Wikipedia

International Seabed Authority

The International Seabed Authority (ISA) (French: Autorité internationale des fonds marins) is a Kingston, Jamaica-based intergovernmental body of 167 member states and the European Union. It was established under the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and its 1994 Agreement on Implementation. The ISA's dual mission is to authorize and control the development of mineral related operations in the international seabed,[3][4] which is considered the "common heritage of all mankind",[5][6] and to protect the ecosystem of the seabed, ocean floor and subsoil in "The Area" beyond national jurisdiction. The ISA is responsible for safeguarding the international deep sea, defined as waters below 200 meters (656 feet), where photosynthesis is hampered by inadequate light.[7] Governing approximately half of the total area of the world's oceans, the ISA oversees activities that might threaten biological diversity and harm the marine environment.[8]

International Seabed Authority
AbbreviationISA
Formation16 November 1994; 30 years ago (1994-11-16)
TypeIntergovernmental organization
PurposeRegulate deep seabed mining and ensure the marine environment is protected from any harmful effects which may arise from mining activities
HeadquartersKingston, Jamaica
Coordinates17°57′53″N 76°47′30″W / 17.964767531°N 76.791708055°W / 17.964767531; -76.791708055
Membership (2018)
168 states parties[1]
Secretary-General
Michael Lodge
Main organ
Assembly of the International Seabed Authority
AffiliationsObserver to the United Nations General Assembly
Budget (2017 & 2018)
$17.1 Million[2]
Websitewww.isa.org.jm

Since its inception in 1994, the ISA has approved over two dozen ocean floor mining exploration contracts in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans.[9][10] The majority of these contracts are for exploration in the Clarion–Clipperton zone between Hawaii and Mexico, where polymetallic nodules contain copper, cobalt and other minerals essential for powering electric batteries. To date, the Authority has not authorized any commercial mining contracts as it continues to deliberate over regulations amid global calls for a moratorium on deep sea mining. Scientists and environmentalists warn that such mining could wreak havoc on the ocean, a crucial carbon sink and home to rare and diverse species.[11][12]

Funded by UNCLOS members and mining contractors, the Authority operates as an autonomous international organization with its own Assembly, Council, and Secretariat. The current Secretary-General of the agency is Michael Lodge, who was elected in 2016.[13] On August 2, 2024, the ISA voted 79-34 to remove Lodge from his position because of his ties to private industry.[11] Oceanographer Leticia Carvalho was elected to replace Lodge and will serve as the Secretary-General from 2025 to 2028.[14]

Origin

edit

The Authority held its inaugural meeting in its host country, Jamaica, on 16 November 1994,[15] the day the Convention came into force. The articles governing the Authority have been made "noting the political and economic changes, including market-oriented approaches, affecting the implementation" of the convention.[16] The Authority obtained its observer status to the United Nations in October 1996.[17] The Authority has 167 members and the European Union, composed of all parties to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.[6] The Authority operates by contracting with private and public corporations and other entities authorizing them to explore, and potentially exploit, specified areas on the deep seabed for mineral resources, such as cobalt, nickel and manganese.[18][12]

"Common Heritage of All Mankind"

edit

Under UNCLOS, Part XI, Section 2. "The Area and its resources are the common heritage of mankind." As a result, ISA must ensure that activities in the Area are undertaken only for peaceful purposes and for the benefit of all humankind, with economic benefits shared equitably and special consideration given to the needs of developing nations.[19]

Governance and operations

edit

Along with a Secretary-General, two principal organs establish the policies and govern the work of the Authority: the Assembly, in which all UNCLOS parties are represented, and a 36-member Council elected by the Assembly.[20]

Secretary-General

edit

The Assembly elects a Secretary-General to serve a four-year term as the ISA's chief administrative officer, oversee Authority staff and issue an annual report to the Assembly. The Secretary-General is prohibited from holding a financial interest in any mining operations authorized by the Authority.[20]

There have been three Secretary-Generals since ISA's creation in 1996. In August 2024 the ISA Assembly elected the oceanographer Leticia Carvalho of Brazil as Secretary-General for the term 2025−2028.[21][22]

Country Image Name Term
  Fiji   Satya Nandan 1996–2008
  Ghana   Nii Allotey Odunton 2008−2016[23]
  United Kingdom   Michael Lodge 2016[24]–2025
  Brazil   Leticia Carvalho 2025–

Assembly

edit

The Assembly, which consists of all members of the Authority, elects the 36-member Council, as well as the Secretary-General from among candidates the Council recommends. The Assembly also has the power to approve or reject the council's recommendations for the following: rules and regulations governing seabed mining, distribution of financial benefits accrued from authorized mining and the Authority's annual budget.[20]

