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For a definition of the term "reverse racism", see the Wiktionary entry reverse racism.

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Reverse racism, sometimes referred to as reverse discrimination,[1] is the concept that affirmative action and similar color-conscious programs for redressing racial inequality are forms of anti-white racism.[2] The concept is often associated with conservative social movements,[2][3] and reflects a belief that social and economic gains by Black people and other people of color cause disadvantages for white people.[4][5][6]

Belief in reverse racism is widespread in the United States; however, there is little to no empirical evidence that white Americans as a group are disadvantaged.[Note 1] Racial and ethnic minorities generally lack the power to damage the interests of whites, who remain the dominant group in the U.S.[7] Claims of reverse racism tend to ignore such disparities in the exercise of power and authority, which most scholars argue constitute an essential component of racism.[1][8][3]

Allegations of reverse racism by opponents of affirmative action began to emerge in the 1970s,[2][9] and have formed part of a racial backlash against social gains by people of color.[10] While the U.S. dominates the debate over the issue, the concept of reverse racism has been used internationally to some extent wherever white supremacy has diminished, such as in post-apartheid South Africa.[4]

United States

See also: Race and ethnicity in the United States

Overview

The concept of reverse racism in the United States is commonly associated with conservative opposition to color-conscious policies aimed at addressing racial inequality, such as affirmative action. Amy E. Ansell of Emerson College identifies three main claims about reverse racism: (1) that government programs to redress racial inequality create "invisible victims" in white men; (2) that racial preferences violate the individual right of equal protection before the law; and (3) that color consciousness itself prevents moving beyond the legacy of racism.[2] The concept of reverse racism has also been used in relation to various expressions of hostility, prejudice or discrimination toward white people by members of minority groups.[8]

History

Concerns that the advancement of African Americans might cause harm to white Americans date back as far as the Reconstruction Era in the context of debates over providing reparations for slavery.[2] Claims of reverse racism in the early 21st century tend to rely on individual anecdotes, often based on third- or fourth-hand reports, such as of a white person losing a job to a Black person.[7]

Allegations of reverse racism emerged prominently in the 1970s, building on the racially color-blind view that any preferential treatment linked to membership in a racial group was morally wrong.[2] Sociologist Bob Blauner argues that reverse racism had become the primary meaning of racism among whites by the late 1970s, suggesting that conservatives and centrist liberals in the U.S. had effectively "won the battle over the meaning of racism".[11] Where past race-conscious policies such as Jim Crow have been used to maintain white supremacy, modern programs such as affirmative action aim to reduce racial inequality.[12] Despite affirmative-action programs' successes in doing so, conservative opponents claimed that such programs constituted a form of anti-white racism.[13] For example, sociologist Nathan Glazer argued in his 1975 book Affirmative Discrimination that affirmative action was a form of reverse racism[14][15] violating white people's right to equal protection under the law.[16] This view was boosted by the Supreme Court's decision in Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978), which said that racial quotas for minority students were discriminatory against white people.[13]

Legal cases concerning so-called "reverse racism" date back as far as the 1970s, for instance Regents of the University of California v. Bakke; Gratz v. Bollinger; and Grutter v. Bollinger (regarding discrimination in higher education admissions) and Ricci v. DeStefano (regarding employment discrimination).[17] Such cases are rare; out of almost half a million complaints filed with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) between 1987 and 1994, four percent were about reverse discrimination.[18] Sociologist Eduardo Bonilla-Silva writes that the actual number of reverse discrimination cases filed with the EEOC is quite small, and the vast majority are dismissed as unfounded.[19] Between 1990 and 1994, courts in the U.S. rejected all reverse discrimination cases as without merit.[18]

Since 2020, conservative activists such as Stephen Miller and Edward Blum have challenged diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) programs as being discriminatory towards whites. US courts have seen a small increase in reverse discrimination claims, with some individual plaintiffs being awarded damages against companies such as Starbucks and Novant Health.[20]

