View source for Mount Tambora

{{Short description|Active stratovolcano in Sumbawa in Indonesia}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=April 2018}}
{{Infobox mountain
 | name              = Mount Tambora
 | other_name        = Tomboro
 | photo             = Mount Tambora Volcano, Sumbawa Island, Indonesia.jpg
 | photo_caption     = Caldera of Mount Tambora
 | elevation_m       = 2850
 | elevation_ref     = <ref name="gvp">{{cite gvp |name=Tambora |vn=264040 |access-date=2021-06-24}}</ref>
 | prominence_m      = 2722
 | prominence_ref    = <ref name="gvp"/><ref>{{cite web |title=Gunung Tambora |url=http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=11008 |work=Peakbagger |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070319132527/http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=11008 |archive-date=19 March 2007 |access-date=2 August 2018}}</ref>
 | location          = [[Bima Regency|Bima]] & [[Dompu|Dompu Regencies]], Sanggar peninsula, [[Sumbawa]], [[Lesser Sunda Islands]], [[Indonesia]]
 | map               = Indonesia
 | map_caption       = Location in Indonesia
 | map_size          = 300
 | coordinates       = {{coord|8|15|S|118|0|E|type:mountain|display=inline,title}}
 | volcanic_arc      = [[Sunda Arc]]
 | type              = [[Trachybasalt]]ic-[[trachyandesite|trachyandesitic]] [[stratovolcano]]
 | age               = [[Pleistocene|Late Pleistocene]]-recent
 | last_eruption     = 1967<ref name="gvp"/>
 | easiest_route     = Southeast: Doro Mboha<br />Northwest: Pancasila
}}
'''Mount Tambora''', or '''Tomboro''', is an active [[stratovolcano]] in [[West Nusa Tenggara]], [[Indonesia]]. Located on [[Sumbawa]] in the [[Lesser Sunda Islands]], it was formed by the active [[subduction zone]]s beneath it. Before [[1815 eruption of Mount Tambora|1815]], its elevation reached more than {{convert|4300|m|ft|abbr=off}} high, making it one of the tallest peaks in the Indonesian archipelago.

Tambora [[1815 eruption of Mount Tambora|violently erupted]] in a series of eruptions beginning 5 April 1815, culminating in the largest eruption in recorded human history and the largest of the [[Holocene]] (10,000 years ago to present). The [[magma chamber]] under Tambora had been drained by previous eruptions and underwent several centuries of [[dormant volcano|dormancy]] as it refilled. Volcanic activity reached a peak that year, culminating in an explosive eruption. The explosion was heard on [[Sumatra]] island, more than {{convert|2600|km|mi|abbr=off}} away and possibly over 3350 km (2060 miles) away in [[Thailand]] and [[Laos]].<ref name=":1" /> Heavy [[volcanic ash]] rains were observed as far away as [[Borneo]], [[Sulawesi]], [[Java]], and [[Maluku Islands|Maluku islands]], and the maximum elevation of Tambora was reduced from about {{convert|4300|to|2850|m|ft|abbr=off}}. Although estimates vary, the death toll was at least 71,000 people.<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/> The eruption contributed to global [[climate]] anomalies in the following years, while 1816 became known as the "[[Year Without a Summer|year without a summer]]" because of the impact on North American and European weather. In the [[Northern Hemisphere]], crops failed and livestock died, resulting in the worst famine of the century.

== Geographical setting ==
[[File:tambora volc.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Mount Tambora and its surroundings as seen from space]]
[[File:View of Mount Rinjani from Mount Tambora - Lesser Sunda Islands - Indonesia.jpg|thumb|View of [[Mount Rinjani]] from Mount Tambora. Viewing distance is {{convert|165|km|mi}}.|alt=]]

Mount Tambora, also known as Tomboro,<ref name="SynonymsSubfeatures"/> is situated in the northern part of [[Sumbawa]] island, part of the [[Lesser Sunda Islands]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mount Tambora |url=https://www.google.com/maps/place/Mount+Tambora/@-8.6752767,117.7484235,10z/data=!4m5!3m4!1s0x2dca2ce36910d79b:0x939651610d8ff4ba!8m2!3d-8.2479246!4d117.991101 |access-date=2021-03-04 |website=Mount Tambora |language=en |archive-date=30 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930120248/https://www.google.com/maps/place/Mount+Tambora/@-8.6752767,117.7484235,10z/data=!4m5!3m4!1s0x2dca2ce36910d79b:0x939651610d8ff4ba!8m2!3d-8.2479246!4d117.991101 |url-status=live }}</ref> It is a segment of the [[Sunda Arc]], a chain of [[volcanic island]]s that make up the southern chain of the Indonesian [[archipelago]].<ref name="Foden1986">{{cite journal |title=The petrology of Tambora volcano, Indonesia: A model for the 1815 eruption |last=Foden |first=J. |journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research |volume=27 |issue=1–2 |date=1986 |pages=1–41 |doi=10.1016/0377-0273(86)90079-X |bibcode=1986JVGR...27....1F}}</ref> Tambora forms its own [[peninsula]] on Sumbawa, known as the Sanggar peninsula. To the north of the peninsula is the [[Flores Sea]]<ref name="Oppenheimer2003">{{cite journal |last=Oppenheimer |first=Clive |title=Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (Indonesia) 1815 |journal=Progress in Physical Geography |volume=27 |issue=2 |date=2003 |pages=230–259 |doi=10.1191/0309133303pp379ra |bibcode=2003PrPG...27..230O |s2cid=131663534}}</ref> and to the south is the {{convert|86|km|mi}} long and {{convert|36|km|mi}} wide [[Saleh Bay]].<ref name="Degens1989">{{cite journal |last1=Degens |first1=E.T. |last2=Buch |first2=B. |title=Sedimentological events in Saleh Bay, off Mount Tambora |journal=Netherlands Journal of Sea Research |volume=24 |issue=4 |doi=10.1016/0077-7579(89)90117-8 |pages=399–404 |date=1989 |bibcode=1989NJSR...24..399D}}</ref> At the mouth of Saleh Bay there is an islet called Mojo.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dekov |first1=V.M. |last2=Van Put |first2=A. |last3=Eisma |first3=D. |last4=Van Grieken |first4=R. |title=Single particle analysis of suspended matter in the Makassar Strait and Flores Sea with particular reference to tin-bearing particles |journal=Journal of Sea Research |date=March 1999 |volume=41 |issue=1–2 |page=45 |doi=10.1016/S1385-1101(98)00035-5 |bibcode=1999JSR....41...35D}}</ref>

Besides the [[seismologist]]s and [[vulcanologist]]s who monitor the mountain's activity, Mount Tambora is an area of interest to [[archaeologist]]s and [[biologist]]s. The mountain also attracts tourists for [[hiking]] and wildlife activities,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.sinarharapan.co.id/feature/hobi/2003/0430/hob1.html |title=Hobi Mendaki Gunung – Menyambangi Kawah Raksasa Gunung Tambora |publisher=Sinar Harapan |language=id |date=2003 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070107162228/http://www.sinarharapan.co.id/feature/hobi/2003/0430/hob1.html |archive-date=7 January 2007 |access-date=2 August 2018}}</ref> though in small numbers.<ref name="Boers1995"/> The two nearest cities are [[Dompu]] and [[Bima]]. There are three concentrations of villages around the mountain slope. At the east is Sanggar village, to the northwest are Doro Peti and Pesanggrahan villages, and to the west is Calabai village.<ref name="vsimain" />

