inner asia by timur sadykov
Antiquity, 2024
Horses began to feature prominently in funerary contexts in southern Siberia in the mid-second mi... more Horses began to feature prominently in funerary contexts in southern Siberia in the mid-second millennium BC, yet little is known about the use of these animals prior to the emergence of vibrant horse-riding groups in the first millennium BC. Here, the authors present the results of excavations at the lateninth-century BC tomb of Tunnug 1 in Tuva, where the deposition of the remains of at least 18 horses and one human is reminiscent of sacrificial spectral riders described in fifth-century Scythian funerary rituals by Herodotus. The discovery of items of tack further reveals connections to the earliest horse cultures of Mongolia.
Archaeological Research in Asia, 2024
Here we present three stelae found on the surface of the Early Iron Age burial mound Tunnug 1 in ... more Here we present three stelae found on the surface of the Early Iron Age burial mound Tunnug 1 in Tuva Republic, Southern Siberia. An abstract pattern of arcs and lines and the focus on one side of the standing stone makes these stelae substantially different from other known cultural traditions of the Late Bronze Age steppe region. Traceological, petrographic, and geochemical analyses of the material were carried out. The comparison with standing stones of the Deer Stone Khirigsuur complex and the Slab Grave culture do not indicate a direct affiliation with either tradition. The deliberate placement of the stelae on the burial mound and their stratigraphic position indicate a role in funerary ritual activities of the Early Iron Age (9th c. BCE).
Scientific Reports, 2024
The subsistence economies of prehistoric pastoralists of the Eurasian steppes have long been view... more The subsistence economies of prehistoric pastoralists of the Eurasian steppes have long been viewed through an oversimplified model of reliance on domesticated animals. This conceptualization has begun to shift dramatically through the introduction of scientific analyses, pivoting towards an evidence-based interpretation of economic flexibility and adaptive heterogeneity. Here we provide insights into the dietary practices of Iron Age pastoralists in Siberia through an archaeoparasitological analysis. Soil samples from the Tunnug 1 site in southern Siberia reveal the presence of helminth eggs of Taenia sp. (likely), Trichuris sp., and Dibothriocephalus sp. This indicates that the diet of the analysed prehistoric population might have included beef and did include freshwater fish, occasionally consumed in undercooked or raw form. Despite the primary reliance on pastoralism and possibly small-scale millet agriculture, these populations engaged in diverse dietary practices, including fish consumption. Additionally, the presence of Trichuris sp. eggs points to poor sanitary conditions, possible consumption of contaminated plant foods, and the contamination of drinking water with feces. By providing direct evidence of dietary habits, archaeoparasitology complements isotopic analyses and contributes to a more nuanced understanding of the subsistence strategies.
PLOSONE, 2021
From the end of the Xiongnu Empire to the establishment of the first Turkic Khaganate, the territ... more From the end of the Xiongnu Empire to the establishment of the first Turkic Khaganate, the territory of Southern Siberia sees the emergence of distinctive local material cultures. The Kokel culture is essentially unknown in the international English-language literature even though archaeological sites pertaining to this material culture are among the most common in Tuva (Southern Siberia). This makes them important for the understanding aspects of the sociocultural dynamics following the collapse of the first "steppe empire". Here we present the results of the study of a Kokel funerary site recently excavated near the Early Iron Age kurgan Tunnug 1 and discuss the data in the context of the available Soviet and Russian literature. The Kokel culture substantially differs from the material culture of the Xiongnu and has to be seen as a largely independent cultural entity of small tribal groups without a pronounced social hierarchy engaging in frequent violent local conflict.
Journal of Field Archaeology, 2020
Questions surrounding the emergence of highly mobile nomadic pastoralism and the origins of the a... more Questions surrounding the emergence of highly mobile nomadic pastoralism and the origins of the associated Scythian material culture have a long history in Eurasian steppe archaeology, but advances in knowledge have been hindered by a lack of data. Here we present new findings on the Early Iron Age royal burial mound Tunnug 1 in Tuva. While the site belongs to the same cultural tradition as Arzhan 1, the conceptual roots of the funerary ritual architecture can be traced to precursors in the Mongun Taiga culture and the Mongolian deer stone khirigsuur complex. The clay architecture uncovered at Tunnug 1 does not find any regional comparisons and possibly hints towards a western Central Asian contribution to the formation of the earliest Scythian horizon. Our research demonstrates the value of a multi-disciplinary approach to documenting monumental earthen architecture, including technical approaches (satellite imagery, aerial photographs, 3D models, digital elevation models, geophysics, and radiocarbon dating) with an analysis of
construction material and associated finds.