Council

edit

The 36-member Council, elected by the Assembly, authorizes contracts with governments and private corporations to explore and mine the international seabed and sets rules and procedures, subject to the Assembly's approval, for ISA governance. The council also nominates a Secretary-General, who then must be elected by the full Assembly to serve a four-year term. The ISA's annual plenary sessions, which usually last two weeks, are held in Kingston.[25]

Advisory bodies

edit

Also established is a 30-member Legal and Technical Commission which advises the Council and a 15-member Finance Committee that deals with budgetary and related matters. All members are experts nominated by governments and elected to serve in their individual capacity.[26][27]

Enterprise

edit

The convention also established a body called the Enterprise which is to serve as the Authority's own mining operator, potentially generating "hundreds of millions of dollars in royalties" to be shared with developing nations."[28][11] The environmental organization Greenpeace has expressed concerns over the ISA's alleged conflict of interest as both regulator and business operator, though the ISA denies the conflict of interest charge.[11]

Status

edit

The Authority has a Secretariat of 37 authorized posts and a 2022 biennial budget of approximately $10,000,000.[29]

Jurisdiction

edit

UNCLOS defines the international seabed area—the part under ISA jurisdiction—as "the seabed and ocean floor and the subsoil thereof, beyond the limits of national jurisdiction"[30] UNCLOS outlines the areas of national jurisdiction as a "12 nautical-mile territorial sea; an exclusive economic zone of up to 200 nautical miles and a continental shelf",[31] unless a nation can demonstrate that its continental shelf is naturally prolonged beyond that limit, in which case it may claim up to 350 nautical miles (650 km).[32] ISA has no role in determining this boundary. Rather, this task is left to another body established by UNCLOS, the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf, which examines scientific data submitted by coastal states that claim a broader reach.[33]

 
Member states represented in blue; observer states in yellow (note: the European Union also holds membership)
 
Clarion–Clipperton zone, 1.7 million square miles between Hawaii and Mexico, known for ocean floor nodules of cobalt, nickel, manganese and copper, as well as unusual species[34]

Exploration contracts and commercial mining

edit

Commercial

edit

Although the ISA has yet to approve commercial mining contracts, the Authority anticipates commercial mining could begin as early as 2023–2024 with the completion of much-debated ISA regulations.[11][35] In 2021, the Pacific Island nation of Nauru triggered a deadline that requires the ISA to approve final commercial mining regulations by July 2023 or allow contractors to mine under existing draft regulations.[35]

Exploratory

edit

Exploratory mining involves "deep-sea mapping, manned submersibles or remotely-operated vehicles, photographic and video systems, and drilling devices."[36]

Clarion–Clipperton zone

edit
 
Investigation into manganese nodule mining on the seabed in the Clarion–Clipperton zone

Most areas of exploration are in the Clarion–Clipperton zone (CCZ), in the Equatorial North Pacific Ocean, south and southeast of Hawaii, between Hawaii and Mexico. The quiet CCZ, as wide as the continental U.S., is home to polymetallic nodules or trillions of potato-size lumps of matter formed over millions of years that contain nickel, manganese, copper, zinc and cobalt, as well as deep water coral, sponges and unusual species ("ghost octopus", crustaceans, worms and sea cucumbers) that in a near light-less environment attach to the rock-like nodules for shelter.[37][34] Contractors want to mine polymetallic nodules for battery storage for electric vehicles, smartphones, and solar and wind energy.[35][38][39]

Other areas of exploration

edit

Exploration contracts for polymetallic nodules have also been issued for contractors operating in the Central Indian Ocean Basin and Western Pacific Ocean.[40] The ISA has issued exploration contracts for polymetallic sulphides in the South West Indian Ridge, Central Indian Ridge and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge,[40] and contracts for exploration for cobalt-rich crusts in the Western Pacific Ocean.[40]

Requirements of contractors

edit

Each contractor is required to develop a contingency plan should something go wrong during exploration, report annually on its activities in its assigned area and propose a training program for developing countries .[40]

List of exploratory contractors

edit

The ISA has signed 15-year contracts for exploration with 22 contractors seeking polymetallic nodules, polymetallic sulphides and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts in the deep seabed.[41]

In 2001-2002 the ISA signed contracts with Yuzhmorgeologya (Russian Federation); Interoceanmetal Joint Organization (IOM) (Bulgaria, Cuba, Slovakia, Czech Republic, Poland and Russian Federation); the Government of the Republic of Korea; China Ocean Minerals Research and Development Association (COMRA) (China); Deep Ocean Resources Development Company (DORD) (Japan); Institut français de recherche pour l’exploitation de la mer (IFREMER) (France); the Government of India. In 2006, the Authority signed a 15-year contract with the Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources of Germany.[42][43]