There are two routes of ascent to the [[caldera]]. The first begins at Doro Mboha village on the southeast of the mountain and follows a paved road through a [[cashew]] plantation to an elevation of {{convert|1150|m|ft}}. The road terminates at the southern part of the caldera, which at {{convert|1950|m|ft}} is reachable only by hiking.<ref name="vsimain">{{cite web |url=http://merapi.vsi.esdm.go.id/?static/volcano/tambora/main.html |title=Tambora, Nusa Tenggara Barat |author=Nasution, Aswanir |publisher=Directorate of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, Indonesia |language=id |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929120305/http://merapi.vsi.esdm.go.id/?static%2Fvolcano%2Ftambora%2Fmain.html |archive-date=29 September 2007 |url-status=dead |access-date=2 August 2018}}</ref> This location is only one hour from the caldera, and usually serves as a base camp from which volcanic activity can be monitored. The second route starts from Pancasila village at the northwest of the mountain and is only accessible on foot.<ref name="vsimain"/> The {{convert|16|km|mi}} hike from Pancasila at {{convert|740|m|ft}} elevation to the caldera of the volcano takes approximately 14 hours with several stops (''pos'') en route to the top. The trail leads through dense jungle with wildlife such as ''[[Elaeocarpus]]'', [[Asian water monitor]], [[reticulated python]], [[Accipiter|hawks]], [[orange-footed scrubfowl]], [[pale-shouldered cicadabird]] (''Coracina dohertyi''), [[brown honeyeater|brown]] and [[scaly-crowned honeyeater]], [[yellow-crested cockatoo]], [[yellow-ringed white-eye]], [[helmeted friarbird]], [[wild boar]], [[Javan rusa]] and [[crab-eating macaque]]s.<ref name="TamboraWildlife">{{cite web |last=Febriyanto |first=Erwin |date=18 October 2015 |url=https://tamboraku.blogspot.com/2015/10/potensi-gunung-tambora.html |title=Potensi Gunung Tambora |language=id |access-date=2 August 2018 |archive-date=4 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190604212955/https://tamboraku.blogspot.com/2015/10/potensi-gunung-tambora.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

== History of Mount Tambora ==

=== Geological history ===
==== Formation ====
[[File:Plate setting Sunda megathrust.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Plate boundaries of Indonesia, with the location of Mount Tambora to the lower right of "11"]]
Tambora is located {{convert|340|km|mi}} north of the [[Java Trench]] system and {{convert|180|to|190|km|mi}} above the upper surface of the active north-dipping [[subduction zone]]. Sumbawa Island is flanked to the north and south by [[oceanic crust]].<ref name="Foden1980">{{cite journal |title=The petrology and tectonic setting of Quaternary—Recent volcanic centres of Lombok and Sumbawa, Sunda arc |journal=Chemical Geology |last1=Foden |first1=J. |last2=Varne |first2=R. |volume=30 |issue=3 |date=1980 |pages=201–206 |doi=10.1016/0009-2541(80)90106-0 |bibcode=1980ChGeo..30..201F}}</ref> The convergence rate of the [[Australian Plate]] beneath the [[Sunda Plate]] is {{convert|7.8|cm|in}} per year.<ref name="Sigurdsson1989">{{cite journal |date=1989 |title=Plinian and co-ignimbrite tephra fall from the 1815 eruption of Tambora volcano |journal=Bulletin of Volcanology |last1=Sigurdsson |first1=H. |last2=Carey |first2=S. |volume=51 |issue=4 |pages=243–270 |doi=10.1007/BF01073515 |bibcode=1989BVol...51..243S |s2cid=132160294}}</ref> Estimates for the onset of the volcanism at Mount Tambora range from 57<ref name="Degens1989"/> to 43 [[kiloannum|ka]]. The latter estimate published in 2012 is based on argon dating of the first pre-caldera lava flows.<ref name="Gertisser"/> The formation of Tambora drained a large [[magma chamber]] pre-existing under the mountain. The Mojo islet was formed as part of this geological process in which Saleh Bay first appeared as a [[sea basin]] about 25,000 years [[Before Present|BP]].<ref name="Degens1989"/>

A high volcanic cone with a single central vent formed before the 1815 eruption, which follows a [[stratovolcano]] shape.<ref name="VSI">{{cite web |title=Geology of Tambora Volcano |publisher=Vulcanological Survey of Indonesia |url=http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/volcanoes/tambora/geology.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071024202358/http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/volcanoes/tambora/geology.html |archive-date=24 October 2007 |access-date=2 August 2018}}</ref> The diameter at the base is {{convert|60|km|mi}}.<ref name="Foden1986"/> The volcano frequently erupted lava, which descended over steep slopes.<ref name="VSI" /> Tambora has produced [[trachybasalt]] and [[trachyandesite]] rocks which are rich in [[potassium]]. The volcanics contain [[phenocryst]]s of [[apatite]], [[biotite]], [[clinopyroxene]], [[leucite]], [[magnetite]], [[olivine]] and [[plagioclase]], with the exact composition of the phenocrysts varying between different rock types.<ref name="Foden1986"/> [[Orthopyroxene]] is absent in the trachyandesites of Tambora.<ref name=Foden1979_p49>Foden, 1979, p. 49</ref> Olivine is most present in the rocks with less than 53 percent SiO<sub>2</sub>, while it is absent in the more silica-rich volcanics, characterised by the presence of biotite phenocrysts.<ref name=Foden1979_p50>Foden, 1979, p. 50</ref> The mafic series also contain [[titanium]] [[magnetite]] and the trachybasalts are dominated by [[anorthosite]]-rich plagioclase.<ref name=Foden1979_p51>Foden, 1979, p. 51</ref> [[Rubidium]], [[strontium]] and [[phosphorus pentoxide]] are especially rich in the lavas from Tambora, more than the comparable ones from [[Mount Rinjani]].<ref name=Foden1979_p56>Foden, 1979, p. 56</ref> The lavas of Tambora are slightly enriched in [[zircon]] compared with those of Rinjani.<ref name=Foden1979_p60>Foden, 1979, p.60</ref>

The [[magma]] involved in the 1815 eruption originated in the [[mantle (geology)|mantle]] and was further modified by melts derived from [[subduct]]ed sediments, fluids derived from the subducted crust and crystallization processes in [[magma chamber]]s.<ref name="Gertisser">{{cite journal |date=1 February 2012 |last1=Gertisser |first1=R. |last2=Self |first2=S. |last3=Thomas |first3=L.E. |last4=Handley |first4=H.K. |last5=Van Calsteren |first5=P. |last6=Wolff |first6=J.A. |title=Processes and Timescales of Magma Genesis and Differentiation Leading to the Great Tambora Eruption in 1815 |journal=Journal of Petrology |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=271–297 |doi=10.1093/petrology/egr062 |bibcode=2012JPet...53..271G |doi-access=free}}</ref> <sup>87</sup>Sr<sup>86</sup>Sr ratios of Mount Tambora are similar to those of Mount Rinjani, but lower than those measured at Sangeang Api.<ref name="Foden1980"/> [[Potassium]] levels of Tambora volcanics exceed 3 weight percent, placing them in the [[shoshonite]] range for alkaline series.<ref name="Fiorentini2010">{{cite journal |year=2010 |last1=Fiorentini |first1=Marco L. |last2=Garwin |first2=Steve L. |title=Evidence of a mantle contribution in the genesis of magmatic rocks from the Neogene Batu Hijau district in the Sunda Arc, South Western Sumbawa, Indonesia |journal=Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology |volume=159 |issue=6 |page=826 |doi=10.1007/s00410-009-0457-7 |bibcode=2010CoMP..159..819F |s2cid=129804058}}</ref>

Since the 1815 eruption, the lowermost portion contains deposits of interlayered sequences of [[lava]] and [[Pyroclastic rock|pyroclastic]] materials. Approximately 40% of the layers are represented in the {{cvt|1|to|4|m|ft|adj=mid|-thick}} lava flows.<ref name="VSI"/> Thick [[scoria]] beds were produced by the fragmentation of lava flows. Within the upper section, the lava is interbedded with scoria, [[tuff]]s, [[pyroclastic flow]]s and [[pyroclastic fall]]s.<ref name="VSI"/> Tambora has at least 20 [[parasitic cone]]s<ref name="Sigurdsson1989"/> and [[lava dome]]s, including ''Doro Afi Toi'', ''Kadiendi Nae'', ''Molo'' and ''Tahe''.<ref name="SynonymsSubfeatures">{{cite gvp |name=Tambora: Synonyms & Subfeatures |vtab=Subfeatures |vn=264040 |access-date=2021-06-24}}</ref> The main product of these parasitic vents is [[basaltic]] [[lava flow]]s.<ref name="Sigurdsson1989"/>

