Wikipedia

Draft:Political representation of nature

Snæfellsjökull, a glacier in the Snæfellsnes peninsula in Iceland, was a nominee to run in the 2024 Icelandic presidential elections.[1]
The Whanganui River, and its tributaries were established as a legal entity with its own standing in 2012.[2]

Political representation of nature refers to the concept and practice of granting political, or institutional standing to nonhuman entities—such as animals, plants, and ecosystems—within governance systems.[3] The approach seeks to ensure that the interests of natural beings are taken into account in political decision-making processes, addressing concerns about the ability of human-centred governance structures to protect the environment from degradation and exploitation.[4][5]

Advances in this field are driven by emerging trends, including the political turn in environmental ethics and the representative turn in political theory. Following progress in legal representation for nonhuman nature, such as the granting of legal personhood to animals,[6] rivers[2] and ecosystems,[7] the conversation has broadened to consider how nature can be represented within legislative and executive branches of government.[8]

Historical and Theoretical Background

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Historically, thinkers like Thomas Hobbes influenced the discourse by framing nature as passive, a background to human society, thus needing no representation. This view was later challenged by theorists such as Bruno Latour, who emphasised the importance of including non-human actors within democratic processes. Latour’s concept of a “parliament of things” suggests that humans and non-humans co-constitute political collectives, necessitating a broader view of representation where scientists, experts, and advocates might speak on behalf of non-human entities in democratic settings. Latour’s approach has been influential in reshaping how political theory can address ecological issues, emphasising the interconnectedness of humans and nature.[9]

Support for treating nonhuman beings as political subjects deserving of respect and rights has grown significantly since 2000. This trend is driven by the global Rights of Nature movement and emerging concepts such as Earth Rights and Earth Jurisprudence. These frameworks advocate for legal and moral recognition of nature's intrinsic value, positioning ecosystems and nonhuman entities as subjects of rights.[10] The works of political theorists like Andrew Dobson,[11] Robyn Eckersley,[12] Robert Goodin,[13] and John O'Neill[14] have contributed to this shift. They emphasise the ethical responsibility humans have toward nature, proposing that democratic systems must evolve to account for nonhuman interests. Their theories argue that future political structures must integrate ecological sustainability, treating nature as a co-participant in political and legal processes rather than a passive backdrop.

Institutional Mechanisms

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Various institutional mechanisms have been proposed and put into practice to incorporate nonhuman entities and ecosystems into formal political decision-making processes.

Electoral reforms like proportional representation and lowering electoral thresholds have been suggested to facilitate the entry of green parties into parliaments. These changes could help increase the political influence of parties dedicated to environmental advocacy, further amplifying the representation of nature in governance​.[8][15]

Deliberative initiatives, such as citizen assemblies and deliberative mini-publics, engage randomly selected citizens in structured discussions on environmental issues, providing a platform for nonhuman interests to be included in political discourse. While these bodies typically do not have formal decision-making power, they can influence policy indirectly by informing legislators.[8][16]

Dedicated ombudspersons or commissioners are independent offices that investigate and advocate for the rights of natural entities, operating similarly to human rights commissioners.[8][17]

The allocation of seats in existing parliaments to specific representatives of nature mirrors systems of political reservations used to ensure representation for marginalised human groups. These nature representatives would advocate for the interests of ecosystems and nonhuman entities within legislative bodies.[8][18]

The creation of new supranational institutions can help to address environmental challenges on a global scale. Proposals include a system of regional ecosystem assemblies to cover the different biomes of planet Earth, and an Earth System Council to coordinate integrated action. Both seek to include representation from states, indigenous communities, and proxy guardians for the non-human.[3][19]

Political Representation of Nature in Practice

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Several institutional mechanisms for the political representation of nature have been implemented around the world.[20]

The Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment in New Zealand plays a critical role in overseeing environmental matters. The office conducts investigations, reviews, and reports on the state of the environment and the effectiveness of government policies. Its functions and powers are designed to enhance transparency and accountability in environmental governance.[21][22]

The European Commissioner for Health and Animal Welfare is tasked with modernising the rules on animal welfare while building on the One Health approach, recognising the connection between people, animals, plants, and their shared environment.[23][24]

The Future Generations Commissioner for Wales is tasked with ensuring that the interests of future generations are considered in policy-making processes. This role involves evaluating how current policies affect future generations and promoting sustainable development practices that protect both human and environmental health.[25][26]

The Federal Animal Welfare Officer in Germany ensures that animal welfare is systematically integrated into national policies and provides oversight of governmental actions related to animal protection. The office is tasked with advising the federal government on animal welfare matters, advocating for the humane treatment of animals across various sectors, including agriculture, research, and industry.[27][28]

The Australian Inspector-General of Animal Welfare and Live Animal Exports provides expert advice on animal welfare issues. The position supports the development and implementation of policies aimed at improving the treatment and protection of animals, reflecting a commitment to advancing animal welfare standards.[29][30]

The General Director of Animal Rights in Spain oversees the protection and promotion of animal welfare within the country. The role involves formulating policies and strategies to enhance animal rights, integrating these into broader social and legislative frameworks.[31][32]

The Commissioner for Animal Welfare in Malta is responsible for enforcing animal welfare laws and promoting humane treatment of animals. The role includes monitoring compliance with regulations and addressing concerns related to animal welfare within the Maltese context.[33][34]

The New York City Office of Animal Welfare focusses on enhancing the well-being of animals within the city. The office is dedicated to implementing policies that address various aspects of animal welfare, including health, safety, and humane treatment, thereby contributing to the city's overall animal protection efforts.[35][36]