In 2008, the Authority received two new applications for authorization to explore for polymetallic nodules, coming for the first time from private firms in developing island nations of the Pacific. Sponsored by their respective governments, they were submitted by Nauru Ocean Resources Inc.[44] and Tonga Offshore Mining Limited.[45] A 15-year exploration contract was granted by the Authority to Nauru Ocean Resources Inc. on 22 July 2011 and to Tonga Offshore Mining Limited on 12 January 2012.[46]

Fifteen-year exploration contracts for polymetallic nodules were also granted to G-TECH Sea Mineral Resources NV (Belgium) on 14 January 2013; Marawa Research and Exploration Ltd (Kiribati) on 19 January 2015; Ocean Mineral Singapore Pte Ltd on 22 January 2015; UK Seabed Resources Ltd (two contracts on 8 February 2013 and 29 March 2016 respectively); Cook Islands Investment Corporation on 15 July 2016 and more recently China Minmetals Corporation on 12 May 2017.[42]

The Authority has signed seven contracts for the exploration for polymetallic sulphides in the South West Indian Ridge, Central Indian Ridge and Mid-Atlantic Ridge with China Ocean Mineral Resources Research and Development Association (18 November 2011); the Government of Russia (29 October 2012); Government of the Republic of Korea (24 June 2014); Institut français de recherche pour l’exploitation de la mer (Ifremer, France, 18 November 2014); the Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources of Germany (6 May 2015); and the Government of India (26 September 2016) and the Government of the Republic of Poland (12 February 2018).[47]

The Authority holds five contracts for the exploration of cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts in the Western Pacific Ocean with China Ocean Mineral Resources Research and Development Association (29 April 2014); Japan Oil Gas and Metals National Corporation (JOGMEC, 27 January 2014); Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of the Russian Federation (10 March 2015), Companhia De Pesquisa de Recursos Minerais (9 November 2015) and the Government of the Republic of Korea (27 March 2018).[48][49]

Controversy

edit

Environmental concerns and climate crisis

edit

Environmentalists, scientists from 44 countries, Google, BMW and Volvo, World Wildlife Fund and several Pacific nations, including Fiji and Papua New Guinea, have called for a moratorium on deep-sea mining until more scientific research is conducted on its impact on the marine environment.[50][9][51]

Advocates for deep sea mining argue extraction of rare metals is critical for electric car batteries necessary to develop a fossil-free economy.[50]

Opponents argue seabed mining could wreak havoc on the world's oceans, which act as a carbon sink absorbing a quarter of the world's carbon emissions each year.[52]

 
Greenpeace's Esperanza. Photo: Jean-Pierre Bazard

The environmental organization Greenpeace has raised objections about deep seabed mining disrupting the habitats of newly reported species, from crabs to whales to snails that survive without eating and congregate near bioluminescent thermal vents.[53] Greenpeace has urged the ISA to further develop UNCLOS' foundational Article 136 principle "of common heritage to all mankind" to revise regulations and set conservation targets. In a 2018 Greenpeace Research Laboratories report the organization stressed the importance of protecting marine biodiversity from toxins released during seabed mining for natural gas and rare metals for photovoltaic cells.[54] Greenpeace maintains the "pro-exploitation" ISA is not the appropriate authority to regulate deep sea mining (DSM). In 2019 Greenpeace activists protested outside the annual meeting of the International Seabed Authority in Jamaica, calling for a global ocean treaty to ban deep sea mining in ocean sanctuaries.[55] Some of the activists had sailed to Jamaica aboard Greenpeace's ship, the Esperanza, which travelled from the "Lost City in the mid-Atlantic", an area Greenpeace says is threatened by exploratory mining the ISA authorized.[56]

ISA Secretary-General Michael Lodge said Greenpeace's support for a global ocean treaty, not the ISA, to control deep sea mining did not make sense.[57]

Concern over transparency issues

edit

In 2022, The Guardian reported the ISA failed to renew the contract for Earth Negotiations Bulletin (ENB), a division of the International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD), which covered past proceedings to maintain an independent record of the ISA. The decision came amid warnings from scientists that commercial ocean floor mining "would be “dangerous”, “reckless” and “irreversible” in its harm to the ecosystem. In its defense, the ISA said ENB's non-renewal was triggered by budget cuts. The Guardian also reported that Germany and environmentalists had raised questions about the lack of transparency by the ISA's Legal and Technical Commission (LTC), which conducts closed meetings to set standards and issue guidelines for seabed mining.[51]

In response to criticism, ISA Secretary-General Michael Lodge defended ISA as a "transparent public forum of consensus-building."[57]

