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For other uses, see Kalam (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Qalam.
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Ilm al-Kalam (Template:Lang-ar),[1] often shortened to kalam, is the scholastic, speculative, or philosophical study of Islamic theology (aqida).[2]

It is a controversial science since some scholars state kalām was formed out of the need to establish and defend the tenets of Islam against the philosophical doubters.[3][4] Meanwhile, hostile criticisms and rejections towards kalam as theological study are quite prevalent among major Sunni Madhhab scholars,[5][6] such as Hanafi,[7][8] Hanbali[5] Maliki,[9][10] Shafi'i,[9][11][12][13] and Zahiri;[14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21] As they viewed it not following Islamic teaching.

On the other hand, it gained acceptance in Twelver Shi'ism. According to Morteza Motahhari, It is a science that fundamental for Islamic faith doctrine or usul al-din, proving their validity, or refuting doubts regarding them.[22]

Etymology

Many definitions exist for Kalam. One definition is that kalām is the science which is concerned with firmly establishing religious beliefs by adducing proofs and with banishing doubts".[23] Al-Farabi in his Iḥṣāʾ al-ʿulūm defined kalam as "a science which enables a man to procure the victory of the dogmas and actions laid down by the Legislator of the religion, and to refute all opinions contradicting them".[23] A common synonym is ʿilm al-tawḥīd "science of the Unity of God",[23] also known as ʿilm al-manṭiq (Template:Lang-ar)[24][25] or ʿilm al-lāhūt (Template:Lang-ar).[24][25][26] According to Sabine Schmidtke, of kalām has changed depending on the time and context and who it was used by.[3]

The term kalām means "speech", "word", or "utterance". There are many possible interpretations as to why this discipline was originally called so; one is that one of the widest controversies in this discipline, in the second and third centuries of Hijra, has been about whether the "Word of God" (kalām Allāh), as revealed in the Quran, is an eternal attribute of God and therefore not created, or whether it is created words.[3][27]

A scholar of kalam is referred to as a mutakallim (plural mutakallimun), a role distinguished from those of Islamic philosophers and jurists.[28]

History

Formative years

In early Islam, the Ahl al-Kalām or "Kalamites" essentially referred to the Muʿtazila, in addition to other smaller schools. Historian Daniel W. Brown describes Ahl al-Kalām as one of three main groups engaged in polemical disputes over sources of authority in Islamic law during the second century of Islam: the Ahl al-Ra'y and Ahl al-Hadith being the other two. (Brown also describes the Muʿtazila as "the later ahl al-Kalām", suggesting the ahl al-Kalām were forerunners of the Muʿtazilites.[29]) The Ahl al-Kalām' agreed with the Ahl al-Hadith that the example of Muhammad was authoritative. Still, they did not believe it to be divine revelation, a status that only the Quran had according to their view[30] It also rejected the authority of the hadith because its corpus was "filled with contradictory, blasphemous, and absurd" reports, and that in jurisprudence, even the smallest doubt about a source was too much.[31] Thus, they believed the true legacy of Muhammad was to be found elsewhere, i.e. in the sunnah, which is separate from the hadith.[31]

Earliest oppositions of the doctrine of kalam, such as a tabi'un and Atharism scholar Amir al-Sha'bi, who denounced the use of Qiyas (Jurisprudensic analogy deduction), which used by his contemporary scholar Ibrahim al-Nakha'i who followed Ahl ar-Ra'y school and used analogies in theology.[32] He also tried to convince other scholars that Qiyās was not a valid argument.[33] Al-Sha'bi was recorded to have said: "Beware of Qiyās. For when you use it, you make what is halal to be haram and what is haram to be halal.".[34]

