luwiya. Traders and displaced people seem to have moved from one country to the other on the basis of agreements between Ḫattusa and Luwiya.[42] It has been argued that the Luwians never formed a single unified Luwian state but populated a number of polities where they mixed with other population groups, though a minority opinion holds that the Luwians formed a unified socio-political group.[citation needed]

During the Hittite period, the kingdom of Kizzuwatna had its own dialect of Luwian, distinct from that spoken in Hattusa. Kizzuwatna was the Hittite and Luwian name for ancient Cilicia. The area was conquered by the Hittites in the 16th century BC. Around 1500, the area broke off and became the kingdom of Kizzuwatna, whose ruler used the title of "Great King", like the Hittite ruler. The Hittite king Telipinu had to conclude a treaty with King Išputaḫšu, which was renewed by his successors. Under King Pilliya, Kizzuwatna became a vassal of the Mitanni. Around 1420, King Šunaššura of Mitanni renounced control of Kizzuwatna and concluded an alliance with the Hittite king Tudḫaliya I. Soon after this, the area seems to have been incorporated into the Hittite empire and remained so until its collapse around 1190 BC at the hands of Assyria and Phrygia.[citation needed]

Western Anatolian kingdoms such as Seha, Arzawa, and Wilusa may have had at least partially Luwian-speaking populations, though current evidence leaves room for doubt, and this is a matter of controversy in contemporary scholarship.[citation needed]

Petra Goedegebuure of the Oriental Institute has argued that Luwian was spoken from the eastern Aegean coast to Melid and as far north as Alaca Hoyuk during the Hittite Kingdom.[43]

Post-Hittite period

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Various Luwian (Post-Hittite) and Aramean (orange shades) states in the 8th century BCE
Main article: Syro-Hittite states

After the collapse of the Hittite Empire c. 1180 BCE, several small principalities developed in northern Syria and southwestern Anatolia. In south-central Anatolia was Tabal which probably consisted of several small city-states, in Cilicia there was Quwê, in northern Syria was Gurgum, on the Euphrates there were Melid, Kummuh, Carchemish and (east of the river) Masuwara, while on the Orontes River there were Unqi-Pattin and Hamath. The princes and traders of these kingdoms used Hieroglyphic Luwian in inscriptions, the latest of which date to the 8th century BC. The Karatepe Bilingual inscription of prince Azatiwada is particularly important.

These states were largely destroyed and incorporated into the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC) during the 9th century BC.[44]

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The non-profit Luwian Studies foundation was established in 2014 to promote the study of the Luwians and their cultures.[45]

