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Draft:Being Chinese in Japan

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A Look into Being Chinese in Japan

Background

The presence of Chinese residents in Japan spans centuries, intertwining with the nation's history, culture, and socio-political landscape. Against the backdrop of post-war Japan's endeavor to centralize its culture in nation-building efforts, the narrative of Japanese exclusivity, encapsulated in the concept of "tan'itsu-minzoku-kokka" or the mono-ethnic nation-state, took root.[1]. This discourse, known as "Nihonjinron," employed pre-1945 cultural theories to emphasize Japan's perceived mono-ethnicity, portraying Japanese culture as a distinct entity detached from global influences[1].

Nihonjinron writings not only contrasted Japanese culture with mainstream American culture but also largely disregarded comparisons with other Asian cultures[1]. This perpetuated the notion of a homogenous Japanese society, supported by implicit genetic determinism, which posited that unique Japanese characteristics were incomprehensible to non-Japanese[1].

By the late 1970s, Nihonjinron gained traction, serving as a form of cultural nationalism amidst Japan's increasing internationalization[1]. It prescribed certain behaviors and values that molded the identity of the intellectual and business elite, fostering a sense of cultural superiority[1]. However, beneath the veneer of homogeneity, Japanese society harbored significant cultural heterogeneity, challenging the notion of a monolithic cultural identity[1].

In the following exploration of Chinese migration to Japan, we will delve into the historical roots, socio-political dynamics, and cultural intersections that have shaped the experiences of Chinese residents in Japan. Through this lens, we aim to not only understand the complexities of cross-cultural interactions but also to recognize the influence of nationalist discourse and homogenizing forces in shaping cultural perceptions. It is important to acknowledge and embrace cultural heterogeneity while fostering greater cross-cultural understanding and inclusivity in society.

History of Chinese in Japan

Chinese migration to Japan has deep historical roots, spanning centuries of cultural exchange and economic integration. Starting with the Mongol invasion which spanned from 1207 to 1272, Chinese refugees found sanctuary on an island called Kyushu[2]. Around 1368 to 1644, Japan became decentralized creating opportunities for Chinese immigrants, particularly skilled artisans, who were welcomed by the ruling feudal lords called Daimyo[3]. The Daimyo wanted to boost the economy, and encouraged Chinese immigration due to their skills. This period established thriving Chinese communities in Kyushu. However, waves of turmoil, such as the Manchu conquests, forced Chinese refugees to flee again, seeking solace in Japan. Among them was Zhu Zhiyu also known as Zhu Shunsui in Japan, a Confucian scholar who wrote Dai Nihon Shin (History of Great Japan[4]).

Before talking more about immigration of Chinese migrants, it is important to talk about some conflicts that have influenced immigration policies in both countries. Following Japan’s surrender in 1945, The Chinese Civil War began, putting the Nationalist government against the communist party[5]. Despite efforts to form a post-war government, mistrust led to all-out conflict by 1946. Finally, in 1949 the Chinese Communist Party was defeated and the People's Republic of China took over China. In 1972, China and Japan signed the Sino-Japanese Treaty of Peace and Friendship[6]. Both nations pledged to settle disputes peacefully and oppose regional hegemony. They also chose to focus on fostering economic and cultural relations while respecting each other's sovereignty. This treaty was signed on August 12th, 1978[6].

During the Cold War era, the influence of geopolitical dynamics and ideological agendas on the production of knowledge about Japan also impacted immigration to the country. Japan's close alliance with the United States, driven by their shared opposition to Communism, shaped immigration policies and practices[7]. For example, the portrayal of Japan as a modernizing and Westernizing nation influenced perceptions of immigrants. There was a preference for immigrants who could assimilate into Japan's society and contribute to its economic growth, aligning with the dominant narrative of modernization and Westernization[8].

There were two waves of Immigration in Japan. The first wave was from 1929 to the 1950s. This wave happened during the colonial period in Japan[9]. This period saw the recruitment of Chinese workers as laborers to address labor shortages. These workers had to deal with unemployment, limited opportunities as day laborers, and anti-foreigner hostility especially after the aftermath of the Kanto Earthquake in 1923[10]. The anti-foreigner hostility and geopolitical tensions, such as Japan’s expansion in Manchuria, led to fluctuations in the Chinese migrant population. After WWII, The immigration law was also pushed back against immigrant settlement in Japan.