In the times of the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 CE), the discipline of Kalām arose in an "attempt to grapple" with several "complex problems" early in the history of Islam, according to historian Majid Fakhry.[35] One was how to rebut arguments "leveled at Islam by pagans, Christians and Jews".[35] Another was how to deal with (what some saw as the conflict between) the predestination of sinners to hell on the one hand and "divine justice" on the other (some asserting that to be punished for what is beyond someone's control is unjust). Also Kalam sought to make "a systematic attempt to bring the conflict in data of revelation (in the Quran and the Traditions) into some internal harmony".[35] Other factors that might have led the establishment of kalam was an effort by some Islamic scholars to oppose the thoughs of Zandaqa in the Islamic world.[36]

Conflict with Madhhab scholars

According to his own admission, Abu Hanifa, the founder of Hanafi school; was once observed kalam and became prominent scholar of the subject. However, he was later lost his confidence about kalam after he cannot solve the issue about Talaq (Divorce in Islam). Thus Abu Hanifah decided to completely abandon kalam and instead pursue the jurisprudence study under a tabi'un scholar named Hammad ibn Abu Sulaiman.[37] Within the span of the rest of his life, Abu Hanifa has interractions with the following generation of kalam scholars, which causing him to grew more worse opinion about kalam, as Abu Hanifa found out they often rejecting the scripts of Qur'an and Hadith whenever it contradict with logic. From then on, the Hanafi scholars started their hostilites against the kalam scholars. Abu Yusuf, one of the best pupil of Abu Hanifa, even engaged in fierce debate against Bishr ibn Ghiyath al-Marisi, prominent mutakallim and disciple of Jahm bin Safwan.[8]

Ahl al-Hadith prevailed over the Ahl al-Kalām (and Muslims, or at least mainstream Muslims, now accept the authority of the hadith), so that most of what is known about their arguments comes from the writings of their opponents, such as Imam al-Shafi'i.[31] Abu Ishaq al-Shatibi has recorded the scholars of kalam have low opinion towards Abu Hanifah and Al-Shafi'i, as they usually speaks derogatory comments regarding those founders of two Islamic jurisprudence madhhabs.[26] Furthermore, al-Suyuti has recorded the detail of al-Shafi'i has defeated Bishr ibn Ghiyath al-Marisi, prominent kalam scholar; in a debate by pointing out that kalam was never in accordance of Qur'an and Hadith.[6] Another al-Shafi'i debate against kalam scholars also recorded by his contemporary Ibn al-Jarud, after al-Shafi'i debate against a kalam scholar Hafs al-Fard, because the latter has said that "Qur'an is a creation". Ibn al-Jarud recalled that al-Shafi'i told him: “...It is better for one to met his God while carrying sins as huge as Tihamah mountains; than meeting God with the belief of this man (Hafs Al-Fard) and his colleagues...”. It was also recorded that al-Shafi'i indicting takfir (excommunication from Islam) to Hafs after that.[38]

One of the most notable episode of Mu'tazila conflict with the Atharist orthodoxy in early medieval period was during the reign of Abbasid caliph Al-Ma'mun, where the long feud of Mu'tazila Quran creationism doctrine opposed by the scripturalists (Atharism) doctrine that Quran as shifat (attribution) of God which championed by Ahmad ibn Hanbal, the founder of Hanbali school.[39][40][41][42] Ibn Battah has recorded in his work, Al-Ibāna , that Ahmad ibn Hanbal has instructed his students of total academic boycott against the scholars of kalam.[43] Furthermore, Ahmad ibn Hanbal also recorded engaged in long debates against the leading Mu'tazilite and qadi of caliphate, Ahmad ibn Abi Du'ad regarding the said matter about the nature of Quran.[44] The Hanbali scholars and followers of Ahmad ibn Hanbal rarely mention about kalam in their teaching, as they consider it as bid'ah (heresy).[45]

After the longtime persecution of Mihna towards the Ahl a-Hadith and Atharist scholars since the time of his great-grandfather, caliph al-Mutawakkil changed the caliphate policy by restoring them to favor, while abandoning Mu'tazilites led by Ahmad ibn Abi Du'ad.[46] The caliph also attempted to reconcile with Ahmad ibn Hanbal, and finally, in March 852, he ordered that all prisoners held on account of the innquisition against the atharists be released.[47]