Remote Sensing, 2023
Archaeological landscapes can be obscured by environmental factors, rendering conventional visual... more Archaeological landscapes can be obscured by environmental factors, rendering conventional visual interpretation of optical data problematic. The absence of evidence can lead to seemingly empty locations and isolated monuments. This, in turn, influences the cultural–historical interpretation of archaeological sites. Here, we assess the potential of integrating thermal and magnetic remote sensing methods in the detection and mapping of buried archaeological structures. The area of interest in an alluvial plain in Tuva Republic makes the application of standard methods like optical remote sensing and field walking impractical, as natural vegetation features effectively hide anthropogenic structures. We combined drone-based aerial thermography and airborne and ground-based magnetometry to establish an approach to reliably identifying stone structures concealed within alluvial soils. The data integration led to the discovery of nine buried archaeological structures in proximity to an Early Iron Age royal tomb, shedding light on ritual land use continuity patterns.
Transactions of IHMC RAS, 2023
Horse harness of the Kokel archaeological culture has not previously become the aim of a special ... more Horse harness of the Kokel archaeological culture has not previously become the aim of a special study. There are relatively few burials with documented parts of horse equipment, it is not included in the “mandatory set” of grave goods (about 4 % of all excavated burials), and in all cases it is represented by copies specially made for the burial, and not fully functional items. Nevertheless, the cheek-pieces are quite clearly divided into separate types, although the model-based typology is to some extent hypothetical and conditional. The horse harness in the Kokel culture turned out to be quite diverse: some of the variants of the cheek-pieces inherit the “Xiongnu” tradition, and some are most widespread later, in the early Middle Ages. For the first time, S-shaped cheek-pieces with a bracket were documented in the Kokel burials, the context of their location and related items of horse headband are considered in detail. These data should be taken into account in general reconstructions of the evolution of the horse harness in the Eurasian steppes in the post-Xiongnu time
«Поющие стрелы Маодуня»: хунну от неизвестности до империи: Материалы международной научной конференции, посвященной 75-летию Сергея Степановича Миняева (1948‒2020), 2023
The theses relate to the tradition in the Kokel archaeological culture of making models of things... more The theses relate to the tradition in the Kokel archaeological culture of making models of things specially for burial, and these copies are created not only from obviously non-functional materials (wood, birch bark), but also metal and ceramics, and it makes difficult to separate models from fully functional tools. This tradition documented not in the all the studied sites, but mainly determines the originality of the grave goods of the Kokel archaeological culture.
PLOSONE, 2022
The medieval Turks of the eastern Asian steppe are known for funerary finds exalting horsemanship... more The medieval Turks of the eastern Asian steppe are known for funerary finds exalting horsemanship and military heroism that thrived on intertribal warfare. Existing bodies of research on various categories of objects-which include architecture, stelae, grave goods and inhumations-are in depth but highly regionalized. As a result, our understanding of the archaeological culture of the Turks on a spatio-temporal scale commensurate with territorial shifts in their political dominion throughout the period of the Turk khaganates (mid-6th to mid-8th centuries CE) remains disjunct. The present paper addresses this problem of disparate data. We present a synthesis of the archaeological research of medieval Turks spanning Mongolia, southern Siberia, and Xinjiang in view of results of the excavation of medieval burials at Tunnug 1 in Tuva Republic-where Turkic remains are dispersed and not easily distinguishable from other funerary cultures of connecting time periods. We argue that Turkic funerary culture can be better characterized as polymorphic-the presence of different regional amalgams of burial traditions. The horse-and-human burials and commemorative ogradka known to be quintessentially Turkic are but one of the more dominant amalgams. This pattern of differential practices is congruent with the history of medieval Turks evolving as peoples of mixed lineages and political groupings, rather than people of a unitary culture.