In June 2023, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down affirmative action in university admissions, which plaintiffs had argued were discriminatory against white and Asian students.[21][22][23] Reuters describes the three dissenting Justices as criticizing the majority for "engaged in white grievance politics and embracing the 'myth' of reverse racism."[21]

Public attitudes

While not empirically supported, belief in reverse racism is widespread in the United States,[24][25] primarily among white people.[6] Psychological studies with white Americans have shown that belief in anti-white racism is linked with support for the existing racial hierarchy in the U.S.[26][27] as well as the belief that "hard work" and meritocracy explain any racial disparities.[28][29] The idea that whites have become a socially disadvantaged group has contributed to the rise of conservative social movements such as the Tea Party and support for Donald Trump.[3] Conservatives in the U.S. tend to believe that affirmative action based on membership in a designated racial group threatens the American system of individualism and meritocracy.[30] Ansell associates the idea of reverse racism with that of the "angry white male"[2] and a backlash against government actions meant to remedy racial discrimination.[10]

The perception of decreasing anti-Black discrimination has been correlated with white people's belief in rising anti-white discrimination.[5] A survey in Pennsylvania in the mid-1990s found that most white respondents (80%) thought it was likely that a white worker might lose a job or a promotion to a less qualified Black worker, while most Black respondents (57%) thought this was unlikely.[31] A majority (57%) of white respondents to a 2016 survey by the Public Religion Research Institute said they believed discrimination against white people was as significant a problem as discrimination against Black people, while only a minority of African Americans (29%) and Hispanics (38%) agreed.[32][33] Researchers at Tufts University and Harvard report that as of the early 2010s many white Americans feel as though they suffer the greatest discrimination among racial groups, despite data to the contrary.[25][34][35] Whereas Black respondents see anti-Black racism as a continuing problem, white ones tend to think it has largely disappeared, to the point that they see prejudice against white people as being more prevalent.[17][36] Among white respondents since the 1990s:

Whites have replaced Blacks as the primary victims of discrimination. This emerging perspective is particularly notable because by nearly any metric [...] statistics continue to indicate drastically poorer outcomes for Black than White Americans.[37]

Bonilla-Silva describes the "anti–affirmative action and 'reverse racism' mentality" that has become dominant since the 1980s as part of a "mean-spirited white racial animus".[9] He argues that this results from a new dominant ideology of "color-blind racism", which treats racial inequality as a thing of the past, thereby allowing it to continue by opposing concrete efforts at reform.[38] Journalist Vann R. Newkirk II writes that white people's belief in reverse racism has steadily increased since the civil rights movement of the 1960s.[39] Using data from the 2006 Portraits of American Life Study, Damon Mayrl and Aliya Saperstein find that whites who claim to have experienced racial discrimination are "more likely to be racially self-aware, to be pessimistic about the future, and to have a recent history of unemployment compared to their non-discrimination-reporting peers".[40][non-primary source needed]

Scholarly analysis

While there has been little empirical study on the subject of reverse racism, the few existing studies have found little evidence that white males, in particular, are victimized by affirmative-action programs.[4] Race relations in the United States have been historically shaped by European imperialism and long-standing oppression of Blacks by whites,[8] who remain the dominant group.[7] Such disparities in power and authority are seen by scholars as an essential component of racism; in this view, isolated examples of favoring disadvantaged people do not constitute racism.[1][41] In a widely reprinted article, legal scholar Stanley Fish wrote that "'Reverse racism' is a cogent description of affirmative action only if one considers the cancer of racism to be morally and medically indistinguishable from the therapy we apply to it".[42]