==== Eruptive history ====
[[Radiocarbon dating]] has established that Mount Tambora had erupted three times during the current [[Holocene]] [[Epoch (geology)|epoch]] before the 1815 eruption, but the magnitudes of these eruptions are unknown. Their estimated dates are 3910&nbsp;BC ± 200 years, 3050&nbsp;BC and 740&nbsp;AD ± 150 years.<ref name="EruptiveHistory">{{cite gvp |name=Tambora: Eruptive History |vtab=Eruptions |vn=264040 |access-date=2021-06-24}}</ref> An earlier caldera was filled with lava flows starting from 43,000 years BC; two pyroclastic eruptions occurred later and formed the Black Sands and Brown Tuff formations, the last of which was emplaced between about 3895 BC and 800 AD.<ref name="Gertisser"/>

In 1812, Mount Tambora became highly active, with its maximum eruptive intensity occurring in April 1815.<ref name="EruptiveHistory"/> The magnitude was 7 on the [[Volcanic Explosivity Index]] (VEI) scale, with a total [[tephra]] ejecta volume of up to 1.8&nbsp;×&nbsp;10<sup>11</sup>&nbsp;cubic metres.<ref name="EruptiveHistory"/> Its eruptive characteristics included central vent and explosive eruptions, pyroclastic flows, [[tsunami]]s and caldera collapse. This eruption had an effect on global climate. Volcanic activity ceased on 15 July 1815.<ref name="EruptiveHistory"/> Activity resumed in August 1819—a small eruption with "flames" and rumbling [[aftershock]]s, and was considered to be part of the 1815 eruption.<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/> This eruption was recorded at 2 on the VEI scale.

Around 1880&nbsp;±&nbsp;30 years, eruptions at Mount Tambora have been registered only inside the caldera.<ref name="EruptiveHistory"/> It created small lava flows and lava dome [[Extrusive (geology)|extrusions]]; this was recorded at two on the VEI scale. This eruption created the ''Doro Api Toi'' parasitic cone inside the caldera.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tambora Historic Eruptions and Recent Activities |publisher=Vulcanological Survey of Indonesia |url=http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/volcanoes/tambora/history.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927043444/http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/volcanoes/tambora/history.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 September 2007 |access-date=2 August 2018}}</ref>

Mount Tambora is still [[active volcano|active]] and minor lava domes and flows have been extruded on the caldera floor during the 19th and 20th centuries.<ref name="gvp"/> The last eruption was recorded in 1967. However, it was a gentle eruption with a VEI of 0, which means it was non-explosive.<ref name="EruptiveHistory"/><ref>{{cite web |title=Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) |url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/eruptioncriteria.cfm#VEI |work=Global Volcanism Program |publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution|Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111110173623/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/eruptioncriteria.cfm |archive-date=10 November 2011 |access-date=2 August 2018}}</ref> Another very small eruption was reported in 2011.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wood |first=Gillen D'Arcy |title=Tambora: The Eruption That Changed the World |publisher=Princeton University Press |date=2014 |pages=1–312 |isbn=9780691168623}}</ref> In August 2011, the alert level for the volcano was raised from level I to level II after increased activity was reported in the caldera, including earthquakes and steam emissions.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://portal.vsi.esdm.go.id/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=203%3Apeningkatan-status-g-tambora-dari-normal-ke-waspada&catid=35%3Aaktifitas-terkini-gai |title=Peningkatan Status G. Tambora dari Normal ke Waspada |publisher=Directorate of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, Indonesia |date=30 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110908003204/http://portal.vsi.esdm.go.id/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=203%3Apeningkatan-status-g-tambora-dari-normal-ke-waspada&catid=35%3Aaktifitas-terkini-gai |archive-date=8 September 2011 |language=id |access-date=2 August 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wunderman |first1=Richard |title=Report on Tambora (Indonesia) |journal=Bulletin of the Global Volcanism Network |date=2011 |volume=36 |issue=8 |doi=10.5479/si.GVP.BGVN201108-264040}}</ref>

=== 1815 eruption ===
[[File:1815 tambora explosion.png|upright=1.75|thumb|Estimated depth of volcanic ashfall during the 1815 eruption—the outermost region (1&nbsp;cm) reached [[Borneo]] and the [[Sulawesi]] islands]]
{{Main|1815 eruption of Mount Tambora}}

==== Chronology of the eruption ====
Before 1815, Mount Tambora had been [[dormant volcano|dormant]] for several centuries, as hydrous [[magma]] cooled gradually in a closed magma chamber.<ref name="Foden1986"/> Inside the chamber, at depths of {{convert|1.5|to|4.5|km|mi}}, cooling and partial [[crystallization]] of the magma [[Volcanic gas#Magmatic gases and high-temperature volcanic gases|exsolved]] high-pressure [[magmatic water|magmatic fluid]]. Overpressure of the chamber of about {{convert|4000|to|5000|bar|psi}} was generated as temperatures ranged from {{convert|700|to|850|C|F}}.<ref name="Foden1986"/> In 1812, the crater began to rumble and generated a dark cloud.<ref name="Stothers1984">{{cite journal |date=1984 |last=Stothers |first=Richard B. |title=The Great Tambora Eruption in 1815 and Its Aftermath |journal=Science |volume=224 |issue=4654 |pages=1191–1198 |doi=10.1126/science.224.4654.1191 |pmid=17819476 |bibcode=1984Sci...224.1191S |s2cid=23649251}}</ref>

A moderate-sized eruption on 5 April 1815 was followed by thunderous detonation sounds that could be heard in [[Ternate]] on the [[Molucca|Molucca Islands]], {{convert|1400|km|mi}} from Mount Tambora. On the morning of 6 April 1815, [[volcanic ash]] began to fall in [[East Java]], with faint detonation sounds lasting until 10 April.<ref name="Stothers1984"/>
What was first thought to be the sound of firing guns was heard on 10 and 11 April on [[Sumatra]] island (more than {{convert|2600|km|mi}} away),<ref name="Raffles1830">{{cite book |date=1830 |last=Raffles |first=S. |title=Memoir of the life and public services of Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, F.R.S. &c., particularly in the government of Java 1811–1816, and of Bencoolen and its dependencies 1817–1824: with details of the commerce and resources of the eastern archipelago, and selections from his correspondence |url=http://www.sabrizain.org/malaya/library/memraffles1.pdf |location=London |publisher=John Murray |access-date=2 August 2018 |archive-date=2 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802223556/http://www.sabrizain.org/malaya/library/memraffles1.pdf |url-status=live }} Cited by Oppenheimer (2003)</ref> and possibly over 3350 km (2060 miles) away in [[Thailand]] and [[Laos]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Goldrick |first=Richard |title=Tambora's Rumblings in The Annals of Lang Xang |journal=}}</ref>
 
The eruptions intensified at about 7:00&nbsp;p.m. on the 10th.<ref name="Stothers1984"/> Three plumes rose and merged.<ref name="Raffles1830"/> Pieces of [[pumice]] of up to {{convert|20|cm|in}} in diameter rained down at approximately 8&nbsp;p.m., followed by ash at around 9–10&nbsp;p.m. The [[eruption column]] collapsed, producing hot [[pyroclastic flow]]s that cascaded down the mountain and towards the sea on all sides of the [[peninsula]], wiping out the village of Tambora. Loud explosions were heard until the next evening, 11 April. The veil of ash spread as far as [[West Java]] and [[South Sulawesi]], while a "nitrous odor" was noticeable in [[Jakarta|Batavia]]. The heavy [[tephra]]-tinged rain did not recede until 17 April.<ref name="Stothers1984"/> Analysis of various sites on Mount Tambora using ground-penetrating radar has revealed alternations of pumice and ash deposits covered by the pyroclastic surge and flow sediments that vary in thickness regionally.<ref name="Abrams2007">{{cite journal |date=2007 |last1=Abrams |first1=Lewis J. |last2=Sigurdsson |first2=Haraldur |title=Characterization of pyroclastic fall and flow deposits from the 1815 eruption of Tambora volcano, Indonesia using ground-penetrating radar |url=http://people.uncw.edu/abramsl/Abrams-Sigurdsson-volgeo-07.pdf |journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research |volume=161 |issue=4 |pages=352–361 |access-date=2 August 2018 |doi=10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2006.11.008 |bibcode=2007JVGR..161..352A |archive-date=4 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804061055/http://people.uncw.edu/abramsl/Abrams-Sigurdsson-volgeo-07.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