Ibn Kathir has recorded in his book Al-Bidaya wa l-Nihaya that by the time of the rule of al-Mu'tadid, the caliph issued order in 892 AD to ban any books with the topic of philosophy, kalam, or similar discourses.[48] The following era hostile view towards kalam was apparent; most notably among the later era Atharists who quite often subsumed under the Hanbali madhhab (school of thought).[5] Meanwhile, later era schools of Kalam like the Kullabis, Asharites and Matuiridis worked to develop systems that would defend the core orthodox creedal points of Islam completely on rational grounds, and were open to engaging in philosophy alongside the Quran and hadith.[27]

Ash'arite paradox

Abu Hasan al-Ash'ari, a 9-10th century AD Shafi'ite scholar; perhaps considered as paradoxical figure among the Shafi'ite school, as he along with his followers struggle to oppose the kalam doctrine of Mu'tazilite scholars. However, since he engaged the debates against Mu'tazilite using the philosophical instruments such Tamthil (Theological analogic deduction), Ta'til (deprivation of divine attributes) and Takwil (Esoteric interpretation) methods as exegesis of Qur'an and Hadith; al-Ash'ari was later criticized by his colleagues among the Shafi'ite scholars, as Abu al-Abbas al-Karji, a leading Shafi'ite jurist of that time; has recorded the consensus of Shafi'ite schools (consisted other notable Shafi'ite jurists such as Abu Ishaq al-Shirazi and Abu Bakar ar-Raziqani among others) has opposed the those methods of Abu Hasan, as they thought Abu Hasan has abandoned the scripturalist method of Qur'an and Hadith exegesis. Meanwhile, another Shafi'ite scholar Abu al-Abbas as-Suraij also release his separate verdict denouncing the Ash'arite method of Takwil and Tamthil.[9]

During the rule of Umayyad state of Córdoba in medieval Iberian Peninsula; Ibn Hazm has recorded that the study of kalam has developed in his area, although Ibn Hazm stated he and his colleagues rejected their practices and chosen the Ahl al-Hadith's creed of textualism.[14] Ibn Hazm also testified the spread of Ash'arite kalam scholarships also appeared in Kairouan, and Sicily.[49]

Established doctrine

Modern Ash'arite philosopher Ali Sami al-Nashar has noted that although the earliest kalam scholas has shown their tendency to arguing the theological field using logic, they largely still opposed the Aristotelianism influence; as demonstrated by Abu 'Ali al-Jubba'i, Abu Hashim, and Qadi Abdul-Jabbar.[50]

However, The penetration of greek philosophy doctrines later occured in 10-11th AD. Max Meyerhof states that Al-Farabi is credited with influencing the science of theology by Aristotelianism. Meyerhof also reported in his research that this is the new development in Islamic philosophy.[50] Furthermore, Ibn Khaldun recorded in his work, Muqaddimah; the later era of foreign element philosophy penetration into Islamic theology was reintroduced by al-Ghazali, follower of al-Ash'ari.[51] This was due to al-Ghazali's own words that he felt the need to bring more structured and congruent syllogisms of theological discourse. This was also even noticed by their fierce enemy, the conservative Atharist Ibn Taymiyya, who describe it by his own words: "...None of the Muslim observers paid attention to them (greek philosophy). However, (it was known that) the Mu'tazilite, Ash'arite, the Qarmatians, the Shiite , and all other groups of thinker, (all of them also) criticized it and though them as corrupt... and (it was) Abu Hamid al-Ghazali who were the first to mix the logic with the principle of Islam...".[50]

In the later period, the hostility of the Shafi'ite scholars towards kalam did not cease, as Ibn al-Salah, prominent Shafi'ite jurist in 13th AD, has issued fatwa to forbade the study of kalam. This also adhered and followed by his student Al-Nawawi.[52]