References

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  1. ^ Kassam, Ashifa (2024-04-19). "Bid to secure spot for glacier in Icelandic presidential race heats up". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  2. ^ a b "Saving the Whanganui: can personhood rescue a river?". The Guardian. 2019-11-29. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  3. ^ a b Burke, Anthony; Fishel, Stefanie (2020), Pereira, Joana Castro; Saramago, André (eds.), "Across Species and Borders: Political Representation, Ecological Democracy and the Non-Human", Non-Human Nature in World Politics: Theory and Practice, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 33–52, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-49496-4_3, ISBN 978-3-030-49496-4, retrieved 2024-09-18
  4. ^ Pereira, Joana Castro; Saramago, André (2020), Pereira, Joana Castro; Saramago, André (eds.), "Introduction: Embracing Non-Human Nature in World Politics", Non-Human Nature in World Politics: Theory and Practice, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 1–9, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-49496-4_1, ISBN 978-3-030-49496-4, retrieved 2024-09-18
  5. ^ Watts, Jonathan (2024-01-01). "Could 2024 be the year nature rights enter the political mainstream?". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  6. ^ "Orangutan Sandra granted personhood settles into new Florida home". The Guardian. 2019-11-07. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  7. ^ Jones, Sam (2022-09-21). "Endangered Mar Menor lagoon in Spain granted legal status as a person". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  8. ^ a b c d e Magaña, Pablo (2022-10-07). "The Political Representation of Nonhuman Animals". Social Theory and Practice. 48 (4): 665–690. doi:10.5840/soctheorpract2022811171.
  9. ^ Brown, Mark B. (2018-02-15). "Speaking for Nature: Hobbes, Latour, and the Democratic Representation of Nonhumans". Science & Technology Studies. 31 (1): 31–51. doi:10.23987/sts.60525. ISSN 2243-4690.
  10. ^ Crews, Chris (2023), Jay Kassiola, Joel; Luke, Timothy W. (eds.), "Environmental Justice and the Global Rights of Nature Movement", The Palgrave Handbook of Environmental Politics and Theory, Environmental Politics and Theory, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 467–501, doi:10.1007/978-3-031-14346-5_20, ISBN 978-3-031-14346-5, retrieved 2024-09-18
  11. ^ Dobson A (1996) Representative Democracy and the Environment. In: Lafferty W M and Meadowcroft J (eds) Democracy and the Environment: Problems and Prospects. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, pp. 124-139.
  12. ^ Eckersley, R. (2000). Deliberative Democracy, Ecological Representation and Risk: Towards a Democracy of the Affected. In Democratic Innovations: Deliberation, Association and Representation (pp. 117 - 145). Routledge.
  13. ^ Goodin RE (1996) Enfranchising the Earth, and its Alternatives. Political Studies 44 (5): 835-849
  14. ^ O’Neill J (2001) Representing People, Representing Nature, Representing the World. Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy 19(4): 483-500.
  15. ^ Lijphart, Arend, and Bernard Grofman, eds. 1984. Choosing an Electoral System. New York: Praeger.
  16. ^ Curato, N., Chalaye, P., Conway-Lamb, W., De Pryck, K., Elstub, S., Morán, A., Oppold, D., Romero, J., Ross, M., Sanchez, E., Sari, N., Stasiak, D., Tilikete, S., Veloso, L., von Schneidemesser, D., & Werner, H. (2023). Global Assembly on the Climate and Ecological Crisis Evaluation Report. University of Canberra.
  17. ^ Hooley, Daniel. 2018. “The Political Status of Nonhuman Animals.” PhD thesis, University of Toronto.
  18. ^ Cochrane, Alasdair (2018-10-18). "Securing Sentientist Politics". Oxford Scholarship Online. doi:10.1093/oso/9780198789802.003.0007.
  19. ^ "Animals Could Play a Pivotal Role in Climate Talks—if We Let Them". 2021-10-28. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  20. ^ Lawrence, Peter (November 2022). "Justifying Representation of Future Generations and Nature: Contradictory or Mutually Supporting Values?". Transnational Environmental Law. 11 (3): 553–579. doi:10.1017/S2047102522000176. ISSN 2047-1025.
  21. ^ "Functions and powers". Parliamentary Commissioner of Environment. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  22. ^ Diaz-Rainey, Ivan (2019-03-28). "NZ's environmental watchdog challenges climate policy on farm emissions and forestry offsets". The Conversation. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  23. ^ "Mission Letter" (PDF). Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  24. ^ "Err … him?! EU's new animal welfare chief yet to win hearts and minds". POLITICO. 2024-09-17. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  25. ^ "Future Generations Commissioner for Wales – The Future Generations Commissioner for Wales". www.futuregenerations.wales. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  26. ^ "What does 'longtermism' mean to you?". Independent.co.uk. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  27. ^ "Good news for Germany's chickens – DW – 06/16/2023". dw.com. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  28. ^ "Tierschutzbeauftragte der Bundesregierung". Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  29. ^ "Inspector-General of Animal Welfare and Live Animal Exports". Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  30. ^ Jackson, Elizabeth (Liz) (2023-07-05). "Why Australia banning live sheep exports may be a net loss for animal welfare". The Conversation. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  31. ^ "Director General de Derechos de los Animales". Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  32. ^ "Spain rolled out a new animal welfare law. It has many contradictions". euronews. 2023-10-03. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  33. ^ "OFFICE OF THE COMMISSIONER FOR ANIMAL WELFARE". Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  34. ^ "Animal welfare reform facing 'agonising' delays, Commissioner complains". Times of Malta. 2024-04-16. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  35. ^ "Animal Welfare". www.nyc.gov. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  36. ^ "Too Many Cats, Too Few Vets: New York City Animal Shelters Are Bursting". The New York Times. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
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