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Lion Capital of Ashoka

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Not to be confused with Pillars of Ashoka.
Lion Capital of Ashoka
Four Asiatic lions stand back to back on a circular abacus. The Buddhist wheel of the moral law appears in relief below each lion. Between the chakras appear four animals in profile—horse, bull, elephant, and lion. The architectural bell below the abacus, is a stylized upside-down lotus
Materialsandstone
Height2.1 metres (7 ft)
Width86 centimetres (34 in) (diameter of abacus)
Created3rd century BCE
DiscoveredF. O. Oertel (excavator), 1904–1905
Present locationSarnath Museum, India
RegistrationA 1

The Lion Capital of Ashoka is the capital, or head, of a column erected by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka in Sarnath, India, c. 250 BCE. Its crowning features[1] are four life-sized lions set back to back on a drum-shaped abacus. The side of the abacus is adorned with wheels in relief, and interspersing them, four animals, a lion, an elephant, a bull, and a galloping horse follow each other from right to left. A bell-shaped lotus forms the lowest member of the capital, and the whole 2.1 metres (7 ft) tall, carved out of a single block of sandstone and highly polished, was secured to its monolithic column by a metal dowel. Erected after Ashoka's conversion to Buddhism, it commemorated the site of Gautama Buddha's first sermon some two centuries before.

The capital eventually fell to the ground and was buried. It was excavated by the Archeological Survey of India (ASI) in the very early years of the 20th century. The excavation was undertaken by F. O. Oertel in the ASI winter season of 1904–1905. The column, which had broken before it became buried, remains in its original location in Sarnath, protected but on view for visitors. The Lion Capital was in much better condition, though not undamaged. It was cracked across the neck just above the lotus, and two of its lions had sustained damage to their heads. It is displayed not far from the excavation site in the Sarnath Museum, the oldest site museum of the ASI.

The lion capital is among the first group of significant stone sculptures to have appeared in South Asia after the end of the Indus Valley Civilisation 1,600 years earlier. Their sudden appearance, as well as similarities to Persepolitan columns of Iran before the fall of the Achaemenid Empire in 330 BCE, have led some to conjecture an eastward migration of Iranian stonemasons among whom the tradition of naturalistic carving had been preserved during the intervening decades. Others have countered that a tradition of erecting columns in wood and copper had a history in India and the transition to stone was but a small step in an empire and period in which ideas and technologies were in a state of flux. The lion capital is rich in symbolism, both Buddhist and secular.

In July 1947, Jawaharlal Nehru, the interim prime minister of India, proposed in the Constituent Assembly of India that the wheel on the abacus be the model for the wheel in the centre of the Dominion of India's new national flag, and the capital itself without the lotus the model for the state emblem. The proposal was accepted in December 1947.

Excavation and display

F. O. Oertel's plan of excavation. The Lion Capital was found in 1905 to the west of the main shrine, which is to the north of the "Jagat Singh" stupa.
The excavation site two years later

Sarnath had a history of visits and some exploration in the 18th and 19th centuries. William Hodges, the painter visited in 1780 and made a record of the Dhamekh Stupa, the most conspicuous monument. In 1794, Jonathan Duncan, the Commissioner of Benares noted diggings for bricks carried out by Jagat Singh, the Dewan of the Raja of Benares. The location of these was 150 metres (490 ft) to the west of the Dhamekh.[2] Colin Mackenzie visited in 1815 and found sculpture that was donated to the Asiatic Society of Bengal. In 1861 Alexander Cunningham attempted to dig down into the Dhamekh from its top to uncover relics. He soon abandoned the effort, but not before noting that a large number of votive models of the stupa were scattered in the vicinity, lending credence to the view that the Dhamekh was the spot at which the Buddha had taught his first sermon.[2] The site was pillaged in 1894 when a large number of bricks were carried away from Sarnath for use as ballast in a railway line being laid nearby.[2]

When F. O. Oertel, an engineer in the Public Works Department, who had surveyed Hindu and Buddhist sites in Burma and Central India in the 1890s[3] was appointed superintending engineer at Varanasi, he constructed a storehouse at Sarnath for the artefacts found earlier and paved the road to Sarnath. He then convinced Sir John Marshall, the director-general of the ASI, to be allowed to excavate Sarnath in the winter of 1904–05.[4] John Marshall resolved to put in place plans for a museum to keep the excavated artefacts close to the site.[5]