It is important to note that research indicates that economic and political pressures in the 1990s spurred significant internal migration within certain populations, subsequently fueling external migration through both legal and illegal ways[11]. Specifically, Japanese authorities have at times encouraged Chinese migration for economic and political purposes, yet have also restricted access when migrants were viewed as potential threats to domestic stability. For example, small Chinese merchants and trading communities were created in Yokohama. However by the late 1600s, concerns over foreign influence and large-scale smuggling by Chinese merchants led Japanese authorities to concentrate Chinese migrants in a residential area of the Kyushu port city of Nagasaki[11].

The second wave of Chinese migration to Japan surged in the 1980s[9], propelled by a combination of economic push and pull factors. Rising incomes and inflation in China prompted many to seek better opportunities abroad, while the revaluation of the Japanese yen under the Plaza accord made Japan an attractive destination for skilled labor. This revaluation incentivized Japanese manufacturers to seek lower-cost foreign labor[11], further stimulating migration.

However, despite the demand for skilled workers, unskilled immigrants faced significant barriers. Only individuals with Japanese ancestry or those participating in guest worker programs were permitted to enter Japan as unskilled laborers[12]. Moreover, changes in immigration policies, such as the Kokusaika initiative introduced by Yasuhiro Nakasone in 1982, played a pivotal role in shaping migration patterns[11]. This initiative aimed to expand the number of foreign students in Japan, while also exposing Japanese workers to foreign cultures. The initiative planned to expand Japanese language and technical schools, lift employee work restrictions for students, simplify visa procedures, and allow Japanese language schools to act as guarantors. As a result, from 1984 to 1988, the number of Chinese students coming in on a pre-college visa significantly increased[11]. The Chinese government also eased emigration restrictions by permitting study-work visas upon sponsorship proof from official organizations[11].

Finally, in an effort to understand and categorize the diverse population of Chinese migrants in Japan, new terminologies have emerged. These terms describe migrants based on either their nationality or the period of their arrival in Japan[13].

Chinese migrants in Japan categorized by nationality can be placed into two groups. The first group are overseas Chinese migrants, known as kakyo (華僑)[13]. These are migrants who maintain their Chinese nationality and are registered as Chinese on Japanese alien registration records. Kajin (華人)[13] are migrants that hold Japanese nationality. They are not categorized as Chinese in Japanese identification systems such as the koseki (戸籍)[13] or the juminhyo (住民票)[13]. The only thing that distinguishes them is their ethnic background and personal identity.

Furthermore, Chinese migrants can be categorized by their arrival time in Japan. Oldcomers are known as Rou-kakyo (老華僑[13]). These are migrants who arrived before the 1980s and reside in Chinatown areas such as Yokohama, Kobe, and Nagasaki. These were former Foreigners Residence areas[14]. They often worked in businesses and property ownership because of the Ordinance 352, which restricted admission of foreign workers and targeted all foreign laborers, particularly Chinese immigrants[14]. These Chinese immigrants could only engage in the professions of cooking, tailoring, and being a barber. In Chinese, this is called the three knives  (sānbǎdāo, 三把刀)[13]. They belonged to the middle or upper class. Newcomers on the other hand, were known as Shin-kakyou (新華僑)[13]. They are migrants who arrived from mainland China after the open door policy in 1978. These migrants often entered Japan on student visas and worked part-time to cover expenses. They became highly educated and joined the middle class. Most lived in places such as Tokyo, Chiba, and Saitama, as well as other cities outside Chinatowns[14].