Sociologist Ellis Cashmore writes that the terms reverse racism and reverse discrimination imply that racism is defined solely by individual beliefs and prejudices, ignoring the material relations between different groups.[8] Sociologist Joe Feagin argues that the term reverse discrimination is an oxymoron in the context of U.S. race relations in that it obscures the "central issue of systemic racism" disadvantaging people of color.[43] Critical race theorist David Theo Goldberg says the notion of reverse racism represents a denial of the historical and contemporary reality of racial discrimination.[44] Sociologist Karyn McKinney writes, "most claims that whites are victimized as whites rely on false parallels, as they ignore the power differences between whites and people of color at the group level".[45] Anthropologist Jane H. Hill argues that charges of reverse racism tend to deny the existence of white privilege and power in society.[46] Linguist Mary Bucholtz says the concept of reverse racism, which she calls racial reversal, "runs counter to or ignores empirically observable racial asymmetries regarding material resources and structural power".[47]

According to sociologist Rutledge Dennis, individual members of minority groups in the United States "may be racists" toward white people, but cannot wield institutional power or shape the opportunities available to the majority as the white majority does in relation to minorities.[7] Sociologists Matthew Desmond and Mustafa Emirbayer distinguish between institutional racism and interpersonal racism,[48] arguing that while "members of all racial groups can harbor negative attitudes toward members of other groups", there is no "black institutional racism" or "reverse institutional racism" since people of color have not created a socially ingrained system of racial domination over white people.[49] Psychologist and educator Beverly Daniel Tatum argues that racial bigotry or prejudices held by people of color are not comparable to white racism since "there is no systematic cultural and institutional support or sanction" for them.[50] Tatum writes, "In my view, reserving the term racist only for behaviors committed by Whites in the context of a White-dominated society is a way of acknowledging the ever-present power differential afforded Whites by the culture and institutions that make up the system of advantage and continue to reinforce notions of White superiority."[50]

South Africa

See also: Racism in South Africa

The concept of reverse racism has been used by some white South Africans concerned about "reverse apartheid" following the end of white-supremacist rule.[4] Affirmative action in South Africa's white-dominated civil service was also met with charges of "reverse racism".[51]

Nelson Mandela in 1995 described "racism in reverse" when Black students demonstrated in favor of changing the racial makeup of staff at South African universities.[52] Students denied Mandela's claim and argued that a great deal of ongoing actual racism persisted from apartheid.[53]

Mixed-race South Africans have also sometimes claimed to be victimized by reverse racism of the new government.[54] Similar accusations have been leveled by Indian and Afrikaner groups, who feel that they have not been dominant historically but now suffer from discrimination by the government.[55]

Helen Suzman, a prominent white anti-apartheid politician, charged the African National Congress and the Mbeki administration with reverse racism since Mandela's departure in 1999.[56]

South African critics of the "reverse racism" concept use similar arguments as those employed by Americans.[57][verification needed]

See also

Notes

  1. ^
    • Ansell (2013), p. 137: "Not much sober empirical study has been applied to the subject, but the studies that do exist find little evidence that reverse racism in fact exists."
    • Garner (2017), p. 185: "[T]here is no evidence that [reverse racism] is a social fact, or that a pattern of disadvantageous outcomes for white people qua white people exists."
    • Spanierman & Cabrera (2014), p. 16: "While there is no empirical basis for white people experiencing 'reverse racism', this view is held by a large number of Americans."
    • Bax (2018): "Many Americans—including some people of color—staunchly believe in the existence of reverse racism, or racism against whites. The evidence to support this perception of 'whiteness as disadvantage' is highly suspect."
    • Roussell et al. (2019): "Claims of reverse racism are often deployed to undermine efforts toward racial equity, particularly affirmative action measures, but evidence for these claims has been rigorously debunked"