Oertel began to excavate in the vicinity of the Jagat Singh stupa, which lies to the southwest of the Dhamek. He proceeded to the Main Shrine, north of the stupa. It was to the west of this shrine that he found the buried stump and fragments of the Ashokan pillar at Sarnath, and soon its lion capital.[6]

The Museum of Archaeology at Sarnath, now Archaeological Museum Sarnath, the first site museum of the ASI, was completed in 1910.[5] The lion capital has been displayed in the museum since.[5] Daya Ram Sahni, Assistant Superintendant of the ASI, and later its Director-General, supervised the organisation and labelling of the museum's collection and in 1914 completed the Catalogue of the Museum of Archaeology at Sarnath".[5] Oertel's detailed report, "Excavations at Särnäth," had appeared in 1908 in the Archæological Survey of India, Annual Report, 1904–5.[7]

Description

Capital in Sahni's Catalogue, 1914
Pieces of the pillar, the lowest portion in situ, shown in 2016, on view but protected behind a glass enclosure.[8] It is located 584 ft (178 m) SSW of Dhamek Stupa

The capital is 2.1 metres (7 ft) tall in total. Its lowest portion is a bell 61 centimetres (2 ft) high, carved in the Persepolitan style, and decorated with 16 petals. The bell has been interpreted to be a stylized lotus, a common motif.[9] Above the bell is a circular abacus, or a drum-shaped slab, of diameter 86 centimetres (34 in) and height 34 centimetres (13+1⁄2 in). Set addorsed, on the abacus are four lions.[10] In this context, it means that only the frontal figures are visible joined at the shoulders, each with its back to another so as to form a pair and two pairs are perpendicular.[11] The lions are each 1.1 metres (3+3⁄4 ft) tall and have been described as "life-sized."[12]

Oertel describes the lions to be "standing back-to-back" in his original report of 1908.[13] Other authors have used the same expression in describing the lions' attitude, including in a 2014 study[14] and a 2017 review,[15], or have quoted Oertel using it, in a 2020 study.[16] The archaeologist Kazim Abdullaev, who analysed the pose of the Sarnath lions in a 2014 study, concluded they were seated on account of their backs sloping more steeply upwards than those of standing lions.[17] They have been described as seated in some other studies.[11][18][19]

Two lions were undamaged. The heads of the other two had come off before being buried and upon excavation required affixing. Of these damaged, one lion was missing the lower jaw at the time of the initial excavation and the other the upper, both not found since. On the side of the abacus and below each lion is carved a wheel of 24 spokes in high relief. Between the wheels, also shown in high relief are four animals following each other from right to left. They are a lion, an elephant, a bull, and a horse; the first three are shown at walking pace but the horse is at full gallop.[20][13] The capital which was carved from a single block of marble is broken across the necking just above the bell.

The capital has a polished finish.[18] Although most sandstone is difficult to polish without dislodging the grains on the surface, according to a 2020 study by Frederick Asher, very fine-grained sandstone found, e.g. in Chunar, can be polished with a fine abrasive or even patiently with wood.[21] The pillar which bore the capital aloft "remains broken in several pieces at the site and is now protected by a glass enclosure that separates the pillar from visitors."[8] It is thought, that the pillar—in one piece—was originally fastened to the capital by a metal dowell. The lions supported a polished larger wheel symbolizing the dharmachakra, the Buddhist wheel of the "social order and the sacred law,"[22] now lost except for fragments.[a] [24] It was held in place by a shaft. Although the shaft was never found, a hole 20 centimetres (8 in) across in which it was fitted appears drilled into the unfinished rock between the lions. Four fragments of the rim of this larger wheel were found, as well as several small pieces of the spokes (which were conjectured to have been 32 in total),[25] and are on display in the Sarnath Museum.[b] The original diameter of the surmounting was conjectured to have been 0.84 metres (2+3⁄4 ft).[13]