Language

The history of interactions between China and Japan is closely intertwined with cultural sharing, in which the adoption of Chinese script by Japan is very remarkable. When the two cultures met first, Japan had no written language of its own[15]. Instead, the borrowing of Chinese characters was done for easier communication and to keep track of records. As time passed, Chinese script gave rise to a uniquely Japanese style of writing, but the perception of Chinese characters remained apparent in the Japanese writing system[15]. Currently, Kanji, which are the logographic characters, are used together with Hiragana and Katakana, denoting the modern Japanese writing system[16]. According to some scholars, this linguistic exchange started in ancient times, when Chinese artifacts such as seals, letters, and coins appeared in the Japanese land. Accordingly, while the first documented contact was between Japan and China, it was not until some Chinese envoys, including Wani, a historian of the fifth century, came to Japan that the Chinese knowledge and the Chinese language were transmitted, which eventually led to the enduring influence of the Chinese language and culture in Japan.

Food and Culture

Chinese food is quite popular in Japan. This is especially true in port cities like Nagasaki, Kobe, and Yokohama, where thriving Chinatowns are home to a wide variety of stores and eateries serving real Chinese food[17]. There is no denying the impact of Chinese culinary traditions on Japanese cuisine; a number of dishes that originated in China have become profoundly embedded in Japanese culinary culture[17]. Despite being treasured staples of Japanese cuisine, iconic foods like gyoza and ramen really have Chinese culinary roots. In addition, Chinese-made drinks such as jasmine green tea, a beloved Japanese favorite, are another example of the long-lasting cross-cultural interchange between the two countries.

The cultural exchange between Japan and China, especially in the realm of festivals and traditions, has a deep and complex relationship as many of the festivals originate in China but have evolved in Japanese traditions. In the same manner, one of the cases is the Tanabata Matsuri, or Star Festival, which has its origin from a Chinese tale about a weaver and an ox herder[18]. Although these characters bear different names according to the two cultures, one central theme of the story transcends through the ages. Tanabata Matsuri happens to be one of the customized celebrations which have originated from the Nara Period[18]. This vibrant festival is nowhere as glamorous as it is in Sendai and Tokyo’s Asakusa area. Also, the custom of celebrating the Lunar New year including the bright Lion Dances was brought from China but got the Japanese people’s attention and was adopted to be embodied in the past of Nagasaki with the Nagasaki festival being the most spectacular in Japan. Moreover, the art of manipulation of giant, luminous sculptures out of metal wire and paper, like in Chinese celebrations was later discovered in Japan, as well as demonstrated through Aomori Naputa Matsuri festival[18]. Besides, in addition to the Chinese zodiac animal calendar, the Japanese culture today also embraces this calendar, which proves more one example of the enduring impact and interchange between these two countries. Linking the common histories of Japan and China, the exchange of festivals, legends, and traditions is just one manifestation of the ongoing continuing sharing and celebration of the cultures. They are a tapestry of harmony that embodies a blend of cultural heritage.

Covid: Impact of Covid-19 on Chinese Citizens in Japan

The COVID-19 pandemic has not only brought about significant health challenges worldwide but has also exacerbated social, economic, and political issues, particularly for marginalized communities. Among these communities, Chinese residents in Japan have faced unique and multifaceted impacts stemming from the pandemic. As the outbreak initially emerged in China, Chinese individuals living abroad, including in Japan, encountered heightened stigmatization and discrimination.

The COVID-19 pandemic, originating in Wuhan, China, quickly gave rise to global xenophobia, with individuals of Chinese descent bearing the brunt of discrimination. For instance, there were reports of individuals of Chinese descent facing discrimination, such as being denied service or facing verbal abuse, in various countries including Japan. In Japan, where a significant Chinese community resides, this prejudice ranged from verbal abuse to physical assaults. For example, many Chinese people were labeled as bioterrorists in Japan[19]. The tag #ChineseDon’tComeToJapan was also trending all over twitter with Chinese tourists being labeled as dirty and insensitive. This is a link to a twitter account that covers all comments written in Japanese about COVID-19 and Chinese people. (Social media is also helping feed racist narratives. on Twitter, some Japanese accounts wrote and shared #中国人は日本に来るな, which translates into #ChineseDontCometoJapan. pic.twitter.com/fzjm5vwtts 2020)[20]