References

  1. ^ a b c Yee, June Ying (2008). "Racism, Types of". In Shaefer, Richard T. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society, Volume 3. SAGE Publications. pp. 1118–19. ISBN 978-1-41-292694-2. [T]he term reverse racism (or reverse discrimination) has been coined to describe situations where typically advantaged people are relegated to inferior positions or denied social opportunities to benefit racial and ethnic minorities, or, in some instances, women. However, scholars argue that a critical component of racism is the broad exercise of authority and power and that isolated instances of favoring the disadvantaged over the privileged cannot be seen as constituting racism.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g Ansell, Amy Elizabeth (2013). Race and Ethnicity: The Key Concepts. Routledge. pp. 135–136. ISBN 978-0-415-33794-6. Reverse racism is a concept commonly associated with conservative opposition to affirmative action and other color-conscious victories of the civil rights movement in the United States and anti-racist movements abroad. While traditional forms of racism involve prejudice and discrimination on the part of whites against blacks, reverse racism is alleged to be a new form of anti-white racism practiced by blacks and/or the so-called civil rights establishment (alternately referred to as the anti-racism industry).
  3. ^ a b c Garner, Steve (2017). "New Racisms?". Racisms: An Introduction (2nd ed.). London: SAGE Publications. p. 185. ISBN 978-1-5264-1285-0.
  4. ^ a b c d Ansell (2013), p. 137.
  5. ^ a b Mazzocco, Philip J. (2017). The Psychology of Racial Colorblindness: A Critical Review. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 91. ISBN 978-1-13-759967-4.
  6. ^ a b Roussell, Aaron; Henne, Kathryn; Glover, Karen S.; Willits, Dale (2019). "Impossibility of a 'Reverse Racism' Effect: A Rejoinder to James, James, and Vila". Criminology & Public Policy. 18 (1): E5–E16. doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12289. ISSN 1745-9133. Reverse racism is the idea that the Civil Rights Movement not only ended the subordination of communities of color in all aspects of social life but also simultaneously led to a similar subordination of Whites. This idea is primarily supported by Whites who perceive gains in racial equity as losses in White status
  7. ^ a b c d Dennis, Rutledge M. (2004). "Racism". In Kuper, A.; Kuper, J. (eds.). The Social Science Encyclopedia, Volume 2 (3rd ed.). Routledge. pp. 843–845. ISBN 978-1-13-435970-7.
  8. ^ a b c d Cashmore, Ellis, ed. (2004). "Reverse Racism/Discrimination". Encyclopedia of Race and Ethnic Studies. Routledge. p. 373. ISBN 978-1-13-444706-0.
  9. ^ a b Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo (2010). Racism Without Racists: Color-blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States (3rd ed.). Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 211. ISBN 978-1-4422-0218-4.
  10. ^ a b Ansell (2013), pp. 17, 137.
  11. ^ Blauner, Bob (1994). "Talking Past Each Other: Black and White Languages of Race". In Pincus, Fred L.; Ehrlich, Howard J. (eds.). Race And Ethnic Conflict: Contending Views On Prejudice, Discrimination, And Ethnoviolence. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press. p. 23. ISBN 0-8133-1661-8.
  12. ^ Ansell (2013), pp. 4, 46.
  13. ^ a b McBride, David (2005). "Affirmative Action". In Carlisle, Rodney P. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Politics: The Left and The Right, Volume 1: The Left. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SAGE Publications. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-41-290409-4.
  14. ^ Mazzocco (2017), p. 23.
  15. ^ Blauner, Bob (1989). Black Lives, White Lives: Three Decades of Race Relations in America. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 346. ISBN 978-0-520-06261-0.
  16. ^ Ansell (2013), p. 57.
  17. ^ a b Norton, Michael I.; Sommers, Samuel R. (2011a). "Whites See Racism as a Zero-Sum Game That They Are Now Losing" (PDF). Perspectives on Psychological Science. 6 (3): 215–18. doi:10.1177/1745691611406922. PMID 26168512. S2CID 10616480. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 10, 2023. See also:
    "Whites Believe They Are Victims of Racism More Often Than Blacks". TuftsNow (Press release). May 23, 2011. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved March 7, 2023.
  18. ^ a b Desmond, Matthew; Emirbayer, Mustafa (2010). Racial Domination, Racial Progress: The Sociology of Race in America (1st ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. p. 197. ISBN 978-0-07-297051-7.
  19. ^ Bonilla-Silva (2010), p. 83.
  20. ^ Guynn, Jessica (December 20, 2023). "DEI under siege: Why more businesses are being accused of 'reverse discrimination'". USA Today. Retrieved September 17, 2024.
  21. ^ a b Kanu, Hassan (July 11, 2023). "Even some justices are raising questions about the U.S. Supreme Court's legitimacy". Reuters.
  22. ^ Chung, Andrew; Kruzel, John (June 29, 2023). "US Supreme Court rejects affirmative action in university admissions". Reuters.
  23. ^ News, A. B. C. "Supreme Court affirmative action decision could impact racial equity in higher ed". ABC News. Retrieved September 17, 2024. {{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help)
  24. ^ Bax, Anna (2018). "'The C-Word' Meets 'the N-Word': The Slur-Once-Removed and the Discursive Construction of 'Reverse Racism'". Journal of Linguistic Anthropology. 28 (2): 114–136. doi:10.1111/jola.12185. ISSN 1055-1360. S2CID 4768398.
  25. ^ a b Spanierman, Lisa; Cabrera, Nolan (2014). "The Emotions of White Racism and Antiracism". In Watson, V.; Howard-Wagner, D.; Spanierman, L. (eds.). Unveiling Whiteness in the Twenty-First Century: Global Manifestations, Transdisciplinary Interventions. Lexington Books. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-73-919297-9.
  26. ^ Mazzocco (2017), p. 85.
  27. ^ Wilkins, C. L.; Kaiser, C. R. (2013). "Racial Progress as Threat to the Status Hierarchy: Implications for Perceptions of Anti-White Bias". Psychological Science. 25 (2): 439–46. doi:10.1177/0956797613508412. PMID 24343099. S2CID 6934961.
  28. ^ Cyr, Lauren (2018). "Literature Review: Interdisciplinary Findings on Diversity and Inclusion". In Kim Gertz, S.; Huang, B.; Cyr, L. (eds.). Diversity and Inclusion in Higher Education and Societal Contexts: International and Interdisciplinary Approaches. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 24. ISBN 978-3-31-970174-5.
  29. ^ Wilkins, Clara L.; Wellman, Joseph D.; Kaiser, Cheryl R. (2013). "Status legitimizing beliefs predict positivity toward Whites who claim anti-White bias". Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 49 (6): 1114–19. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2013.05.017.
  30. ^ Ansell (2013), p. 17.
  31. ^ Feagin, Joe R. (2001). Racist America: Roots, Current Realities, and Future Reparations. New York: Routledge. p. 127. ISBN 978-0-4159-2532-7.
  32. ^ Massie, Victoria M. (June 29, 2016). "Americans are split on "reverse racism". That still doesn't mean it exists". Vox. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved September 18, 2016.
  33. ^ Jones, Robert P.; et al. (June 23, 2016). How Immigration and Concerns About Cultural Changes Are Shaping the 2016 Election: Findings from the 2016 PRRI/Brookings Immigration Survey (PDF) (Report). Washington, D.C.: Public Religion Research Institute. p. 2. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved February 8, 2019.
  34. ^ Fletcher, Michael A. (October 8, 2014). "Whites think discrimination against whites is a bigger problem than bias against blacks". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on August 21, 2017. Retrieved August 21, 2017.
  35. ^ Ingraham, Christopher (August 2, 2017). "White Trump voters think they face more discrimination than blacks. The Trump administration is listening". The Washington Post.
  36. ^ Norton, Michael I.; Sommers, Samuel R. (May 23, 2011b). "Jockeying for Stigma". The New York Times. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved February 20, 2017.
  37. ^ Norton & Sommers (2011a), p. 215, quoted in Garner (2017), p. 185
  38. ^ Garner (2017), p. 186.