Symbolism

The lion capital and its Ashokan pillar have complex meanings. The lions—the four sitting addorsed on the abacus and the one badly damaged appearing in relief on its rim—have been associated with the Buddha, one of whose names was Shakyasimha, the lion of the Shakya clan.[27] The three other animals on the rim of the abacus have been associated with events in the life of Prince Siddhartha: the elephant with his mother Queen Maya's dream about his birth; the horse with Kanthaka, the mount of his departure from the palace in the dead of night, and the bull with his first meditation under the rose apple tree (jambu, syzygium aqueum).[27] The abacus and its animals have been related to Lake Anavatapta of a contemporary 3rd century BCE myth.[27] A water spout arose from the heart of this lake. After surfacing and splitting into four streams it emanated from the mouths of the same four animals sitting on the lake's shore and flowed onto the four corners of the earth, like the message of the Buddha or of Ashoka himself.[27] The pillar, thus, has been likened both to the water spout rising to meet the lake-like abacus and also the axis mundi, the world's axis.[27]

Queen Maya dreams of the White Elephant entering her womb, Gandhara. The elephant is a sacred symbol in Buddhism.[c]
Prince Siddhartha become an ascetic hermit by shaving his hair, his horse Kanthaka by his side, Borobodur

The four lions have also been thought to be the cardinal directions as if roaring the Buddha's message to the remotest parts.[18] A later Buddhist text, the Maha-Sihanada Sutta (Great Discourse on the Lions' Roar), pointedly links the wheel and lion with its refrain, “[the Buddha] roars his lion’s roar in the assemblies, and sets rolling the Wheel of Brahma [wheel of the law]."[29] In other interpretations, the four small animals shown on the side of the abacus have been thought to represent the cardinal directions: the lion (north), elephant (west), bull (south), and horse (east),[30] and the smaller wheels for the solstices and the equinoxes.[31] According to Raymond Allchin, " The abacus depicts four Dharmacakras facing the four quarters, interspersed by four noble beasts, who in early Buddhist texts represent the four quarters."[18] In the Aṅguttara Nikāya, the Buddha compared himself to the Indian lotus, a flower that rises clean and pure from muddy pond water, as he rose above an impure world to achieve awakening.[31]

Scholars have debated the meanings of the wheels, the large one that had once surmounted the capital and the four appearing in relief along the rim of the abacus. Some have likened the wheels, especially the lost larger one, to the Buddhist wheel of the moral law, the dharmachakra, which the Buddha began to turn in Sarnath and whose motion through time and space has spread his message universally.[29][32] Others have thought them to have been nonsectarian symbols, promoting an ethical notion of rulership, or chakravartin (literally wheel turner) which Ashoka might have been aspiring to present himself,[29] to align himself with the prestige and universality of the Buddha.[27][29] Overall, the symbolism of the Sarnath column and capital are thought to be more Buddhist than secular. As the only capital to exhibit wheel motifs it is thought to symbolize the wheel of the moral law in "a specifically Buddhist sense of the term."[33] Page 254

The symbolism of the pillars is in most cases established as being Buddhist, by their being found or at least recorded in proximity to the great places of pilgrimage (that is at Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, Sarnath and Sravasti), or beside other major Buddhist stupas or shrines. In the case of the Sarnath capital an interpretation of its symbolism may be offered as follows: the pillar was erected by Asoka adjoining the main shrine in the Deer Park at Sarnath which marked the spot where the Buddha preached his first sermon, thereby setting in motion the wheel of the Dharma (Dharma-cakra pravartana). The abacus depicts four Dharma-cakras facing the four quarters, interspersed by four noble beasts, . We are inclined to read the main symbol of the four lions seated, addorsed above the four Dharma-cakras, as symbolizing the proclamation of the Dharma in all four directions.

Influences

See also: Mauryan polish

Writing in 1922, John Marshall was the first scholar to suggest that the Sarnath capital was the work of foreign artisans working in India. Comparing the capital to a male figure from Parkham, Marshall wrote, “While the Sārnāth capital is thus an exotic, alien to Indian ideas in expression and in execution, the statue of Pārkham falls naturally into line with other products of indigenous art and affords a valuable starting point for the study of its evolution."[34] The realism of the lions, the straining tendons of their paws, and the "flesh around the jaws" have led others to ask about the provenance of some of the art commonly ascribed to the Maurya period.[27] To Vincent Smith in 1930, the shine of the Mauryan pillars, the lotus bell bases of their capitals and the stylized lions, suggested Iranian carvers had migrated to the Mauryan empire after Alexander the Great's sacking of Persepolis in 330 BCE. He and others after him have detected Persian-Hellenistic influences in Mauryan art.[35]

Addorsed lion capital, Persepolis, Iran, showing conventionalized grimace and taut paws
Bronze lion, Susa, Iran, 6th–4th century BCE