The eruption is estimated to have had a [[Volcanic Explosivity Index]] of 7.<ref name="Briffa1998">{{cite journal |year=1998 |last1=Briffa |first1=K.R. |last2=Jones |first2=P.D. |last3=Schweingruber |first3=F.H. |last4=Osborn |first4=T.J. |title=Influence of volcanic eruptions on Northern Hemisphere summer temperature over the past 600 years |journal=Nature |volume=393 |issue=6684 |pages=450–455 |doi=10.1038/30943 |bibcode=1998Natur.393..450B |s2cid=4392636}}</ref> It had 4–10 times the energy of the [[1883 eruption of Krakatoa|1883 Krakatoa eruption]].<ref>[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/blast-from-the-past-65102374/''Blast from the Past''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220315104117/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/blast-from-the-past-65102374/ |date=15 March 2022 }}; article; [July, 2002]; By Robert Evans; Smithsonian Magazine, online; accessed September 10, 2020</ref> An estimated {{convert|100|km3}} of pyroclastic [[trachyandesite]] was ejected, weighing approximately [[Orders of magnitude (mass)|1.4×10<sup>14</sup>&nbsp;kg]].<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/> This has left a caldera measuring {{convert|6|to|7|km|mi}} across and {{convert|600|to|700|m|ft}} deep.<ref name="Stothers1984"/> The density of fallen ash in [[Makassar]] was 636&nbsp;kg/m<sup>3</sup>.<ref name="Stothers2004">{{cite journal |date=2004 |last=Stothers |first=Richard B. |title=Density of fallen ash after the eruption of Tambora in 1815 |journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research |volume=134 |issue=4 |pages=343–345 |doi=10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2004.03.010 |bibcode=2004JVGR..134..343S}}</ref> Before the explosion, Mount Tambora was approximately {{convert|4300|m|ft}} high,<ref name="Stothers1984"/> one of the tallest peaks in the Indonesian archipelago. After the eruption of 1815, the maximum elevation was reduced to {{convert|2851|m|ft}}.<ref name="Monk">{{cite book |date=1996 |last1=Monk |first1=K.A. |last2=Fretes |first2=Y. |last3=Reksodiharjo-Lilley |first3=G. |title=The Ecology of Nusa Tenggara and Maluku |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd. |location=Hong Kong |page=60 |isbn=978-962-593-076-3}}</ref>

The 1815 Tambora eruption is the largest and most devastating observed eruption in recorded history; a comparison with other major eruptions is listed below.<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/><ref name="Stothers1984"/><ref name="cao">{{cite journal |date=2012 |last1=Cao |first1=S. |last2=Li |first2=Y. |last3=Yang |first3=B. |title=Mt. Tambora, Climatic Changes, and China's Decline in the Nineteenth Century |journal=Journal of World History |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=587–607 |doi=10.1353/jwh.2012.0066 |s2cid=145137831}}</ref> The explosion was heard {{convert|2600|km|mi}} or  {{convert|3350|km|mi}}   away, and ash deposits were registered at a distance of at least {{convert|1300|km|mi}}. A pitch of darkness was observed as far away as {{convert|600|km|mi}} from the mountain summit for up to two days.<ref name="Stothers1984"/> Pyroclastic flows spread to distances of about {{convert|20|km|mi}} from the summit and an estimated 9.3–11.8 × 10<sup>13</sup> g of stratospheric sulfate aerosols were generated by the eruption.<ref>{{cite journal |date=1 October 2004 |last1=Self |first1=S. |last2=Gertisser |first2=R. |last3=Thordarson |first3=T. |last4=Rampino |first4=M.R. |last5=Wolff |first5=J.A. |title=Magma volume, volatile emissions, and stratospheric aerosols from the 1815 eruption of Tambora |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |volume=31 |issue=20 |pages=L20608 |doi=10.1029/2004GL020925 |url=https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/11410401/Magma.pdf |bibcode=2004GeoRL..3120608S |hdl=20.500.11820/6925218f-d09e-4f9d-9f2e-3ab8419b223f |s2cid=56290102 |hdl-access=free |access-date=30 June 2019 |archive-date=26 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190426135239/https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/11410401/Magma.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Aftermath ====
The island's entire vegetation was destroyed as uprooted trees, mixed with pumice ash, washed into the sea and formed rafts of up to {{convert|5|km|mi}} across.<ref name="Stothers1984"/> One [[pumice raft]] was found in the [[Indian Ocean]], near [[Calcutta]], on 1 and 3 October 1815.<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/> Clouds of thick ash still covered the summit on 23 April. Explosions ceased on 15 July, although smoke emissions were still observed as late as 23 August. Flames and rumbling aftershocks were reported in August 1819, four years after the event.

{{Quote box|width=30em|align=right|quote=On my trip towards the western part of the island, I passed through nearly the whole of [[Dompu|Dompo]] and a considerable part of Bima. The extreme misery to which the inhabitants have been reduced is shocking to behold. There were still on the road side the remains of several corpses, and the marks of where many others had been interred: the villages almost entirely deserted and the houses fallen down, the surviving inhabitants having dispersed in search of food.<br />...<br />Since the eruption, a violent diarrhoea has prevailed in Bima, Dompo, and Sang’ir, which has carried off a great number of people. It is supposed by the natives to have been caused by drinking water which has been impregnated with ashes; and horses have also died, in great numbers, from a similar complaint.|salign=right |source=—Lt. Philips, ordered by Sir [[Stamford Raffles]] to go to [[Sumbawa]]<ref name="Raffles1830"/>}}

A moderate [[tsunami]] struck the shores of various islands in the Indonesian archipelago on 10 April, with waves reaching {{convert|4|m|ft}} in Sanggar at around 10&nbsp;p.m. A tsunami causing waves of {{convert|1|to|2|m|ft}} was reported in Besuki, [[East Java]] before midnight and another exceeded {{convert|2|m|ft}} in the [[Molucca|Molucca Islands]].<ref name="Stothers1984"/> The [[eruption column]] reached the [[stratosphere]] at an altitude of more than {{convert|43|km|ft}}.<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/> Coarser ash particles fell one to two weeks after the eruptions, while finer particles stayed in the atmosphere for months to years at an altitude of {{convert|10|to|30|km|ft}}.<ref name="Stothers1984"/> There are various estimates of the volume of ash emitted: a recent study estimates a [[dense-rock equivalent]] volume for the ash of {{convert|23|±|3|km3}} and a dense-rock equivalent volume of {{convert|18|±|6|km3}} for the pyroclastic flows.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kandlbauer |first1=J. |last2=Sparks |first2=R.S.J. |title=New estimates of the 1815 Tambora eruption volume |journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research |date=October 2014 |volume=286 |pages=93–100 |doi=10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2014.08.020 |bibcode=2014JVGR..286...93K}}</ref> Longitudinal winds spread these fine particles around the globe, creating optical phenomena. Between 28 June and 2 July, and between 3 September and 7 October 1815, prolonged and brilliantly coloured sunsets and twilights were frequently seen in London, England. Most commonly, pink or purple colours appeared above the horizon at twilight and orange or red near the horizon.<ref name="Stothers1984"/>