Another example of discrimination in Japan, is how the government treated Chinese tourists and residents. During COVID-19, The Japanese government required Chinese travelers to do a mandatory test, in which they had to test negative within 72 hours[21]. They also limited flights to only four direct flights going to China. The government’s approach to the situation showcased how two-faced Japan was in finding a solution. Despite there being a rapid spread of cases in the United States, Japan chose to focus only on China targeting those who were coming to China[21]

Beyond social repercussions, the pandemic has profoundly affected the economic and social well-being of Chinese residents in Japan. Business closure and skyrocketing unemployment rates left many facing financial insecurity[22]. For instance, Heichinrou, a renowned Chinese restaurant in Japan established 138 years ago, succumbed to the financial strain of the coronavirus pandemic. The restaurant faced an enormous amount of debt exceeding 300 million yen[22]. The pandemic's impact on the hospitality industry, put in place by the government imposed restrictions on operating hours, led to many restaurants closing nationwide[23]. Many restaurants were also subjected to verbal abuse. In Yokohama’s Chinatown, several Chinese restaurants received letters saying things such as “Chinese people are garbage! Get out of Japan!”[24]. Schools were also targets for hate speech. For example, in the Kagawa prefecture, a postcard was sent to an elementary school saying “Don’t let people with Chinese parents attend school”[24]. All of these examples highlight the vulnerability of Chinese residents during COVID-19.

The Japanese government eventually started trying to fix the problem of discrimination. Prime Minister Abe stated that the behavior was “Shameful and that anyone could get infected”[25]. The government also started a campaign to raise awareness of the situation, but it only seemed to be helping medical workers[25]. Despite economic ties and diplomatic efforts, historical grievances, territorial disputes, and differing perceptions of wartime apologies continue to fuel animosity and mutual distrust[26]. The Japanese government has made efforts to stop discrimination during COVID-19. They sidelined politicians known for stoking anti-China sentiments and instead prioritized decision-makers focused on crisis containment and dialogue[27]. It is also important to note that even though we may not be able to see it, discrimination against minorities such as Chinese residents may still exist but in a more subtler way[28].

Pop Culture Representation of Chinese Citizens

Contemporary Japanese culture intricately weaves together elements of tradition and modernity, often drawing inspiration from neighboring nations like China. Within Japanese pop culture, representations of Chinese citizens manifest in diverse forms, ranging from heroic protagonists to comedic figures, reflecting the multifaceted dynamics of Japan's historical and present-day interactions with China. The presence of Chinese actors and musicians further accentuates this cross-cultural exchange, enriching Japan's entertainment landscape with a diverse array of talents. However, these portrayals are not immune to critique, as they occasionally perpetuate stereotypes or oversimplify the complexities of Chinese identity. Nevertheless, the fusion of contemporary Japanese culture and the depiction of Chinese characters in pop culture serves as a compelling lens through which to examine the intricate interplay of cultural identities and cross-border influences in East Asia.

A Pew Research Center survey from last year indicated that the Japanese public's perception of China has been increasingly negative over the past 20 years[29]. Of the participants, 55% had a favorable opinion of China in 2002. By 2020, the percentage had fallen to 9%. 86% of Japanese respondents had a negative opinion of China, which is a notably high percentage[29].   Like many other countries, misconceptions about Chinese people are still prevalent in Japanese culture. These misconceptions have the power to alter attitudes and behaviors, affecting how people perceive and treat Chinese people[30]. It's crucial to understand, though, that these opinions are not shared by everyone and may be refined and contested by discussion and interaction. Chinese people respond to popular misconceptions in an insightful YouTube video titled "Chinese People React to Stereotypes about Chinese People," in which they discuss their beliefs. By dispelling stereotypes and promoting greater cross-cultural understanding, this movie provides an insightful look into the many viewpoints and real-life experiences of Chinese people. In the future as a society, we should strive to eliminate prejudices and create more inclusive societies by having honest conversations and treating one another with respect.