Charges of conflict of interest

edit

In 2022, the Los Angeles Times reported that the International Seabed Authority faced criticisms over conflicts of interest.[11] The LA Times reported that the ISA was scheduled to approve seabed mining, despite concerns by scientists and environmentalists about the environmental impact.[11] ISA head Michael Lodge had criticized these groups, saying there was "a growing environmental absolutism and dogmatism bordering on fanaticism" and arguing that seabed mining was "predictable and manageable".[11] Scientists and members of Lodge's staff objected to Lodge's appearance in a mining company video seeking investments in robotic exploration for minerals to manufacture electric vehicles. In the video, Lodge said his agency supported a 15-year exploration contract because "land-based resources are becoming increasingly difficult to access."[11]

United States' non-ratification of UNCLOS

edit

The exact nature of the ISA's mission and authority has been questioned by opponents of the Law of the Sea Treaty who are generally skeptical of multilateral engagement by the United States.[58] In 2007, although the US Senate Foreign Relations Committee voted in favor of treaty ratification, the full Senate failed to ratify the treaty, with some Republicans arguing UNCLOS might threaten national security by interfering with ocean military operations and hinder seabed mining corporations by imposing environmental regulations.[59][60]

One of the main anti-ratification arguments being a charge that the ISA is flawed or unnecessary. In its original form, the Convention included certain provisions that some found objectionable, such as:

Because of these concerns, the United States pushed for modification of the Convention, obtaining a 1994 Agreement on Implementation that somewhat mitigates them and thus modifies the ISA's authority.[63] Despite this change the United States has not ratified the Convention and so is not a member of ISA, although it sends sizable delegations to participate in meetings as an observer.[64]

As an observer, not an UNCLOS signatory, the U.S. will not be allowed to vote on approval of final commercial mining regulations and will be unable to sponsor companies to apply for contracts in international waters. This is because the ISA requires contractors be sponsored by a state that is a signatory to UNCLOS. U.S.-based military contractor Lockheed Martin, however, is participating in two British deep sea mining projects.[35]

Palau's advocacy against deep-sea mining

edit

Palau was the first country to call for a moratorium, or precautionary pause, on deep-sea mining until the impact of such a practice is better understood.[65] By July 10, 2023, 17 countries had called for a deep-sea mining moratorium or pause, including Germany, New Zealand, Spain, France, Sweden, Fiji, and the Federated States of Micronesia.[66]

On July 29, 2024, President Surangel S. Whipps Jr. of Palau delivered an address titled "Upholding the Common Heritage of Humankind" to the 29th General Assembly of the International Seabed Authority (ISA) in Kingston, Jamaica. In his speech, President Whipps emphasized the importance of safeguarding the deep ocean from exploitation and modern-day colonialism. He highlighted Palau’s deep cultural and economic ties to the ocean and reiterated the call for an immediate moratorium on deep-sea mining, citing the associated environmental risks and uncertainties. In his speech he referred to the ocean as "Our greatest ally in our fight against climate change," highlighting its role as the largest carbon sink on the planet. He underscored the critical role deep ocean ecosystems play in global environmental health and advocated for prioritizing long-term sustainability over short-term economic gains. He urged the assembly to act responsibly on behalf of future generations, reinforcing the deep seabed’s status as the "common heritage of (hu)mankind."[67][68][69]

The number of countries against the imminent start of mining for metallic nodules on the seafloor increased to 32 during the 29th ISA annual assembly, with Austria, Guatemala, Honduras, Malta, and Tuvalu joining the list.[70]

Activities

edit

Legislative

edit

The Authority's main legislative accomplishment has been the adoption, in the year 2000, of regulations governing exploration for polymetallic nodules.[71][72] These resources, also called manganese nodules, contain varying amounts of manganese, cobalt, copper and nickel. They occur as potato-sized lumps scattered about on the surface of the ocean floor, mainly in the central Pacific Ocean in the Clarion–Clipperton zone but with some deposits in the Indian Ocean.

In 2013, the ISA approved amendments to its mining code on deep sea exploration, stating a prospector should take a precautionary approach to avoid polluting the ocean and should immediately inform the Secretary-General of any prospect-related incidents that threaten the marine environment. The amended regulations also said a contractor can recover "a reasonable amount of material" for testing but not for sale.[73]

In July 2019, the ISA's Legal and Trade Commission prepared "Draft regulations on exploitation of mineral resources in the Area."[74]

In 2010, the ISA adopted Regulations on Prospecting and Exploration for Polymetallic Sulphides.[75][73]

In 2012, the Authority adopted Regulations on Prospecting and Exploration for Cobalt-Rich Ferromanganese Crusts.[75][73]