In 2018 it was revealed that prominent British historian James Mellaart had fabricated Luwian inscriptions over the course of his career, invalidating any research based upon his work.[46][47]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Hawkins, David J. (2013). Luwians vs. Hittites. Luwian Identities: Culture, Language and Religion Between Anatolia and the Aegean, p. 31-35. Netherlands: Brill.
  2. ^ Carruba, Onofrio. (1992). Luwier in Kappadokien. La circulation des biens, des personnes et des idÈes dans le Proche-Orient ancien. Ed. D. Charpin and F. JoannËs. Paris: Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations. pp. 251-57.
  3. ^ a b c d e f Yakubovich, Ilya. (2010). Sociolinguistics of the Luvian Language. A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the Division of the Humanities In Candidacy For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations and Department of Linguistics, University of Chicago. Academia.edu
  4. ^ a b c d Melchert, Craig. (2003). The Luwians, pp. 23-25. Netherlands: Brill. Google Books
  5. ^ Crossland, R.A. (1967). Immigrants from the North, Volumes I & II, revised edition, p. 29. Cambridge University Press. Google Books
  6. ^ Luwian Identities: Culture, Language and Religion Between Anatolia and the Aegean. (2013). Netherlands: Brill.
  7. ^ Yakar, Jak. (2003). Towards an absolute chronology for middle and late bronze age Anatolia, Studies. Presented A.M. Mansel, 562. Academia.edu
  8. ^ Yakubovich, Ilya. (2011). Luwian and the Luwians. The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE), p. 364, 535. Spain: OUP USA. Google Books
  9. ^ Bryce, T. (2012). The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History, p. 17. United Kingdom: OUP Oxford.
  10. ^ Gamkrelidze, Tamaz V. and Ivanov, Vyacheslav V. (1995). Indo European And The Indo Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and a Proto-Culture. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Archive.org
  11. ^ Bachhuber, Christopher. (2013). James Mellhaart and the Luwians. Luwian Identities: Culture, Language and Religion Between Anatolia and the Aegean, p. 292. Netherlands: Brill. Google Books
  12. ^ Ramirez-Faria. (2007). Indo-Europeans. Concise Encyclopaedia of World History. (2007). India: Atlantic Publishers & Distributors. Google Books
  13. ^ Chen, Yanli; Wu, Yuhong (25 September 2017). "The Names of the Leaders and Diplomats of Marḫaši and Related Men in the Ur III Dynasty". Cuneiform Digital Library Journal. 2017 (1).
  14. ^ Howard, M. C. (2014). Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies: The Role of Cross-Border Trade and Travel, p.32. United States: McFarland, Incorporated, Publishers. Google Books
  15. ^ Liverani, M. (2006). Antico Oriente: storia, società, economia p. 241. Italy: Laterza. Google Books
  16. ^ Edwards, I.E.S.; Gadd, C.J.; Hammond, G.L. (1971). The Cambridge Ancient History (2nd ed.). Camberidge University Press. p. 644. ISBN 9780521077910.
  17. ^ Potts, D.S (1999). The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State (Cambridge World Archaeology) (2nd ed.). Camberidge University Press. p. 45. ISBN 9780521564960.
  18. ^ Meier-Brügger, M., Fritz, M., Mayrhofer, M. (2013). Indo-European Linguistics. Germany: De Gruyter.
  19. ^ Eidem, Jesper; Læssøe, Jørgen (1992). The Shemshāra Archives 2: The Administrative Texts. Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. pp. 22, 51–54. ISBN 978-87-7304-227-4.
  20. ^ Speiser, Ephraim Avigdor (2017-01-30). Mesopotamian Origins: The Basic Population of the Near East. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-1-5128-1881-9.
  21. ^ Campbell, Lyle (2017-10-03). Language Isolates. Routledge. p. 37. ISBN 978-1-317-61091-5.
  22. ^ Potts, Daniel T. (2014). Nomadism in Iran: From Antiquity to the Modern Era. Oxford University Press. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-19-933079-9.
  23. ^ Hamblin, William J. (2006). Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC. Routledge. pp. 115–116. ISBN 9781134520626.
  24. ^ Liverani, M. (2013). The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis. Google Books
  25. ^ a b Haarmann, Harold. (2007). Indo-Europeanization: the seven dimensions in the study of a never ending process. UDK 902.01 "634": 811.29. Documents Praehistorica.
  26. ^ Audias Fabulas Veteres, p. 383-385. Anatolian Studies in Honor of Jana Součková-Siegelová. (2016). Netherlands: Brill. Google Books
  27. ^ Yakar, Jak. (2003). Towards an absolute chronology for middle and late bronze age Anatolia, Studies. Presented A.M. Mansel, 562. Academia.edu
  28. ^ Forlanini, Massimo. 1977. “L’Anatolia Nord-Occidentale Nell’impero Eteo.” Studi Micenei Ed Egeo-Anatolici 3-4: 291-300.
  29. ^ Yakubovich, Ilya (2013). Anatolian Names in -wiya and the Structure of Empire Luwian Omnastics. Luwian Identities: Culture, Language and Religion Between Anatolia and the Aegean, p. 31-35. Netherlands: Brill.
  30. ^ Bryce, T. (2018). Warriors of Anatolia: A Concise History of the Hittites. United Kingdom: Bloomsbury Publishing. Google Books
  31. ^ Hawkins, David J. (2013). Luwians vs. Hittites. Luwian Identities: Culture, Language and Religion Between Anatolia and the Aegean.. Netherlands: Brill.
  32. ^ Shelestin, Vladimir, (August 2019). "The ethnical history of Kizzuwatna: an onomastic approach", in: BAF-Online Proceedings of the Berner Altorientalisches Forum 3
  33. ^ Mouton, Alice. (2016). The Festivals of Lallupiya-Ištanuwa: Liturgie oder Literatur?: 119–132. Academic.edu
  34. ^ Woudhuizen, Fred. (2023). The Luwians of Western Anatolia: Their Neighbours and Predecessors. United Kingdom: Archaeopress Publishing Limited. Academia.edu
  35. ^ Bryce, Trevor. (1999). The Kingdom of the Hittites. United Kingdom, Oxford University Press. Google Books.
  36. ^ Herda, Alexander. (2013). Greek (and our) Views on the Karians, pp. Aegean. Netherlands: Brill. Google Books
  37. ^ Yakubovich, Ilya. (2011). In Search of Luwiya, the Original Luwian-speaking Area. Journal of Ancient History, Vol. 4, p. 295. http://vdi.igh.ru
  38. ^ Blasweiler, Joost. (2016). The kingdom of Purušhanda in the land Luwiya, pp. 31-38. Arnhem, Arnhem (NL) Bronze Age. Academia.edu
  39. ^ History of Humanity: From the third millennium to the seventh century B.C., p. 549. United Kingdom: Routledge, 1994.
  40. ^ Giusfredi, F., Pisaniello, V., Matessi, A. (2023). Contacts of Languages and Peoples in the Hittite and Post-Hittite World: Volume 1, The Bronze Age and Hatti. Netherlands: Brill. Google Books
  41. ^ Yakar, Jak. (2003). Towards an absolute chronology for middle and late bronze age Anatolia, Studies. Presented A.M. Mansel, 562. Academia.edu
  42. ^ H. Craig Melchert: The Luwians. Brill 2003, ISBN 90-04-13009-8, pp. 28 f.
  43. ^ Goedegebuure, Petra (February 5, 2020). "Petra Goedegebuure Anatolians on the Move: From Kurgans to Kanesh". Oriental Institute. Archived from the original on 2021-12-21. Retrieved January 5, 2021 – via YouTube.
  44. ^ Georges Roux – Ancient Iraq
  45. ^ Entry for the foundation Luwian Studies in the commercial register of canton Zurich
  46. ^ Jarus, Owen (2018-03-12). "Famed Archaeologist 'Discovered' His Own Fakes at 9,000-Year-Old Settlement". Live Science. Retrieved 2019-05-06.
  47. ^ "British prehistorian forged documents throughout his life" (PDF). Luwian Studies. 2018-03-01.

Sources

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