In 1973, John Irwin challenged these notions by advancing three hypotheses: (a) Not all pillars were made for Ashoka; some had been adapted for his use; (b) whereas the four lions did seem to have Persian influence, the spiritedness of bull and the elephant betray an intimate familiarity with animals whose habitat did not extend to Iran; and (c) Ashoka had channelled a preexisting industry and culture devoted to treating a pillar as a symbol for axis mundi, the axis around which the earth revolves.[35] To J. C. Harle, the Sarnath lions did show a conventionalized style associated with Achaemenid or Sargonid empires, but the floral motifs on the Mauryan abaci show the influence of western Asian traditions older than any in the Hellenistic world.[36] He also echoed Irwin's idea that as there are no examples elsewhere of "single, free-standing" pillars, they must be the product of a South Asian tradition, perhaps in non-durable materials such as wood for the pillar and copper for the crown.[36]

Irwin's first hypothesis has been challenged by Frederick Asher who says, "That the pillars attributed to Aśoka are really from his time is a virtual certainty despite arguments that they date earlier (Irwin 973). The author of the pillars’ inscriptions, Piyadasi, is known to be Aśoka from the Maski inscription in present-day Karnataka. Moreover, the symbolism of the pillars and their capitals, appropriate for these royal edicts, suggests that the pillars were made to carry the inscriptions."[37]

Osmund Bopearachchi has mentioned Irwin and V. S. Agrawala among those who have held that the early stone carving was the work of Indians alone. He has suggested that the inspiration for them and the technique of polishing them came from Persia, noting further the absence of any archaeological evidence for Agrawala's claim that the technique went back to the Vedic Age and was inherited by the Mauryans.[38]

Upinder Singh has observed that the cultural standing of the Asiatic lion (Panthera leo Persica, also Persian lion) as a symbol of projecting political power had significantly increased in India after the rise of the Mahajanapadas in the second half of the first millennium BCE. By Ashoka's time, the Asiatic lion had a long history of being employed as a symbol of the Achaemenian royalty. As the monarch of a vast realm, but also a Buddhist, he sought new symbols to project his power. Thus whereas the Ashokan lions seemed remarkably similar to the conventionalized Persian, the idea of using a pair of addorsed lions to project both spiritual and temporal power was new.[39]

Christopher Ernest Tadgell considers it unlikely that Ashoka's capital was carved "without the experience imported by Persian immigrants," but suggests that regardless of Ashoka's purpose of using Buddhism as a unifying force, his success depended on the prevailing worship of the pole (stambha) as the axis mundi in the native pre-Buddhist shrines.[40]

Harry Falk, while categorically stating a Mauryan debt to "the stonework inherited from Achaemenid Iran," of the appearance during the Mauryan period of artwork that contrasted remarkably with local styles, and stating the likelihood of traditions of producing "naturalistic forms" being preserved in Iranian stonemasons for the critical decades between the fall of Persepolis and the appearance of Mauryan columns, emphasises the entrepreneurial spirit of Ashoka who, "did not shrink from doing what only the most illustrious rulers outside India had done before him: he had pillars produced of unbelievable dimensions, cut in one piece and transported to predefined places—pillars crowned with lions and bulls of an unprecedented naturalistic beauty."[41]

Frederick Asher, summarizing, credits the world system that had briefly emerged during Ashoka's rule. In his view, South Asia had a hitherto unprecedented level of engagement with the Mediterranean world during the Mauryan period. It is no coincidence that it is during that period stone sculpture appeared in South Asia, at least in the form associated with Ashokan columns. But this should not be seen in colonialist terms as an export from an Achaemenian or Hellenistic centre to the South Asian periphery but as the result of Ashoka's entrepreneurial engagement with the larger world.[42] The culture in India was more receptive to innovation and there was a sense of a common culture, caused partly by the expansion of Buddhism to the borders with Iran, and the appearance of markers proclaiming a message. When the Ashokan empire fell, the breakdown was drastic. New styles of art emerged, but their artistic inspirations and appeal were more local.[42]