==== Fatalities ====
The number of fatalities has been estimated by various sources since the nineteenth century. Swiss botanist [[Heinrich Zollinger]] traveled to Sumbawa in 1847 and recollected witness accounts about the 1815 eruption of Tambora. In 1855, he published estimates of directly killed people at 10,100, mostly from pyroclastic flows. A further 37,825 were numbered having died from starvation on [[Sumbawa]] island.<ref name="Haeseler2016">{{cite web |date=2016 |last=Haeseler |first=Susanne |title=Der Ausbruch des Vulkans Tambora in Indonesien im Jahr 1815 und seine weltweiten Folgen, insbesondere das "Jahr ohne Sommer" 1816 |url=https://www.dwd.de/DE/leistungen/besondereereignisse/verschiedenes/20170727_tambora_1816_global.pdf |publisher=Deutscher Wetterdienst |pages=1–18 |language=de |access-date=2 August 2018 |archive-date=16 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216081313/https://www.dwd.de/DE/leistungen/besondereereignisse/verschiedenes/20170727_tambora_1816_global.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> On [[Lombok]], another 10,000 died from disease and hunger.<ref name="Zollinger1855">Zollinger (1855): ''Besteigung des Vulkans Tamboro auf der Insel Sumbawa und Schiderung der Eruption desselben im Jahren 1815'', Winterthur: Zurcher and Fürber, Wurster and Co., cited by Oppenheimer (2003).</ref> Petroeschevsky (1949) estimated that about 48,000 and 44,000 people were killed on Sumbawa and Lombok, respectively.<ref name="Petroeschevsky1949">{{cite journal |last=Petroeschevsky |first=W.A. |date=1949 |title=A contribution to the knowledge of the Gunung Tambora (Sumbawa) |journal=Tijdschrift van het Koninklijk Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap |volume=2 |issue=66 |pages=688–703}}, cited by Oppenheimer (2003).</ref> Several authors have used Petroeschevsky's figures, such as Stothers (1984), who estimated 88,000 deaths in total.<ref name="Stothers1984"/> However, Tanguy et al. (1998) considered Petroeschevsky's figures based on untraceable sources, so developed an estimate based solely on two primary sources: Zollinger, who spent several months on Sumbawa after the eruption, and the notes of [[Sir Stamford Raffles]],<ref name="Raffles1830"/> Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies during the event. Tanguy pointed out that there may have been additional victims on [[Bali]] and [[East Java]] because of famine and disease, and estimated 11,000 deaths from direct volcanic action and 49,000 from post-eruption famine and epidemics.<ref name="Tanguy1998">{{cite journal |date=1998 |last1=Tanguy |first1=J.-C. |last2=Scarth |first2=A. |last3=Ribière |first3=C. |last4=Tjetjep |first4=W. S. |title=Victims from volcanic eruptions: a revised database |journal=Bulletin of Volcanology |pages=137–144 |volume=60 |issue=2 |doi=10.1007/s004450050222 |bibcode=1998BVol...60..137T |s2cid=129683922}}</ref> Oppenheimer (2003) estimated at least 71,000 deaths,<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/> and numbers as high as 117,000 have been proposed.<ref name="cao"/>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ <big>Comparison of major volcanic eruptions</big>
|-
! Volcano !! Location !! Year !! Column<br />height (km) !! &nbsp;[[VEI]]&nbsp; !! N. hemisphere<br />summer anomaly (°C) !! Fatalities
|-
| [[Hatepe eruption|Taupō Volcano]] || {{NZL}} || 181 || style="text-align:center;" | 51 || style="text-align:center;" | 7 || style="text-align:center;" | ? || unlikely
|-
| [[946 eruption of Paektu Mountain|Paektu Mountain]] || {{DPRK}} || 946 || style="text-align:center;" | 25 || style="text-align:center;" | 7 || style="text-align:center;" | ? || ?
|-
| [[1257 Samalas eruption|Mount Samalas]] || {{INA}} || 1257 || style="text-align:center;" | 38–43<ref>{{cite journal |date=8 August 2015 |last1=Vidal |first1=CélineM. |last2=Komorowski |first2=Jean-Christophe |last3=Métrich |first3=Nicole |last4=Pratomo |first4=Indyo |last5=Kartadinata |first5=Nugraha |last6=Prambada |first6=Oktory |last7=Michel |first7=Agnès |last8=Carazzo |first8=Guillaume |last9=Lavigne |first9=Franck |last10=Rodysill |first10=Jessica |last11=Fontijn |first11=Karen |title=Dynamics of the major plinian eruption of Samalas in 1257 A.D. (Lombok, Indonesia) |journal=Bulletin of Volcanology |volume=77 |issue=9 |pages=73 |doi=10.1007/s00445-015-0960-9 |bibcode=2015BVol...77...73V |s2cid=127929333}}</ref> || style="text-align:center;" | 7<ref>{{cite journal |date=22 January 2015 |last1=Whelley |first1=Patrick L. |last2=Newhall |first2=Christopher G. |last3=Bradley |first3=Kyle E. |title=The frequency of explosive volcanic eruptions in Southeast Asia |journal=Bulletin of Volcanology |volume=77 |issue=1 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1007/s00445-014-0893-8 |pmid=26097277 |pmc=4470363 |bibcode=2015BVol...77....1W}}</ref> || style="text-align:center;" | −1.2<ref>{{cite journal |date=2017 |last1=Guillet |first1=Sébastien |last2=Corona |first2=Christophe |last3=Stoffel |first3=Markus |last4=Khodri |first4=Myriam |last5=Lavigne |first5=Franck |last6=Ortega |first6=Pablo |last7=Eckert |first7=Nicolas |last8=Sielenou |first8=Pascal Dkengne |last9=Daux |first9=Valérie |last10=(Sidorova) |first10=Olga V. Churakova |last11=Davi |first11=Nicole |last12=Edouard |first12=Jean-Louis |last13=Zhang |first13=Yong |last14=Luckman |first14=Brian H. |last15=Myglan |first15=Vladimir S. |last16=Guiot |first16=Joël |last17=Beniston |first17=Martin |last18=Masson-Delmotte |first18=Valérie |last19=Oppenheimer |first19=Clive |title=Climate response to the Samalas volcanic eruption in 1257 revealed by proxy records |journal=Nature Geoscience |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=123–128 |doi=10.1038/ngeo2875 |url=http://centaur.reading.ac.uk/68817/1/Guillet_et_al_1257_1258_Nature_Geoscience_Format_Final.pdf |bibcode=2017NatGe..10..123G |s2cid=133586732 |access-date=30 June 2019 |archive-date=28 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428122608/http://centaur.reading.ac.uk/68817/1/Guillet_et_al_1257_1258_Nature_Geoscience_Format_Final.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> || ?
|-
| [[1452/1453 mystery eruption]] || Unknown || 1452 || style="text-align:center;" | ? || style="text-align:center;" | 7 || style="text-align:center;" | −0.5 || ?
|-
| [[Huaynaputina]] || {{PER}} || 1600 || style="text-align:center;" | 46 || style="text-align:center;" | 6 || style="text-align:center;" | −0.8 || ≈1,400
|-
| '''Mount Tambora''' || {{INA}} || '''1815''' || style="text-align:center;" | '''44'''<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/southeast_asia/indonesia/tambora.html |title=Tambora, Sumbawa, Indonesia |website=volcano.oregonstate.edu |access-date=2019-02-26 |archive-date=17 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170617194416/http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/southeast_asia/indonesia/tambora.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> || style="text-align:center;" | '''7''' || style="text-align:center;" | '''−0.5''' || '''>71,000'''
|-
| [[Krakatoa]] || {{INA}} || 1883 || style="text-align:center;" | 80 || style="text-align:center;" | 6 || style="text-align:center;" | −0.3 || 36,600
|-
| [[Santa María (volcano)|Santa María Volcano]] || {{GUA}} || 1902 || style="text-align:center;"| 34 || style="text-align:center;"| 6 || style="text-align:center;" | no anomaly || 7,000–13,000
|-
| [[Novarupta]] || {{USA}} || 1912 || style="text-align:center;"| 32 || style="text-align:center;" | 6 || style="text-align:center;" | −0.4 || 2
|-
| [[1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens|Mount St. Helens]] || {{USA}} || 1980 || style="text-align:center;" | 24 || style="text-align:center;" | 5 || style="text-align:center;" | no anomaly || 57
|-
| [[El Chichón]] || {{MEX}} || 1982 || style="text-align:center;" | 32 || style="text-align:center;"| 5 || style="text-align:center;" | ? || >2,000
|-
| [[Nevado del Ruiz]] || {{COL}} || 1985 || style="text-align:center;" | 27 || style="text-align:center;" | 3 || style="text-align:center;" | no anomaly || 23,000
|-
| [[1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo|Mount Pinatubo]] || {{PHI}} || 1991 || style="text-align:center;" | 34 || style="text-align:center;" | 6 || style="text-align:center;" | −0.5 || 1,202
|-
|[[2022 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai eruption and tsunami|Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai]] ||{{TON}} || 2022 || style="text-align:center;"| 58 || style="text-align:center;"| 5–6 || style="text-align:center;"| ? ||6
|-
| colspan=7 | <span style="font-size:smaller;">Sources: Oppenheimer (2003),<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/> and [[Smithsonian Institution]]'s [[Global Volcanism Program]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Large Holocene Eruptions |publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]] |access-date=7 November 2006 |work=Global Volcanism Program |url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/largeeruptions.cfm?sortorder=asc |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130507134343/http://volcano.si.edu/world/largeeruptions.cfm?sortorder=asc |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 May 2013}}</ref></span>
|-
|}