The Council of the Authority began work in August 2002 on another set of regulations, covering polymetallic sulfides and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts, which are rich sources of such minerals as copper, iron, zinc, silver and gold, as well as cobalt. The sulphides are found around volcanic hot springs, especially in the western Pacific Ocean, while the crusts occur on oceanic ridges and elsewhere at several locations around the world. The Council decided in 2006 to prepare separate sets of regulations for sulphides and for crusts, with priority given to sulphides. It devoted most of its sessions in 2007 and 2008 to this task, but several issues remained unresolved. Chief among these were the definition and configuration of the area to be allocated to contractors for exploration, the fees to be paid to the Authority and the question of how to deal with any overlapping claims that might arise.[76] Meanwhile, the Legal and Technical Commission reported progress on ferromanganese crusts.[77]

Workshops and research

edit

In addition to its legislative work, the Authority organizes annual workshops on various aspects of seabed exploration, with emphasis on measures to protect the marine environment from any harmful consequences. It disseminates the results of these meetings through publications.[78] Studies over several years covering the key mineral area of the Central Pacific resulted in a technical study on biodiversity, species ranges and gene flow in the abyssal Pacific nodule province, with emphasis on predicting and managing the impacts of deep seabed mining[79] A workshop at Manoa, Hawaii, in October 2007[80] produced a rationale and recommendations for the establishment of "preservation reference areas" in the Clarion–Clipperton zone, where nodule mining would be prohibited in order to leave the natural environment intact. In recent years, the ISA hosted workshops on enhancing the role of women in conducting deep-sea scientific studies, sustainable management of deep seabed resources, a series for Africa on resources and technologies for DSM and a session on sharing the economic benefits of DSM.[81][82]

edit

In recent years, however, interest in deep sea mining, especially with regard to ferromanganese crusts and polymetallic sulphides, has picked up among several firms now operating in waters within the national zones of Papua New Guinea, Fiji and Tonga. Papua New Guinea was the first country in the world to grant commercial exploration licenses for seafloor massive sulphide deposits when it granted the initial license to Nautilus Minerals in 1997. Japan's new ocean policy emphasizes the need to develop methane hydrate and hydrothermal deposits within Japan's exclusive economic zone and calls for the commercialization of these resources within the next 10 years. Reporting on these developments in his annual report to the Authority in April 2008, Secretary-General Nandan referred also to the upward trend in demand and prices for cobalt, copper, nickel and manganese, the main metals that would be derived from seabed mining, and he noted that technologies being developed for offshore extraction could be adapted for deep sea mining.[83]

Recently, there has been much interest in the possibility of exploiting seabed resources in the Arctic Ocean, bordered by Canada, Denmark, Iceland, Norway, Russia and the United States (see Territorial claims in the Arctic). In 2020, an international coalition of environmental groups urged the government of Norway to not only abandon plans for deep sea mining under national jurisdiction, but to also speak out against DSM Arctic mining before the International Seaboard Authority.[84][85]

Endowment fund

edit

In 2006 the Authority established an Endowment Fund to Support Collaborative Marine Scientific Research on the International Seabed Area. The Fund will aid experienced scientists and technicians from developing countries to participate in deep-sea research organized by international and national institutions. A campaign was launched in February 2008 to identify participants, establish a network of cooperating bodies and seek outside funds to augment the initial $3 million endowment from the Authority.[86]

Voluntary commitments

edit

In 2017, the Authority registered seven voluntary commitments[87] with the UN Oceans Conference for Sustainable Development Goal 14. These were:[clarification needed]

  1. OceanAction15467 – Enhancing the role of women in marine scientific research through capacity building
  2. OceanAction15796 – Encouraging dissemination of research results through the ISA Secretary-General Award for Excellence in Deep-Sea Research
  3. OceanAction16538 – Abyssal Initiative for Blue Growth (with UN-DESA)
  4. OceanAction16494 – Fostering cooperation to promote the sustainable development of Africa's deep seabed resources in support of Africas Blue Economy
  5. OceanAction17746 – Enhancing the assessment of essential ecological functions of the deep sea oceans through long-term underwater oceanographic observatories in the Area;
  6. OceanAction17776 – Enhancing deep sea marine biodiversity assessment through the creation of online taxonomic atlases linked to deep sea mining activities in the Area