Entering the early modern era, Mulla Sadra, 17th AD Iranian philosopher further stated his gratefulness to the greek philosophy for enriching his kalam philosophy.[53]

In the modern era, one of the polemical issue involving kalam was addressed by two prominent Salafi scholars, al-Albani, and Muhammad al-Amin al-Shinqiti; was the opinion of previous era Grand Mufti of Mecca Ahmad Zayni Dahlan, who applied kalam theology in rejection of several established Hadiths. In particular, al-Albani and al-Shinqiti expressed the concern of Ahmad Zayni's rejection to the Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim regarding the fate of Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib in the afterlife, due to those hadiths contradicted Ahmad Zayni's personal reasoning as he cannot accept the ruling from both Hadiths that Abu Talib will be tortured in hell.[54]

Scholars assessments

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There are different views regarding kalam as theological discipline.

According to British religion researcher Clinton Bennett, the study of kalam is considered by Muslim scholars to fall beyond the category of necessity and is usually the preserve of qualified scholars, eliciting limited interest from the masses or common people.[55] This picture has been questioned by scholarship that attempts to show that kalām was, in fact, a demonstrative rather than a dialectical[vague] science and was always intellectually creative.[56]

However, Islam theology researcher Jeffry R. Halverson has stated that many Islamic orthodox scholars has regarded the science of kalam as kind of heretical innovation and Heterodoxy opinion.[5]

Opposing views

Madhhab founders

Abu Hanifah, founder of Hanafi school, was recorded to fiercely denounce kalam. He was recorded to scold a kalam scholar Amr ibn Ubayd: "May Allah curse Amr bin Ubaid, since he has paved the way for people who study the science of Kalam, even though this science is useless to them.".[37] Abu Hanifa also said: "(Kalam) are the word of the philosophers. You must follow the hadith of the Prophet sallallaahu ‘alaihi wasallam and the method of the salaf scholars. Stay away from any muhdath(innovation of theology), because it is a Bid'ah.".[57][7]

Malik ibn Anas, founder of Maliki school; has recorded to express his disdain towards kalam, when a guest asking him about the essence of Qur'an, as he responded: "Perhaps you are one of the disciples of 'Amr bin 'Ubaid. May God curse 'Amr (bin 'Ubaid), he has made a bid'ah of the kalam (science), if kalam is a science, surely the companions (of the Prophet) and the Tabi'un have spoken (with kalam) regarding jurisprudence and shari'a rulings. However, (it is clear) that (the science of kalam) is falsehood and points to falsehood.".[10][58][59]

Al-Shafi‘i, founder of Shafi'i school, has reportedly opposing kalam. Abu al-Yazid al-'Ajmi, professor of Cairo University and Kuwait University; has recorded several discourses and poetries of al-Shafi'i which recorded by his pupil, Al-Muzani, and following era Shafi'ite scholar, Al-Dhahabi; that he abhors the kalam scholarships, as at one time he een stated that delving into kalam could resulted in atheism.[6] Rabi' ibn Sulayman another al-Shafi'i pupil; also reported the rejection of al-Shafi'i towards kalam,[60] and its scholars, the Mu'tazilite.[61] Al-Shafi'i goes as far as declaring that scholars of kalam "should be beaten with palm fronds, placed on camels, then paraded around the masses as punishment for abandoning Sunnah in favor of kalam".[62][12] Al-Nawawi, a 13th AD Shafi'i school jurist, has recorded a compilation of al-Shafi'i quotes in his work, Al-Majmu, that he strongly forbid the teaching and learning of kalam.[11][12][63]