===== Global effects =====
[[File:Greenland sulfate.png|thumb|right|240px|[[Sulfate]] concentration in [[ice core]] from Central [[Greenland]], dated by counting [[oxygen isotope]] seasonal variations. There is an unknown eruption around the 1810s.<ref name="Dai1991">{{cite journal |last1=Dai |first1=J. |first2=E. |last2=Mosley-Thompson |first3=L.G. |last3=Thompson |date=1991 |title=Ice core evidence for an explosive tropical volcanic eruption six years preceding Tambora |url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4574/f163f9c8321c258cf88710e69e0fd0a3de13.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802194725/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4574/f163f9c8321c258cf88710e69e0fd0a3de13.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2018-08-02 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres |volume=96 |issue=D9 |pages=17361–17366 |doi=10.1029/91JD01634 |access-date=2 August 2018 |bibcode=1991JGR....9617361D |s2cid=8384563}}</ref>]]
{{see also|Year Without a Summer}}

The 1815 eruption released 10 to 120 million tons of [[sulphur]]<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/> into the [[stratosphere]], causing a global climate anomaly. Different methods have been used to estimate the ejected sulfur mass: the [[petrological]] method, an optical depth measurement based on [[anatomy|anatomical]] observations, and the [[polar region|polar]] [[ice core]] sulfate concentration method, which calibrated against cores from [[Greenland]] and [[Antarctica]].

In the spring and summer of 1816, a persistent stratospheric sulfate [[aerosol]] veil, described then as a "dry fog", was observed in the northeastern United States. It was not dispersed by wind or rainfall, and it reddened and dimmed sunlight to an extent that sunspots were visible to the naked eye.<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/> Areas of the [[northern hemisphere]] suffered extreme weather conditions and 1816 became known as the "[[Year Without a Summer|year without a summer]]". Average global temperatures decreased about {{convert|0.4|to|0.7|C-change|1}},<ref name="Stothers1984"/> enough to cause significant agricultural problems around the globe. After 4 June 1816, when there were frosts in [[Connecticut]], cold weather expanded over most of [[New England]]. On 6 June 1816, it snowed in [[Albany, New York]] and [[Dennysville, Maine]]. Similar conditions persisted for at least three months, ruining most crops across North America while Canada experienced extreme cold. Snow fell until 10 June near [[Quebec City]], accumulating to {{convert|30|cm|in}}.<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/>

That year became the second-coldest year in the northern hemisphere since 1400,<ref name="Briffa1998"/> while the 1810s were the coldest decade on record, a result of Tambora's eruption and other suspected volcanic events between 1809 and 1810.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cole-Dai |first1=Jihong |last2=Ferris |first2=David |last3=Lanciki |first3=Alyson |last4=Savarino |first4=Joël |last5=Baroni |first5=Mélanie |last6=Thiemens |first6=Mark H. |title=Cold decade (AD 1810–1819) caused by Tambora (1815) and another (1809) stratospheric volcanic eruption |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |date=1 November 2009 |volume=36 |issue=22 |pages=L22703 |doi=10.1029/2009GL040882 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01757253/file/cole_dai_grl_09.pdf |bibcode=2009GeoRL..3622703C |s2cid=10579910 |access-date=30 June 2019 |archive-date=6 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191206085906/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01757253/file/cole_dai_grl_09.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> (See sulfate concentration chart.) Surface-temperature anomalies during the summers of 1816, 1817 and 1818 were −0.51, −0.44 and −0.29&nbsp;°C, respectively.<ref name="Briffa1998"/> Along with a cooler summer, parts of Europe experienced a stormier winter,<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/> and the [[Elbe River|Elbe]] and [[Ohře River]]s froze over a period of twelve days in February 1816. As a result, prices of [[wheat]], [[rye]], [[barley]] and [[oats]] rose dramatically by 1817.<ref name="Brazdil2016">{{cite journal |date=2016 |last1=Brázdil |first1=Rudolf |last2=Řezníčková |first2=Ladislava |last3=Valášek |first3=Hubert |last4=Dolák |first4=Lukáš |last5=Kotyza |first5=Oldřich |title=Climatic effects and impacts of the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Czech Lands |journal=Climate of the Past |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=1361–1374 |doi=10.5194/cp-12-1361-2016 |bibcode=2016CliPa..12.1361B |doi-access=free}}</ref>

This climate anomaly has been cited as a reason for the severity of the 1816–19 [[typhus]] epidemic in southeast Europe and the eastern Mediterranean.<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/> In addition, large numbers of livestock died in [[New England]] during the winter of 1816–1817, while cool temperatures and heavy rains led to failed harvests in the British Isles. Families in [[Wales]] travelled long distances as refugees, begging for food. Famine was prevalent in north and southwest Ireland, following the failure of wheat, oat and potato harvests. The crisis was severe in Germany, where food prices rose sharply. Demonstrations at grain markets and bakeries, followed by riots, arson and looting, took place in many European cities. It was the worst famine of the 19th century.<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/>

== Culture ==
[[File:Tambora-Vesuv.jpg|thumb|right|Size comparison of Mount Tambora ("Pompeii of the East") and Mount Vesuvius ("Pompeii")]]
{{Main|Tambora culture}}

A human settlement obliterated by the Tambora eruption was discovered in 2004. That summer, a team led by [[Haraldur Sigurðsson]] with scientists from the [[University of Rhode Island]], the [[University of North Carolina at Wilmington]] and the Indonesian Directorate of Volcanology began an [[Excavation (archaeology)|archaeological dig]] in Tambora. Over six weeks, they unearthed evidence of habitation about {{convert|25|km|mi}} west of the caldera, deep in jungle, {{convert|5|km|mi}} from shore. The team excavated {{convert|3|m|ft}} of deposits of pumice and ash.<ref name="URI">{{cite press release |title=URI volcanologist discovers lost kingdom of Tambora |publisher=University of Rhode Island |date=27 February 2006 |url=http://www.uri.edu/news/releases/index.php?id=3467 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060721214614/http://www.uri.edu/news/releases/index.php?id=3467 |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 July 2006 |access-date=2 August 2018}}</ref> The scientists used [[ground-penetrating radar]] to locate a small buried house which contained the remains of two adults, bronze bowls, ceramic pots, iron tools and other artifacts.<ref name="URI"/> Tests revealed that objects had been carbonized by the heat of the [[magma]]. Sigurdsson dubbed the find the "[[Pompeii]] of the East",<ref>{{cite news |work=BBC News |title='Pompeii of the East' discovered |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4748902.stm |date=28 February 2006 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061219200937/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4748902.stm |archive-date=19 December 2006 |access-date=2 August 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |publisher=Bloomberg Asia |title=Indonesian Volcano Site Reveals 'Pompeii of the East' (Update1) |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000080&sid=agqrX3FIpeQU&refer=asia |date=28 February 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930035748/https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000080&sid=agqrX3FIpeQU&refer=asia |url-status=dead |archive-date=30 September 2007 |access-date=2 August 2018}}</ref> and media reports referred to the "Lost Kingdom of Tambora".<ref name="natgeo">{{cite magazine |last=Roach |first=John |magazine=National Geographic |title="Lost Kingdom" Discovered on Volcanic Island in Indonesia |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/02/0227_060227_lost_kingdom.html |date=27 February 2006 |access-date=9 October 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061114083821/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/02/0227_060227_lost_kingdom.html |archive-date=14 November 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |newspaper=International Herald Tribune |title='Lost kingdom' springs from the ashes |date=1 March 2006 |url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/03/01/healthscience/snvolc.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060313061251/http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/03/01/healthscience/snvolc.php |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 March 2006 |access-date=2 August 2018}}</ref> Sigurdsson intended to return to Tambora in 2007 to search for the rest of the villages, and hopefully to find a palace.<ref name="URI"/> Many villages in the area had converted to Islam in the 17th century, but the structures uncovered so far do not show Islamic influence.<ref name="natgeo"/>