See also

edit

References

edit
  1. ^ "Member States". International Seabed Authority. Archived from the original on 26 May 2023. Retrieved 1 November 2018.
  2. ^ "Seabed Council Hears Report of Finance Committee; Approves by Decision US$17 Million Budget for Authority for 2017–2018; Recommends Working Capital Fund Increase to $660,000" (PDF). International Seabed Authority. 14 July 2016. Retrieved 1 November 2018.[permanent dead link‍]
  3. ^ "Documents and Publications". International Seabed Authority. Archived from the original on 13 May 2008.
  4. ^ Jon Copley (7 November 2020). "Deep-sea mining is making the seabed the hottest real estate on Earth". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 28 April 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2020.
  5. ^ "UNCLOS - Part XI, Section 2". www.un.org. Archived from the original on 22 April 2022. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
  6. ^ a b Chronological lists of ratifications of, accessions and successions to the Convention and the related Agreements. Archived 14 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine UN: regularly updated.
  7. ^ "What is the "deep" ocean? : Ocean Exploration Facts: NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research". oceanexplorer.noaa.gov. Archived from the original on 20 August 2022. Retrieved 20 August 2022.
  8. ^ "Home | International Seabed Authority". www.isa.org.jm. Archived from the original on 21 April 2020. Retrieved 19 April 2022.
  9. ^ a b "Secret deep sea mining data to reveal what lives in the abyss". Environment. 24 July 2019. Archived from the original on 1 March 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
  10. ^ "The International Seabed Authority and Deep Seabed Mining". United Nations. Archived from the original on 20 April 2022. Retrieved 20 April 2022.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h i "A race to the bottom: In the rush to mine the ocean floor for minerals used in EV batteries, who is looking out for the environment?". Los Angeles Times. 19 April 2022. Archived from the original on 19 April 2022. Retrieved 21 April 2022.
  12. ^ a b "Seabed Mining May Solve Our Energy Crisis. But At What Cost?". Time. Archived from the original on 21 April 2022. Retrieved 21 April 2022.
  13. ^ "ISA Member States and contractors make contributions to the voluntary trust funds of ISA | International Seabed Authority". isa.org.jm. Archived from the original on 31 March 2022. Retrieved 19 April 2022.
  14. ^ "International Seabed Authority elects new secretary-general Leticia Carvalho". ABC Pacific. 4 August 2024. Retrieved 6 August 2024.
  15. ^ United Nations General Assembly Session 49 Verbatim Report 22. A/49/PV.22 page 10. Mr. Robertson Jamaica 7 October 1994.
  16. ^ United Nations General Assembly Session 48 Resolution 263. Agreement relating to the implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 A/RES/48/263 17 August 1994.
  17. ^ United Nations General Assembly Session 51 Verbatim Report 40. Observer status for the International Seabed Authority in the General Assembly A/51/PV.40 page 22. 24 October 1996.
  18. ^ Urbina, Ian (2019). "The Next Frontier". The Outlaw Ocean: Crime and Survival in the Last Untamed Frontier. Alfred A. Knopf. p. 473. ISBN 978-0451492944.
  19. ^ "Summary report 17–21 February 2020". IISD Earth Negotiations Bulletin. Archived from the original on 24 May 2022. Retrieved 23 April 2022.
  20. ^ a b c "UNCLOS - Part XI, Section 4". www.un.org. Archived from the original on 2 March 2022. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
  21. ^ Lipton, Eric (2 August 2024). "Agency Votes to Replace Official Accused of Rushing Start of Seabed Mining". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 7 August 2024.
  22. ^ "ISA Assembly elects Ms. Leticia Carvalho of Brazil as a new Secretary-General - International Seabed Authority". 2 August 2024. Retrieved 8 August 2024.
  23. ^ "Statement on the passing of former ISA Secretary-General Nii Allotey Odunton | International Seabed Authority". www.isa.org.jm. Archived from the original on 22 April 2022. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
  24. ^ "Decision of the Assembly of the International Seabed Authority Concerning the Appointment of the Secretary-General of the International Seabed Authority" (PDF). International Seabed Authority. 21 July 2016. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 August 2017. Retrieved 1 November 2018.
  25. ^ "International Seabed Authority | international organization | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Archived from the original on 19 April 2022. Retrieved 19 April 2022.
  26. ^ "The Legal and Technical Commission | International Seabed Authority". www.isa.org.jm. Archived from the original on 22 April 2022. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
  27. ^ "The Finance Committee | International Seabed Authority". www.isa.org.jm. Archived from the original on 28 April 2022. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
  28. ^ "Nautilus Minerals Propose Joint Venture with the Enterprise | International Seabed Authority". www.isa.org.jm. Archived from the original on 20 April 2022. Retrieved 20 April 2022.
  29. ^ Future financing of the International Seabed Authority isa.org.jm Archived 29 August 2022 at the Wayback Machine