  39. ^ Newkirk, Vann R. II (August 5, 2017). "How The Myth of Reverse Racism Drives the Affirmative Action Debate". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on March 18, 2018. Retrieved March 18, 2018.
  40. ^ Mayrl, Damon; Saperstein, Aliya (2013). "When white people report racial discrimination: The role of region, religion, and politics". Social Science Research. 42 (3): 742–754. doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2012.12.007. ISSN 0049-089X.
  41. ^ McKinney, Karyn D. (2005). Being White: Stories of Race and Racism. New York: Routledge. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-4159-3572-2.
  42. ^ Fish, quoted in Pincus, Fred L. (2003). Reverse Discrimination: Dismantling the Myth. Lynne Rienner Publishers. pp. 68–69. ISBN 978-1-58-826203-5.
  43. ^ Feagin (2001), p. 250. Cited in Cashmore (2004), p. 373.
  44. ^ Pinder, Sherrow O. (2015). Colorblindness, Post-raciality, and Whiteness in the United States. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-13-743488-3.[page needed]
  45. ^ McKinney (2005), p. 146. Cited in Bax (2018).
  46. ^ Hill, Jane H. (2011). The Everyday Language of White Racism. John Wiley & Sons. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-4443-5669-4.
  47. ^ Bucholtz, Mary (2011). "'It's different for guys': Gendered narratives of racial conflict among white California youth". Discourse & Society. 22 (4): 385–402. doi:10.1177/0957926510395832. ISSN 0957-9265. S2CID 145109978. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved April 4, 2023. Cited in Bax (2018).
  48. ^ Desmond & Emirbayer (2010), p. 30.
  49. ^ Desmond & Emirbayer (2010), p. 32.
  50. ^ a b Tatum, Beverly Daniel (2004). "Defining Racism: 'Can We Talk?' ". In Rothenberg, Paula S. (ed.). Race, Class and Gender in the United States: An Integrated Study (6th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. p. 129. ISBN 978-0-7167-5515-9. Cited in McKinney (2005), p. 147.
  51. ^ de Villiers, Susan; Simanowitz, Stefan (March 2012). "South Africa: The ANC at 100". The Contemporary Review. Vol. 294, no. 1704. pp. 39–45. ISSN 0010-7565. ProQuest 1013463231 – via ProQuest. [A]ffirmative action and black economic empowerment were controversial and often misrepresented. In a society in which the greater majority of desk and management jobs were held by whites, there was a clear need for action to move towards a more level job market. Yet many whites have persisted in claiming 'reverse racism'.
  52. ^ MacGregor, Karen (March 24, 1995). "Mandela slams 'reverse racism'". Times Higher Education. London. ISSN 0049-3929. Archived from the original on July 6, 2020. Retrieved July 18, 2022.
  53. ^ Sinclair, Abiola (September 16, 1995). "Media Watch: All is not well, disappointments, racial clashes". New York Amsterdam News. p. 26. ISSN 1059-1818. The students maintained that the university was living in the apartheid past with the upper echelons reserved for whites. The students are demanding that some jobs be reserved for Blacks. AZASM had denied the charge of reverse racism. They maintain it is unfair for thousands of Black teachers to be out of work while white teachers sit up in good jobs in Black schools.
  54. ^ Polgreen, Lydia (July 27, 2003). "For Mixed-Race South Africans, Equity Is Elusive". The New York Times. Archived from the original on March 31, 2013.
  55. ^ Harman, Dana (September 26, 2002). "South Africans try to 'beat' a segregated past". Christian Science Monitor. p. 1. ISSN 2166-3262. But old feelings die hard, and some groups – in particular the Afrikaner and Indian minorities – even complain that they are now being targeted by a reverse racism.
  56. ^ Calvert, Scott (May 13, 2005). "Against apartheid, at odds with blacks". The Baltimore Sun. ISSN 1930-8965. Archived from the original on September 7, 2024. Retrieved July 18, 2022.
  57. ^ Dalamba, Yolisa (2000). "Towards An African Renaissance: Identity, Race And Representation In Post-Apartheid South Africa". Journal of Cultural Studies. 2 (1): 40–61. doi:10.4314/jcs.v2i1.6231.

Further reading

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