Based on the artifacts found, such as [[bronzeware]] and finely decorated china possibly of [[Vietnam]]ese or [[Cambodia]]n origin, the team concluded that the people were well-off traders.<ref name="natgeo"/> The Sumbawa people were known in the [[East Indies]] for their horses, honey, [[sappan wood]] (for producing red dye), and [[sandalwood]] (for [[incense]] and medications). The area was thought to be highly productive agriculturally.<ref name="URI"/>

The [[tambora language|language of the Tambora people]] was lost with the eruption. Linguists have examined remnant lexical material, such as records by Zollinger and Raffles, and established that Tambora was not an [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] language, as would be expected in the area, but possibly a [[language isolate]], or perhaps a member of one of the families of [[Papuan language]]s found {{convert|500|km}} or more to the east.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Donohue |first=Mark |year=2007 |title=The Papuan Language of Tambora |url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/5a78/bd8f4b2f955122b6b546ff2b76508f5fd6d9.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802223515/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/5a78/bd8f4b2f955122b6b546ff2b76508f5fd6d9.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2 August 2018 |journal=Oceanic Linguistics |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=520–537 |jstor=20172326 |access-date=2 August 2018 |doi=10.1353/ol.2008.0014 |s2cid=26310439}}</ref>

The eruption is captured in latter-day folklore, which explains the cataclysm as divine retribution. A local ruler is said to have incurred the wrath of [[Allah]] by feeding dog meat to a ''[[hajji]]'' and killing him.<ref name="Boers1995"/> This is expressed in a poem written around 1830:
{{Verse translation|
Bunyi bahananya sangat berjabuh
Ditempuh air timpa habu
Berteriak memanggil anak dan ibu
Disangkanya dunia menjadi kelabu

Asalnya konon Allah Taala marah
Perbuatan sultan Raja Tambora
Membunuh tuan haji menumpahkan darah
Kuranglah pikir dan kira-kira
|Its noise reverberated loudly
Torrents of water mixed with ash descended
Children and mothers screamed and cried
Believing the world had turned to ash

The cause was said to be the wrath of God Almighty
At the deed of the King of Tambora
In murdering a worthy pilgrim, spilling his blood
Rashly and thoughtlessly<ref name="Boers1995"/>}}

== Ecosystem ==
[[File:Calderaboden des Tambora.jpg|thumb|right|The floor of the caldera of Mount Tambora, looking north]]
[[File:Tephra layers near the summit of Mount Tambora - Sumbawa - Indonesia.jpg|thumb|right|Tephra layers near the caldera (left) and summit (background) of Mount Tambora]]
A team led by the Swiss botanist [[Heinrich Zollinger]] arrived on Sumbawa in 1847. Zollinger sought to study the area of eruption and its effects on the local [[ecosystem]]. He was the first person after the eruption to ascend the summit, which was still covered by smoke. As Zollinger climbed, his feet sank several times through a thin surface crust into a warm layer of powder-like [[sulfur]]. Some vegetation had regrown, including trees on the lower slope. A ''[[Casuarina]]'' forest was noted at {{convert|2200|to|2550|m|ft}}, while several ''[[Imperata cylindrica]]'' [[grassland]]s were also found.<ref name="Zollinger2">Zollinger (1855) cited by Trainor (2002).</ref> In August 2015 a team of Georesearch Volcanedo Germany followed the way used by Zollinger and explored this way for the first time since 1847. Because of the length of the distance to be travelled on foot, the partly very high temperatures and the lack of water it was a particular challenge for the team of Georesearch Volcanedo.<ref name="volcanedo">{{Cite web |url=http://www.volcanedo.de/ |title=Volcanedo |access-date=30 March 2019 |archive-date=24 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224023901/http://www.volcanedo.de/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Resettlement of the area began in 1907, and a coffee plantation was established in the 1930s in the Pekat village on the northwestern slope.<ref name="Boers1995">{{cite journal |title=Mount Tambora in 1815: A Volcanic Eruption in Indonesia and its Aftermath |last=de Jong Boers |first=B. |journal=Indonesia |volume=60 |issue=60 |date=1995 |pages=37–59 |url=http://cip.cornell.edu/seap.indo/1106964023 |doi=10.2307/3351140 |jstor=3351140 |access-date=2 August 2018 |hdl=1813/54071 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> A dense [[rain forest]] of ''[[Duabanga moluccana]]'' trees had grown at an altitude of {{convert|1000|to|2800|m|ft}}.<ref name="Boers1995"/> It covers an area up to {{convert|80000|ha|acre}}. The rain forest was discovered by a Dutch team, led by Koster and de Voogd in 1933. From their accounts, they started their journey in a "fairly barren, dry and hot country", and then they entered "a mighty jungle" with "huge, majestic forest giants".<ref name="Boers1995"/> At {{convert|1100|m|ft}}, the trees became thinner in shape. Above {{convert|1800|m|ft}}, they found ''[[Dodonaea viscosa]]'' flowering plants dominated by ''Casuarina'' trees. On the summit was sparse ''[[Edelweiss]]'' and ''[[Wahlenbergia]]''.<ref name="Boers1995"/>

An 1896 survey records 56 species of birds including the [[White-eye (birds)|crested white-eye]].<ref name="Trainor2002">{{cite journal |title=Birds of Gunung Tambora, Sumbawa, Indonesia: effects of altitude, the 1815 catalysmic volcanic eruption and trade |last=Trainor |first=C.R. |volume=18 |journal=Forktail |date=2002 |pages=49–61 |url=http://www.orientalbirdclub.org/publications/forktail/18pdfs/Trainor-Tambora.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120226205950/http://www.orientalbirdclub.org/publications/forktail/18pdfs/Trainor-Tambora.pdf |archive-date=26 February 2012 |access-date=2 August 2018}}</ref> Several other zoological surveys followed and found other bird species, with over 90 bird species discoveries in this period, including [[yellow-crested cockatoo]]s, [[Zoothera]] thrushes, [[Hill myna]]s, [[green junglefowl]] and [[rainbow lorikeet]]s are hunted for the [[cagebird trade]] by the local people. [[Orange-footed scrubfowl]] are hunted for food. This bird exploitation has resulted in population declines, and the yellow-crested cockatoo is nearing extinction on Sumbawa island.<ref name="Trainor2002"/>