  30. ^ "UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON THE LAW OF THE SEA". www.un.org. Archived from the original on 22 April 2022. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
  31. ^ "Exploration areas | International Seabed Authority". www.isa.org.jm. Archived from the original on 22 April 2022. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
  32. ^ "Law of the Sea | international law [1982] | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Archived from the original on 29 April 2022. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
  33. ^ "The Functions and Work of the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf | Readings". Review of Island Studies (in Japanese). Archived from the original on 4 December 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
  34. ^ a b "The Clarion–Clipperton Zone" (PDF). pewtrusts.org. Retrieved 6 September 2023.
  35. ^ a b c d Wolman, Jordan. "The world is set to debate seabed mining regulations, but the U.S. will be on the outside looking in". POLITICO. Archived from the original on 23 April 2022. Retrieved 23 April 2022.
  36. ^ Discovery and Formation isa.org.jm Archived 31 March 2022 at the Wayback Machine
  37. ^ "The Clarion–Clipperton Zone". pew.org. 15 December 2017. Retrieved 23 April 2022.
  38. ^ "China leads the race to exploit deep sea minerals: U.N. body". Reuters. 23 October 2019. Archived from the original on 23 April 2022. Retrieved 23 April 2022.
  39. ^ Heffernan, Olive (24 July 2019). "Seabed mining is coming — bringing mineral riches and fears of epic extinctions". Nature. 571 (7766): 465–468. Bibcode:2019Natur.571..465H. doi:10.1038/d41586-019-02242-y. PMID 31341305. S2CID 198496846.
  40. ^ a b c d "Exploration Contracts | International Seabed Authority". www.isa.org.jm. Archived from the original on 26 April 2022. Retrieved 23 April 2022.
  41. ^ "Exploration Contracts | International Seabed Authority". www.isa.org.jm. Archived from the original on 26 April 2022. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
  42. ^ a b "Minerals: Polymetallic Nodules | International Seabed Authority". www.isa.org.jm. Archived from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 23 April 2022.
  43. ^ "Exploration areas | International Seabed Authority". www.isa.org.jm. Archived from the original on 22 April 2022. Retrieved 23 April 2022.
  44. ^ Nauru Ocean Resources Inc.: application for approval of a plan of work for exploration. Archived 17 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine Document ISBA/14/LTC/L.2, 21 April 2008.
  45. ^ Tonga Offshore Mining Limited : application for approval of a plan of work for exploration. Archived 17 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine Document ISBA/14/LTC/L.3, 21 April 2008.
  46. ^ "Contractors | International Seabed Authority". Isa.org.jm. Archived from the original on 25 January 2013. Retrieved 13 April 2013.
  47. ^ "Exploration Contracts | International Seabed Authority". www.isa.org.jm. Archived from the original on 26 April 2022. Retrieved 21 April 2022.
  48. ^ "中国大洋协会与国际海底管理局签订富钴结壳勘探合同". 中国政府网 (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 2 August 2020. Retrieved 12 February 2020.
  49. ^ "DEEP SEABED MINERALS CONTRACTORS". INTERNATIONAL SEABED AUTHORITY. Archived from the original on 7 May 2020. Retrieved 12 February 2020.
  50. ^ a b "Deep-sea mining could start in two years after Pacific nation of Nauru gives UN ultimatum". The Guardian. 30 June 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
  51. ^ a b "Seabed regulator accused of deciding deep sea's future 'behind closed doors'". The Guardian. 1 April 2022. Retrieved 23 April 2022.
  52. ^ "Seabed Mining May Solve Our Energy Crisis. But At What Cost?". Time. Archived from the original on 21 April 2022. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
  53. ^ "One scientist's mission to save the 'super weird' snails under the sea". The Guardian. 26 February 2020. Archived from the original on 10 September 2021. Retrieved 23 April 2022.
  54. ^ Miller, Kathryn A.; Thompson, Kirsten F.; Johnston, Paul; Santillo, David (2018). "An Overview of Seabed Mining Including the Current State of Development, Environmental Impacts, and Knowledge Gaps". Frontiers in Marine Science. 4. doi:10.3389/fmars.2017.00418. hdl:10871/130175. ISSN 2296-7745.
  55. ^ "Greenpeace ship sets sail to highlight risk of mining below the waves". Reuters. 3 July 2019. Archived from the original on 23 April 2022. Retrieved 23 April 2022.
  56. ^ "Greenpeace, JET protest against deep sea mining". jamaica-gleaner.com. 23 July 2019. Archived from the original on 24 April 2022. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
  57. ^ a b "U.N. deep sea mining body rejects Greenpeace criticism". Reuters. 5 July 2019. Archived from the original on 25 April 2022. Retrieved 25 April 2022.
  58. ^ Law of the Sea Treaty. Archived 9 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine National Center for Public Policy Research.
  59. ^ "U.S. Senate panel backs Law of the Sea treaty". Reuters. 31 October 2007. Archived from the original on 20 April 2022. Retrieved 20 April 2022.
  60. ^ "U.S. WILL NOT SIGN SEA LAW TREATY". The New York Times. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