Ahmad ibn Hanbal, founder of Hanbali school; once wrote a letter to the tenth caliph of Abbasid, Al-Mutawakkil,: "...I do not intend to speak in anything about this, except what is in the Book of Allah 'Azza wa Jalla, or what is in the hadith of the Prophet, may God bless him and grant him peace, or from his companions, or from the tabi'un. Apart from that, 'kalam' is not honorable...".[64] Furthermore, Ahmad also accusing the scholars of kalam as hypocrite, in similar manner with Abu Yusuf of Hanafi school assessment about the supporters of kalam.[8][65]

Medieval to late-medieval

Abu Yusuf Ya'qub ibn Ibrahim; contemporary of Abu Hanifah and his direct student, has stated that kalam was a science of stupidity, and even further saying that those who learn about kalam are most likely a zindiq (hypocrite).[65][8]

Al-Lalaka'i has recorded that Ali ibn al-Madini, colleague of Ahmad ibn Hanbal; has completely reject kalam as part of Sunni Islam.[9]

In 9th-10th AD, majority of Shafi'ite scholars such as Abu al-Abbas al-Karji, Abu Ishaq al-Shirazi, Abu Bakar ar-Raziqani, and Abu al-Abbas as-Suraij, among others has stated their opposition against the practice of logical reasonings of kalam, with the exception of Abu Hasan al-Ash'ari, whose stance about kalam are quite ambivalent.[9]

Ibn Hazm, a 10th AD scholar of Zahiri school from Al-Andalus; has stated his rejection towards kalam and adopting the Ahl al-Hadith's way of theology in accepting the daleel of Qur'an and Hadiths.[14][49] Ibn Hazm rejecting the kalam and qiyas methodology which used by the Ash'arites.[66]

Ibn 'Abd al-Barr, 11th AD Maliki scholar; stated that his contemporaries consensus agreed that kalam was not a part of Islam scholastic discipline and considered it as deviation.[67][68] Ibn 'Abd al-Barr also claimed that opposing kalam was universal stance among the Maliki scholars of his era.[9]

Abdullah Ansari, 11th AD Hanbalite scholar and rejector of kalam; depicted on a stamp in Tajikistan (2010).

Khwaja Abdullah Ansari, 11th AD Hanbali scholar and Sufi cleric; wrote a treatise entitled Dhamm al-Kalam where he criticized the use of kalam.[69]

Ibn al-Jawzi, 12th AD Maliki scholar; has explained that that Ulama and Fiqh of his contemporary have considered kalam as "..useless discipline..".[8] He described the kalam scholars progression was at first "because they were exposed to foreign literatures about philosophy...", then in the end they established kalam, which in practice damaged their creed of Islam.[70]

Ibn Mada', 12th AD Zahiri scholar and grammarian from Córdoba; has enforced the opposition against the science of kalam against the teaching of Mu'tazilite scholar Ibn Jinni in specific, while also expressed his general criticism against philosophers in general, including his criticism to Sibawayh.[21]

Ibn al-Sam'ani, 12th AD Shafi'ite scholar has explained that the reason why Ahl al-Hadith scholars agreed why kalam discouraged is due to human's reason and logic are fluctuating from time-to-time, subjective, and limited capabilities; thus its cannot be relied to understand the metaphysical aspects of Qur'an and Sunnah.[71] Thus as-Sam'ani postulated his own conclusion that the impossibility of using kalam for theology was due to the limitation of human's logical capability and the non uniformity of humanity's collective reasons to agree in even single metaphysical matters. In the end, as-Sam'ani also ruling out that the philosophy of theology, such as kalam, was forbidden, and every metaphysical matters from Qur'an and Hadith should be approached solely by Aqidah or creed, not by subjective individual reasonings.[8]

Ibn al-Salah, 13th AD Shafi'ite scholar; have expressed his negative view by saying kalam is "the source of foolishness, strayness and confusion..."; while also added it is damaging their creed (to Islam) and encourage the heresy.[70][a]

Meanwhile, Al-Nawawi, a disciple of Ibn al-Salah; has also forbade any forms of philosophical study of kalam or mantiq science. This reportedly also based on his adherence to his teacher, Ibn al-Salah's fatwa.[52]