The negative perception of China among the Japanese public often leads to stereotypical portrayals of Chinese people's character and behavior. Tianyu Zhao, a graduate student from China, notes that these stereotypes often vary based on social class, with affluent and well-educated Chinese being viewed more positively compared to those who are socially vulnerable or visiting temporarily[29]. Common stereotypes include Chinese people being loud, noisy, or having poor manners, particularly based on interactions in settings like convenience stores or upscale shopping areas like Ginza[29]. Biased news coverage and limited direct contact with Chinese society further perpetuate these misconceptions, with television serving as the primary source of information about China for many Japanese people. Despite this, only a small percentage of Japanese individuals have actually engaged in conversations with Chinese people or visited China themselves. Shuk-ting Kinnia Yau, an Associate Professor, highlights the role of television, particularly Japanese TV dramas and news media, in shaping Japanese perceptions of China. Coningsby's research suggests that the historical context, particularly the violent war history between the two nations, also influences modern perceptions. Media coverage often reinforces stereotypical images of China, emphasizing authoritarian imagery and communist symbolism, which may contribute to the fear and misunderstanding prevalent among Japanese audiences. Overall, the representation of Chinese people in Japan and Japanese media is often shaped by stereotypes, limited personal interactions, and historical narratives.

Conclusion

The complex interaction between China and Japan span years and comprise a diverse tapestry that seamlessly integrates historical, cultural, economic, and social interactions into one whole. From the early waves of Chinese immigration to Japan through those times of conflict and chaos, which are the result from the war, to the current situation in which Chinese residents face the Covid 19 pandemic, the relationships between these two nations are certainly seen as consisting of both cooperation and conflict. By their presence the Chinese immigrants were able to grandfather the image of Japan as it exists today in which they contributed their skills, culture and customs to the cultural fabric of Japan. Social structures of Japan also went through changes, in which skilled artisans were welcomed by feudal lords in the periods of decentralization, to the appearance of modern professionals as a result of the economic development, and all the Chinese migrants, as a whole, contributed to the definition of Japanese society to a great extent.

The cultural contact between China and Japan enhanced the past, as influences can be seen in speaking, food, celebrations and beliefs. Chinese characters in Japanese writing, the spread of Chinese food in Japanese cuisine, and the celebration of Tanabata festival[31] prove beyond the shadow of a doubt that Chinese culture has been, and still is, a powerful element in Japanese society. In the light of a rather difficult history and periodic disputes, both countries tried to build a new relationship, which was acknowledged by the China-Japan Treaty signed in 1978[6]. Nevertheless, other persistent historical grudges and border issues have, on several occasions, contributed to strain diplomatic relations, which then causes fluctuations in the public perceptions and the way media representation of China and its people are viewed in Japan.

Furthermore, the negative Chinese image in the minds of the Japanese public leads the choice of opposing the monoethnic educational model to dealing with the problem of xenophobia in Japanese society as a whole. Tai writes "The ethnic landscape in Japanese society has been changing since the end of the 1980s because of the public assertion of cultural identities by the Ainu, Okinawans, and permanent residents such as Koreans and Chinese"[32]. This challenges further notions about Japanese reality, and negates mono-ethnic claims. Misconceptions and stereotypes about Chinese people persist, shaping public attitudes and behaviors, while the COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated social, economic, and political tensions, particularly for marginalized communities like Chinese residents in Japan. Discrimination and xenophobia have been rampant, fueled by fear and misinformation, highlighting the importance of combating prejudice and promoting cross-cultural understanding.

As Japan continues to navigate its evolving relationship with China and embrace cultural diversity, it is imperative to confront biases, engage in honest dialogue, and promote mutual respect. By challenging stereotypes, fostering empathy, and celebrating diversity, Japan can create a more inclusive and harmonious society that acknowledges and appreciates the contributions of Chinese residents and other diverse communities. Through meaningful engagement and cross-cultural exchange, Japan can transcend historical divisions and build a brighter future grounded in mutual understanding and respect.

References

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  32. ^ Tai, E. (2003). Rethinking Culture, National Culture, and Japanese Culture. Japanese Language and Literature, 37(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.2307/3594873

Tai, E. (2003). Rethinking Culture, National Culture, and Japanese Culture. Japanese Language and Literature, 37(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.2307/3594873

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