  • Lion capital of Ashoka at Sanchi with similar four addorsed lions, but with a flatter abacus showing alternating geese and flame palmettes, ca 250 BCE[43]
    Lion capital of Ashoka at Sanchi with similar four addorsed lions, but with a flatter abacus showing alternating geese and flame palmettes, ca 250 BCE[43]
  • Sanchi gateway relief, Satavahana period, 1st century BCE
    Sanchi gateway relief, Satavahana period, 1st century BCE
  • Sanchi gateway lion capital, 1st century BCE
    Sanchi gateway lion capital, 1st century BCE
  • Mathura lion capital with an abacus (1st century CE)
    Mathura lion capital with an abacus (1st century CE)
  • Sanchi gateway relief showing a possible depiction of the Sarnath pillar, Satavahana period, 1st century CE.[44][45]
    Sanchi gateway relief showing a possible depiction of the Sarnath pillar, Satavahana period, 1st century CE.[44][45]
  • Lion Capital with mounting abacus atop, Old Termez, Uzbekistan, 1st century CE.[46]
    Lion Capital with mounting abacus atop, Old Termez, Uzbekistan, 1st century CE.[46]

Dominion of India stamps 15 August 1947

Notes

  1. ^ "The famous four lion capital at Sarnath was surmounted by a wheel and stood above a carved abacus depicting the four noble, or cardinal, beasts – the lion, the elephant, the horse and the bull."[23]
  2. ^ "The pillar was originally crowned by a large chakra, or wheel of truth, some of whose spokes are in the Sarnath Museum.[26]
  3. ^ "Along with the bull, the elephant and lion are ubiquitous sacred symbols ... in the Buddha's birth narrative his mother Queen Maya, dreamed of a white elephant that entered her womb."[28]
  4. ^ "Nehru had moved for the chakra to replace M. K. Gandhi’s charkha (spinning wheel), which had been featured on previous flags."[50]
  5. ^ "The organization that led India to independence, the Indian National Congress, was established in 1885."[52]
  6. ^ "the Asokan period in Indian history was essentially an international period. ... It was not a narrowly national period . . . when India’s ambassadors went abroad to far countries and went abroad not in the way of an empire and imperialism but as ambassadors of peace and culture and goodwill." Jawaharlal Nehru quoted in [49]
  7. ^ In the days leading to India's independence, the Sarnath capital played an important role in the creation of both the state emblem and the national flag of the Dominion of India.[48][49] They were modelled on the lions and the dharmachakra of the capital, and their adoption constituted an attempt to give India a symbolism of ethical sovereignty.[48][50] On July 22, 1947, Jawaharlal Nehru, the interim prime minister of India, and later the prime minister of the Republic of India proposed formally in the Constituent Assembly of India, which was tasked with creating the Constitution of India:[48]

    Resolved that the National Flag of India shall be a horizontal tricolour of deep saffron (kesari), white and dark green in equal proportion. In the centre of the white band, there shall be a Wheel in navy blue to represent the Charkha. The design of the Wheel shall be that of the Wheel (Chakra) which appears on the abacus of the Sarnath Lion Capital of Asoka. The diameter of the Wheel shall approximate to the width of the white band. The ratio of the width to the length of the flag shall ordinarily be 2:3.[48]

    Although several members in the assembly had proposed other meanings for India's national symbols, Nehru's meaning came to prevail.[48] On December 11, 1947, the Constituent Assembly adopted the resolution.[48] Nehru was well-acquainted with the history of Ashoka, having written about it in his books Letters from a father to his daughter and The Discovery of India.[48] The major contemporary philosopher of the religions of India, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, also advised Nehru in the choice.[48] The state emblem of the Dominion of India was accepted by the cabinet on December 29, 1947 with the resolution of a national motto set aside for a future date.[51] Nehru also explicitly displaced the spinning wheel, the charkha, at the centre of the flag of the Indian National Congress,[d] the main instrument of Indian nationalism.[e] He also attempted to give the dharmachakra the meaning of peace and internationalism which in his view had prevailed in Ashoka's empire at the time of the erection of the pillars.[f]