  61. ^ "Opponents who argue UNCLOS would impose U.N. law on U.S. ignore long negotiation history and U.S. leadership in writing treaty | UNCLOSdebate.org". www.unclosdebate.org. Archived from the original on 22 April 2022. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
  62. ^ "U.S. would be obligated to transfer technology under UNCLOS | UNCLOSdebate.org". www.unclosdebate.org. Archived from the original on 22 April 2022. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
  63. ^ "The 1994 Agreement explicitly dealt with and resolved concerns U.S. had with ratifying UNCLOS | UNCLOSdebate.org". www.unclosdebate.org. Archived from the original on 7 July 2022. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
  64. ^ U.S. Senate panel backs Law of the Sea treaty | Reuters. Archived 14 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine 31 October 2007.
  65. ^ Alberts, Elizabeth Claire (29 January 2024). "Palau is the first nation to ratify treaty to protect high seas". Mongabay Environmental News. Retrieved 7 August 2024.
  66. ^ Fernandez, Surangel S. Whipps, Jr and Daniela (10 July 2023). "Deep Sea Mining Isn't a Viable Climate Solution". TIME. Retrieved 7 August 2024.{{cite magazine}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  67. ^ Tahir, Tariq. "Deep-sea mining's future rests on crucial vote". The National. Retrieved 7 August 2024.
  68. ^ Wright, Stephen (31 July 2024). "Nations join ranks to delay deep-sea mining approval by UN regulator".
  69. ^ "With deep-sea mining applications set to open, fears grow for the Pacific". ABC News. 6 April 2023. Retrieved 7 August 2024.
  70. ^ "Nations join ranks to delay deep-sea mining approval by UN regulator".
  71. ^ Mining Code | International Seabed Authority. Archived 22 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine Regulations on Prospecting and Exploration for Polymetallic Nodules in the Area.
  72. ^ Website of the Centre for Energy, Petroleum and Mineral Law and Policy (CEPMLP), volume 10, abstract 2 (18 December 2001). Archived 19 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine The University of Dundee (United Kingdom). Article on the Regulations (2001) by Michael W. Lodge, chief of the ISA United Nations Office of Legal Affairs
  73. ^ a b c "The Mining Code: Exploration Regulations | International Seabed Authority". www.isa.org.jm. Archived from the original on 28 April 2022. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
  74. ^ "ISBA/25/C/WP.1 | International Seabed Authority". www.isa.org.jm. Archived from the original on 24 April 2022. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
  75. ^ a b "Summary report 25 February – 1 March 2019". IISD Earth Negotiations Bulletin. Archived from the original on 24 April 2022. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
  76. ^ Statement by the Secretary-General of the International Seabed Authority to the Eighteenth Meeting of States Parties to the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea. Archived 1 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine New York, 16 June 2008.
  77. ^ Statement of the President of the Council of the International Seabed Authority on the work of the Council during the fourteenth session. Archived 17 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine Document ISBA/14/C/11, 5 June 2008.
  78. ^ Report on the International Seabed Authority's workshop on polymetallic nodule mining technology: current status and challenges ahead. Archived 2 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine Document ISBA/14/C/7, prepared by the Secretariat.
  79. ^ Biodiversity, species ranges, and gene flow in the abyssal Pacific nodule province: predicting and managing the impacts of deep seabed mining. Archived 23 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine ISA Technical Study No. 3, 2007.
  80. ^ Workshop on Designing Marine Protected Areas for Seamounts and the Abyssal Nodule Province in Pacific High Seas. Archived 17 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine Document ISBA/14/LTC/2.
  81. ^ "| International Seabed Authority". www.isa.org.jm. Archived from the original on 24 April 2022. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
  82. ^ "| International Seabed Authority". www.isa.org.jm. Archived from the original on 24 April 2022. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
  83. ^ Report of the Secretary-General of the International Seabed Authority under article 166, paragraph 4, of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. Archived 17 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine Document ISBA/14/A/2, 14 April 2008.
  84. ^ "Environmentalists call on Norway to stop plans for deep-sea mining". Reuters. 12 April 2021. Archived from the original on 24 April 2022. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
  85. ^ "The Arctic This Week Take Five: Week of April 12, 2021". The Arctic Institute. 16 April 2021. Archived from the original on 5 March 2022. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
  86. ^ "Endowment Fund | International Seabed Authority". Archived from the original on 30 April 2009.
  87. ^ "ISA Voluntary Commitments to Support Implementation of SDG14 | International Seabed Authority". www.isa.org.jm. Archived from the original on 28 April 2022. Retrieved 20 April 2022.
edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Seabed_Authority&oldid=1259594311"