Ibn Qudama, 13th AD Hanbali scholar; harshly criticized kalam as one of the worst of all heresies. He characterized their scholars, the mutakallimūn, as innovators and heretics who had betrayed and deviated from the simple and pious faith of the early Muslims.[73]

Al-Dhahabi, 14th AD Hanbali scholar and historian; has made his derogatory statement towards kalam scholar by comparing them with Abu Jahl, the reviled figure in Islam during the time of Muhammad.[74] Furthermore, in his work Mizan al-Itidal, al-Dhahabi stated that kalam study will always differ from the teaching of Sunnah.[38]

Ibn Taymiyya, 14th AD Hanbali and Atharist scholar; was notable for his bold stance against the doctrines of philosophers in his works such as ar-Radd ‘ala al-mantiqiyyın (Refutation of the Rationalists), and bayan muwafaqat al-'aql al-sarih li al-Naql as-Sahiha. Ibn Taymiyya even further criticize Ash'arite rationalists such as al-Ghazali, Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, and al-Shahrastani for their method in discourses by abandoning the scripturalism way.[75] In general, Ibn Taymiyya has detailed his criticism in Ar-Radd ‘ala al-Mantiqiyyin. Regarding al-Ghazali in particular, Through the seventh chapter of his book, Mi'yar Al-'Ilm, Ibn Taymiyyah wrote that although he recognized that al-Ghazali's intention are not inherently bad in his attempt to describe the limit of human's mind in metaphysical and esoterical concepts, as it was aimed to oppose the core idea of kalam scholars that everything must be grasped by logic; although he still held that such discourse are moot as it only distract al-Ghazali from the important aspect of literal meanings, while it kept al-Ghazali busy with irrelevant semantic argumentations.[76]

Ibn Rajab, 14th AD Hanbali scholar; has observed that those who observing kalam tends to become a full blown philosopher.[70]

Al-Suyuti, 15th century Shafi'ite scholar; has expressed his contempt against kalam.[77][78] However, his stance were quite ambiguous as he still used some of kalam methodologies in his Tafsirs.[79] This stance caused him to garner criticism from Muhammad ibn Ismail Al-Amir as-San'ani, a 18th AD Imam of Yemen (1687 - 1768); who argues the methodology of al-Suyuti exegesis in theology was incorrect in accordance of the Atharism traditions which based on the opinions of the Companions of the Prophet.[80] Furthermore, Tafsir al-Jalalayn work of al-Suyuti also criticized by 21th century Salafi scholar Safiur Rahman Mubarakpuri, as al-Suyuti implemented ta'til method on interpreting Al-Fajr Quran 89:22.[81]

Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, a 15th AD Shafi'i scholar; has stated in his work, Bulugh al-Maram, that the practice of kalam or qiyas (analogy) was already discouraged even from the era of Companions of the Prophet. Ibn Hajar claimed this by quoting a hadith from Sunan Abi Dawud, which transmitted a hadith regarding the Wudu with the authority from Ali , fourth Rashidun caliph. In said hadith, Ali has narrated "If the religion is based on logical reason, the lower part of the khuf (sandal) should be rubbed (in Wudu ablution) instead the upper part. (however) I verily once saw the Messenger of Allah, may God bless him and grant him peace, wipe the top of both his khufs.". Ibn Hajr concluded this hadith as ruling out the use of kalam.[82][83] In his other book, Fath al-Bari, Ibn Hajar also stated that kalam is ignoble method, as it was not exemplified by Salaf generation (Sahaba/companions of the prophet, Tabi'un, and Tabi' al-Tabi'in).[70] One of topic which highlighted by Ibn Hajar regarding kalam scholars was their rejection towards the attributes of God, such as Fath al-Bari's hadith regarding the descent of God (during one-third night).[84]