References

  1. ^ Harle 1994, p. 22.
  2. ^ a b c Ray 2014, pp. 78–79.
  3. ^ Guha 2010, p. 39.
  4. ^ Asher 2020, pp. 2–3.
  5. ^ a b c d Asher 2020, p. 35.
  6. ^ Asher 2020, p. 30.
  7. ^ Oertel 1908.
  8. ^ a b Asher 2020, p. 3.
  9. ^ Asher 2011, p. 433.
  10. ^ Asher 2011, p. 425.
  11. ^ a b Vajpeyi 2012, p. 186.
  12. ^ Dolan 2021, pp. 109–110.
  13. ^ a b c Oertel 1908, p. 69.
  14. ^ Ray 2014, p. 130.
  15. ^ Greary, David; Mukherjee, Sraman (2017). "Buddhism in Contemporary India". In Jerryson, Michael K. (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Buddhism. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 36–60, 46. ISBN 9780199362387. LCCN 2016021264.
  16. ^ Asif 2020, p. 41.
  17. ^ Abdullaev 2014, p. 172.
  18. ^ a b c d Allchin 1995, p. 254.
  19. ^ Singh 2017, p. 390.
  20. ^ Sahni 1914, p. 28.
  21. ^ Asher 2020, pp. 74–75.
  22. ^ Allchin 1995, pp. 87, 254.
  23. ^ Coningham & Young 2015, p. 444.
  24. ^ Irwin 1990, pp. 76–78.
  25. ^ Sahni 1914, p. 29.
  26. ^ Wriggins 2021
  27. ^ a b c d e f g Asher 2020, p. 75.
  28. ^ Pal 2016, p. 23.
  29. ^ a b c d Asher 2011, p. 432.
  30. ^ Pabón-Charneco 2021, pp. 255–256.
  31. ^ a b Dolan 2021, p. 111.
  32. ^ Dolan 2021, p. 110.
  33. ^ Fogelin 2015, pp. 87–88.
  34. ^ Asher 2006, p. 55.
  35. ^ a b Mitter 2001, pp. 14–15.
  36. ^ a b Harle 1994, p. 24.
  37. ^ Asher 2006, p. 58.
  38. ^ Bopearachchi 2021, p. 25.
  39. ^ Singh 2017, p. 391.
  40. ^ Tadgell 2008, p. 22.
  41. ^ Falk 2006, p. 154–155.
  42. ^ a b Asher 2006, p. 64.
  43. ^ Asher 2020, p. 73.
  44. ^ Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh. Anmol Publications. 1996. p. 783. ISBN 978-81-7041-859-7. It may be mentioned that the motif of lions carrying a wheel occurs at Sanchis which might be a representation of the Sarnath's Asokan pillar capital .
  45. ^ Ray, Himanshu Prabha (31 August 2017). Archaeology and Buddhism in South Asia. Taylor & Francis. p. 39. ISBN 978-1-351-39432-1. Worship of the Ashokan pillar, as shown at Stupa 3, Sanchi
  46. ^ Abdullaev 2014, pp. 170–171 A capital with protomes of four lions from Old Termez This capital takes the form of four lion protomes, facing in different directions (the cardinal points) (Fig. 15, 15:a). In its artistic style, and especially in the treatment of the long wavy ringlets of the lions’ manes, it is comparable to some examples of Hellenistic sculpture. All the evidence indicates that it belonged to a stambha pillar and was not an ordinary capital. It would seem to be appropriate to a Greco-Buddhist figurative complex. ... As far as its function is concerned, we have one small indication in the form of a detail modeled on the backs of the lions. This is a fairly tall, square abacus, with two parallel relief lines running round the bottom. In the top of the abacus there is a square slot measuring 13-15×13-15 cm, into which another detail evidently was to be fitted. This detail may have been a beam, but is more likely to have been a symbol in the form of the wheel of the doctrine (Dharmachakra).53 This latter theory is supported by the fact that the backs of the lions’ necks are higher than the level of the abacuses, which would have complicated the fitting of beams. By contrast, a separate symbol – in this case a wheel – could have been quite easily fixed in the slot with the help of some projecting element; another way of it fastening it would have been with a metal bolt.
  47. ^ Sanchi Archaeological Museum website notice [1]
  48. ^ a b c d e f g h Vajpeyi 2012, pp. 188–189.
  49. ^ a b Coningham & Young 2015, p. 465.
  50. ^ a b Asif 2020, p. 31.
  51. ^ Ministry of Home Affairs (29 December 1947), Press Communique (PDF), Press Information Bureau, Government of India
  52. ^ Kopstein, Jeffrey; Lichbach, Mark; Hanson, Stephen E. (2014), Comparative Politics: Interests, Identities, and Institutions in a Changing Global Order, Cambridge University Press, p. 344, ISBN 978-1-139-99138-4

Cited works

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  • Asher, Frederick M. (2020). Sarnath: A critical history of the place where Buddhism began. Getty Research Institute. pp. 2–3, 432–433. ISBN 9781606066164. LCCN 2019019885.
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