A commercial [[logging]] company began to operate in the area in 1972, posing a threat to the rain forest.<ref name="Boers1995"/> The company holds a timber-cutting concession for an area of {{convert|20000|ha|acre}}, or 25% of the total area.<ref name="Boers1995"/> Another part of the rain forest is used as a hunting ground. In between the hunting ground and the logging area, there is a designated wildlife reserve where deer, [[water buffalo]]s, [[Feral pig|wild pigs]], bats, [[flying fox]]es and species of reptiles and birds can be found.<ref name="Boers1995"/> In 2015, the conservation area protecting the mountain's ecosystem was upgraded to a [[List of national parks of Indonesia|national park]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Fardah |url=https://www.antaranews.com/en/news/98498/mount-tambora-national-park-transformed-into-new-ecotourism-destination |title=Mount Tambora National Park Transformed Into New Ecotourism Destination |agency=[[Antara (news agency)|Antara News]] |date=15 April 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170930035747/https://www.antaranews.com/en/news/98498/mount-tambora-national-park-transformed-into-new-ecotourism-destination |archive-date=30 September 2017 |access-date=2 August 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Rahmad |first=Rahmadi |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2015/05/geckos-moths-and-spider-scorpions-six-new-species-on-mount-tambora-say-indonesian-researchers/ |title=Geckos, moths and spider-scorpions: Six new species on Mount Tambora, say Indonesian researchers |work=Mongabay |date=14 May 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170930083817/https://news.mongabay.com/2015/05/geckos-moths-and-spider-scorpions-six-new-species-on-mount-tambora-say-indonesian-researchers/ |archive-date=30 September 2017 |access-date=2 August 2018}}</ref>

=== Exploration of the caldera floor ===
Zollinger (1847), van Rheden (1913) and W. A. Petroeschevsky (1947) could only observe the caldera floor from the crater rim. In 2013, a German research team (Georesearch Volcanedo Germany) for the first time carried out a longer expedition into this caldera, about 1300 m deep, and with the help of a native team climbed down the southern caldera wall, reaching the caldera floor while experiencing extreme conditions. The team stayed in the caldera for nine days. People had reached the caldera floor only in a few cases as the descent down the steep wall is difficult and dangerous, subject to earthquakes, landslides and rockfalls. Moreover, only relatively short stays on the caldera floor had been possible because of logistical problems, so that extensive studies had been impossible. The investigation program of Georesearch Volcanedo on the caldera floor included researching the visible effects of smaller eruptions which had taken place since 1815, gas measurements, studies of flora and fauna and measurement of weather data. Especially striking was the relatively high activity of Doro Api Toi ("Gunung Api Kecil" means "small volcano") in the southern part of the caldera and the gases escaping under high pressure on the lower north-east wall. Besides the team discovered near the Doro Api Toi a lavadome which had not yet been mentioned in scientific studies. The team called this new discovery "Adik Api Toi (Indonesian "adik": younger brother). Later this lavadome was called by the Indonesians "Doro Api Bou" ("new volcano"). This lavadome probably appeared in 2011/2012 when there was an increased seismic activity and probably volcanic activity on the caldera floor (there is no exact information about the caldera floor at that time). In 2014 the same research team carried out a further expedition into the caldera and set a new record: over 12 days the investigations of 2013 were continued.<ref name="volcanedo" />

[[File:Tambora EFS highres STS049 STS049-97-54.jpg|thumb|An infrared image of Mount Tambora (north is on the left)]]

== Monitoring ==

Indonesia's population has been increasing rapidly since the 1815 eruption. In 2020, the population of the country reached 270 million people, of which 56% concentrated on the island of [[Java]].<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Indonesian Central Statistics Bureau |title=Penduduk Migran Seumur Hidup |url=http://sp2010.bps.go.id/ |language=id |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101105023434/http://sp2010.bps.go.id/ |archive-date=5 November 2010 |df=dmy-all |access-date=2 August 2018}}</ref> An event as significant as the 1815 eruption would impact about eight million people.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Simpson |first1=Alanna |last2=Johnson |first2=R. Wally |last3=Cummins |first3=Phil |title=Volcanic threat in developing countries of the Asia–Pacific region: probabilistic hazard assessment, population risks, and information gaps |journal=Natural Hazards |date=1 May 2011 |volume=57 |issue=2 |page=162 |doi=10.1007/s11069-010-9601-y |bibcode=2011NatHa..57..151S |s2cid=129040686}}</ref>

[[Seismology|Seismic activity]] in Indonesia is monitored by the Directorate of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation with the monitoring post for Mount Tambora located at Doro Peti village.<ref name="vsidanger">{{cite web |url=http://merapi.vsi.esdm.go.id/?static/volcano/tambora/bahaya.html |title=Tambora Hazard Mitigation |publisher=Directorate of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation |language=id |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929120048/http://merapi.vsi.esdm.go.id/?static%2Fvolcano%2Ftambora%2Fbahaya.html |archive-date=29 September 2007 |access-date=2 August 2018}}</ref> They focus on seismic and [[tectonic]] activity by using a [[seismograph]]. There has been no significant increase in seismic activity since the 1880 eruption. Monitoring is continuously performed inside the caldera, with a focus on the parasitic cone ''Doro Api Toi''.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Directorate of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, Indonesia |title=Tambora Geophysics |language=id |url=http://merapi.vsi.esdm.go.id/?static/volcano/tambora/geofisika.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929120113/http://merapi.vsi.esdm.go.id/?static%2Fvolcano%2Ftambora%2Fgeofisika.html |archive-date=29 September 2007 |access-date=2 August 2018}}</ref>

The directorate created a [[disaster mitigation]] map for Mount Tambora, which designates two zones for an eruption: a dangerous zone and a cautious zone.<ref name="vsidanger"/> The dangerous zone identifies areas that would be directly affected by pyroclastic flows, lava flows or pyroclastic falls. It includes areas such as the caldera and its surroundings, a span of up to {{convert|58.7|km2|acre}} where habitation is prohibited. The cautious zone consists of land that might be indirectly affected, either by [[lahar]] flows and other pumice stones. The size of the cautious area is {{convert|185|km2|acre}}, and includes Pasanggrahan, Doro Peti, Rao, Labuan Kenanga, Gubu Ponda, Kawindana Toi and Hoddo villages. A river, called Guwu, at the southern and northwest part of the mountain is also included in the cautious zone.<ref name="vsidanger"/>

== Panorama ==
{{wide image|Panorama Mount Tambora caldera.jpg|1100px|align-cap=center|Panorama of the caldera of Mount Tambora, July 2017}}

== References ==

===Notes===
{{reflist}}

===Bibliography===
* {{cite thesis |year=1979 |last=Foden |first=J.D. |title=The petrology of some young volcanic rocks from Lombok and Sumbawa, Lesser Sunda Islands |url=https://eprints.utas.edu.au/17675/1/Foden_Thesis.pdf |type=PhD thesis |publisher=[[University of Tasmania]] |pages=1–306 |access-date=2 August 2018}}

== External links ==
{{sister project links|auto=1}}
* {{cite web |title=Indonesia Volcanoes and Volcanics |work=Cascades Volcano Observatory |publisher=USGS |url=http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Volcanoes/Indonesia/framework.html |access-date=2 August 2018}}
* {{cite web |title=Tambora, Sumbawa, Indonesia |work=Volcano World |publisher=Department of Geosciences at Oregon State University |url=http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/southeast_asia/indonesia/tambora.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070702155632/http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/southeast_asia/indonesia/tambora.html |archive-date=2 July 2007 |access-date=2 August 2018}}
* [http://wikimapia.org/#lang=en&lat=-8.250000&lon=118.000000&z=8&m=b WikiSatellite view at WikiMapia]
* [https://www.google.com/maps/@-8.2487456,118.0387926,37841m/data=!3m1!1e3?hl=en google/docs]

{{Portal bar|Indonesia|Mountains|Volcanoes}}
{{Tourist attractions in Indonesia}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tambora, Mount}}
[[Category:Stratovolcanoes of Indonesia]]
[[Category:Subduction volcanoes]]
[[Category:Volcanoes of Sumbawa]]
[[Category:Active volcanoes of Indonesia]]
[[Category:VEI-7 volcanoes]]
[[Category:Calderas of Indonesia]]
[[Category:Two-thousanders of Asia]]
[[Category:Pleistocene stratovolcanoes]]
[[Category:Holocene stratovolcanoes]]
[[Category:Drainage basins of Sumbawa]]