Early-modern to modern era

Siddiq Hasan Khan, leader of 19th century Ahl al-Hadith movement in North India, and prominent critic against kalam
Rashid Rida (holding a stick, second from the left of the front row); 19th century AD prominent rejector of Kalam

Al-Shawkani, a 18th AD Atharism,[85][15] Zahiri scholar,[86] early Salafi movement figure,[87][88][89][90] and Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab contemporary;[91][92] has expressed his view for literal theological interpretation and opposition to kalam (speculative theology)[16][17][18][19][20]

Siddiq Hasan Khan, 19th AD North Indian Salafi scholar,[93] co-founder of Ahl-i Hadith movement,[94][95] and also Nawab (viceroy) of Bhopal State;[96] has rejected kalam as he regards it as "full of speculations". It was stated by himself that his opposition towards kalam were influenced by the thoughts of Al-Shawkani, Al-San'ani and Ibn Taymiyya.[97][93]

Rashid Rida, 19th century AD reformer of Islamics school;[98] in his later years of life has perceived the Athari theology as more rational than Kalam and actively condemning Kalam, as he view the Athari methodology had stronger religious foundations of Islam. Furthermore, he also saw the Ash'arite theology as ineffective against philosophical doubts.[99]

Al-Albani, prominent figure of Salafism and modern era Hadith scholar; considered kalam doctrine as misguided in the Islamic creed due to their Ta'til methodology, which consequently divesting the Names of God in Islam. Al-Albani stated the notable example was the rejection of kalam scholars of the al-ʿAliyy (Most highest) attribute of God.[100]

Manzoor Elahi, 21th century AD Bangladeshi Salafi scholar and academic; has stated in his book "The Importance of Right Aqeedah in Reforming Society" edited by Abubakar Muhammad Zakaria says about Ilmul Kalam,[101]

The Mutaqallimin called the Aqeedah studies "Ilmul Kalam" and the philosophers called "Al-Falsafa al-Islamiyyah" or Islamic philosophy, "Al-Ilahiyat" and "Metaphysics" (supernaturalism). About the latter names, Dr. Nasser al-Aql and many others say that it is not pure to call the Islamic Aqeedah by these names. Explaining the reason, Muhammad Ibrahim Al Hamad said, “Because the source of Ilmul Kalam is human intellect, which is based on Hindu and Greek philosophy. On the other hand, the main source of Tawheed is revelation. Moreover, Ilmul Kalam includes restlessness, imbalance, ignorance and doubt. That is why the Salaf Saleheen condemned Ilmul Kalam. And Tawheed is based on knowledge, conviction and faith,….. Another reason can be said that the foundation of philosophy is based on assumptions, false beliefs, imaginary thoughts and superstitious ideas”. Imam Harawi wrote a 5-volume book called ذم الكلام وأهله and Imam Ghazali wrote a book called تهافت الفلاسفة. Besides, Imam Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn al-Qayyim, among other Muslim scholars have discussed in detail that 'Ilmul Kalam' and 'Falsafa' do not represent the correct Islamic belief.

Similar sentiment were also stated by ʻUthmān ibn Jumʻah Ḍumayrīyah, an Islamic theology professor of University of Sharjah and Umm al-Qura University; that kalam science inherently contradicts the Islamic creed of al-Burooj Quran 85:16 chapter regarding the attribute of God's name as omnipotent (al-Jabbār); which contain the attribute of capability to perform any wills (yurīd). ʻUthmān views that kalam's doctrine omitted such attribute by human's logic only.[8]

Supporting views

Morteza Motahhari, a modern time Ash'ari Twelver Shia scholar of kalam.
Ruhollah Khomeini, most influential modern Shia revolutionary and the proponent of kalam in statecrafting.

Ahmad ibn Abi Du'ad, 9th AD leading judge of Abbasid caliphate, successor of Wasil ibn Ata's teaching,[102] and a rival of Ahmad ibn Hanbal;[44][103] was a supporter of kalam study.[104]

Abu Mansur al-Maturidi, 10th AD theologian and founder of Maturidism; has built the foundation of his creed entirely on the basis of kalam, as he reasoned that he wanted to avoid the Anthropomorphism to God. In Maturidi system of doctrine, he divested the attributes of God, where one of their notable scholar, Muhammad ibn Zahid al Kauthari al-Maturidi, even criticizing al-Ibana book of Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari and al-‘Uluw, Asma wa Sifat book of al-Bayhaqi; since they still implement the attributes of God in their teaching.[105]

Certain Shafi'ite scholars who take the stance to defend the use of kalam was Al-Bayhaqi,[106] and Fakhr al-Din al-Razi.[107][13] There is confusion of original al-Shafi'i's stance towards kalam as Modern western orientalist Duncan Black MacDonald reported al-Shafi'i held the view that well-taught scholars should observe kalam to defend and purify Islam, while warn the usage against common peoples.[45] This contradictionary report about al-Shafi'i stance were traced to be the opinions of al-Bayhaqi,[107] and Fakhr al-Din al-Razi. Muhammad ibn Abd al-wahhab al-'Aqil, Islamic theology professor of Islamic University of Madinah and member of Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Dawah, and Guidance; has recorded that both al-Razi and al-Bayhaqi were disturbed to found out the founder of their Madhhab school, al-Shafi'i, has opposed kalam, a field which they studied upon. Thus they interpreted the words of al-Shafi'i in contradictory way.[13][b]

Al-Ghazali, 11 AD Shafi'ite scholar; held the view that the science of kalam is not a personal duty on Muslims but a collective duty.[55]

Mulla Sadra, 17th AD Twelver Shia philosopher and mystic; has felt that he owed to the greek philosophy, for the development of kalam as Islamic discourse.[53] Modern philosopher Federico Campagna has suspected the similarity between the unique cosmological kalam philosophy taught by Mulla Sadra with Hindu Vedic Upanishads philosophy.[109] In retrospect, Muhammad Kamal from Islamic studies at the Melbourne institute has stated Mulla Sadra philosophy was influenced by Avicenna and Ibn Arabi.[110]

Morteza Motahhari, Iranian Twelver Shia scholar and philosopher; stated that kalam science could beneficial for speech and discourse.[111] He also proposed reason is that the name originated from the habit of its scholars of starting the discussions in their books with "al-kalamu fi kadha".[111] Yet another reason is that people who were involved in this discipline discussed issues (and as such were involved in kalam about these issues) in which Ahl al-Hadith remained silent.[111] Other reason of Morteza support of kalam is because its important for a mihna resulted from the discussion in this discipline of whether the Quran, which is regarded as the kalam of Allah, is created (makhluq) or not.[111] Morteza also claimed that kalam has pre-eminent importance to the study of Hadith in Shiism.[112]

Ruhollah Khomeini, Iranian Islamic revolutionary, politician, religious leader who served as the first Supreme Leader of Iran, founder of modern day Islamic Republic of Iran and the main leader of the Iranian Revolution; has used kalam to facilitate his socio-religious revival of moral spirit of the masses. As he formulate the revolutionary system on his states building, Khomeini's political thoughts was closely linked with kalam discourse.[113]

Sunni kalam school

Shia kalam school

See also

Appendix

Notes

  1. ^ Quoting Fatâwa wa Rasâil, Ibn as-Salah: 1/209-212;[72]
  2. ^ Regarding this matters, Abu al-Yazid al-'Ajami, professor of Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University and Sanaa University; and Ahmad Farid, prominent Egypt salafist figure and Salafist Call member council; both have stated that al-Bayhaqi were actually on different opinion with al-Razi, as al-Bayhaqi himself were actually not defending kalam and not distorting the Shafi'i condemnation towards kalam.[108][107]

Citations

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References


Further reading

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