Евразия в Энеолите - Раннем Средневековье, 2022
The Uyuk depression in Tuva is a key micro-region for solving the problems of the formation and d... more The Uyuk depression in Tuva is a key micro-region for solving the problems of the formation and development of the Scythian type cultures. Among the sites excavated here, the earliest ones (Arzhan 1, Tunnug 1) predate the Hallstatt plateau, the latest (Orgu-Khovu 2) most likely date later. Wood is used in the funerary constructions of all these mounds. Thus, it is possible to construct a dendrochronological scale based on wood from one closed geographical area, extending in both directions beyond the Hallstatt plateau and accurately tied by wiggle- matching dates from above and below
American Journal of Biological Anthropology, 2022
Objectives: Contemporary archeological theory emphasizes the economic and social complexity of Eu... more Objectives: Contemporary archeological theory emphasizes the economic and social complexity of Eurasian steppe populations. As a result, old notions of "nomadic" cultures as homogenously mobile and economically simple are now displaced by more nuanced interpretations. Large part of the literature on diet and mobility among Eurasian pastoralists is focused on the Bronze and Iron Ages. The underrepresentation
Сборник МАЭ. Т. LХVII, 2020
As a result of the collation of archival plans and photographs with modern satellite images and p... more As a result of the collation of archival plans and photographs with modern satellite images and photogrammetric surveys of the area, separate sites and clusters of sites discovered during the survey of the Aimyrlyg cemetery in the 1960s and 1970s were identified and localized on the spot. The new orthophotographic maps provide a substantial addition to archival data and, in certain instances, resolve the discrepancies in field documentation
Radiocarbon, 2022
Nine burials from Tunnug 1 site in Tuva Republic, which contained human and animal bones as well ... more Nine burials from Tunnug 1 site in Tuva Republic, which contained human and animal bones as well as remains of wood, were chosen for intercomparison study of preparation methods. Nine human bones, nine animal bones and 11 pieces of wood were prepared. Gelatin extracted from bones was purified using the UF method but the extraction from bones was modified with respect to acid and base treatment. Wood samples were treated as whole using acid-base-acid and cellulose was extracted for comparison. The results confirmed a highly consistent chronology of the sites centered at 200-400 CE, however, a few bones resulted in an offset between ages obtained by different methods. The extraction of cellulose was limited due to the poor preservation of wood. Our results highlight problems of dating poorly preserved bones and wood.
Археологические вести. N26.C. 248-259, 2020
This paper describes results of mapping of already investigated sites in the flooded area of the ... more This paper describes results of mapping of already investigated sites in the flooded area of the Sayan-Shushenskoye hydro-electric plant, which had no maps and plans (or had contradictory ones) in the reports and publications. The promising character of the method applied is noted and the first results have been obtained. A preliminary general map has been drawn.
Творец культуры. Материальная культура и духовное пространство человека в свете археологии, истории и этнографии: Сб. науч. статей, посв. 80-летию проф. Д.Г.Савинова / Отв. ред. Н.Ю. Смирнов. СПб: ИИМК РАН. 756 с. (Труды ИИМК РАН. Т. LVII), 2021
American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 2020
Warfare is assumed to be one of the defining cultural characteristics of steppe nomads in Eastern... more Warfare is assumed to be one of the defining cultural characteristics of steppe nomads in Eastern Eurasia. For the first‐centuries CE, a period of political turmoil in Northern China and Southern Siberia, relatively few data are, however, available about the degree and variability of violence in these communities. Here, we provide new data on violence among steppe nomads during the first‐centuries CE by analyzing the type, anatomical distribution, and demographic distribution of perimortem trauma at Tunnug1 (Tuva, Southern Siberia—second to fourth c. CE).
Sensors, 2019
This article analyses the architecture of the Early Iron Age royal burial mound Tunnug 1 in the "... more This article analyses the architecture of the Early Iron Age royal burial mound Tunnug 1 in the "Siberian Valley of the Kings" in Tuva Republic, Russia. This large monument is paramount for the archaeological exploration of the early Scythian period in the Eurasian steppes, but environmental parameters make research on site difficult and require the application of a diversity of methods. We thus integrate WorldView-2 and ALOS-2 remote sensing data, geoelectric resistivity and geomagnetic survey results, photogrammetry-based DEMs, and ortho-photographs, as well as excavation in order to explore different aspects of the funerary architecture of this early nomadic monument. We find that the large royal tomb comprises of a complex internal structure of radial features and chambers, and a rich periphery of funerary and ritual structures. Geomagnetometry proved to be the most effective approach for a detailed evaluation of the funerary architecture in our case. The parallel application of several surveying methods is advisable since dataset comparison is indispensable for providing context.
Journal of Rock Art, 2023
Теория и практика археологических исследований. 2019. N25, C. 29-38, 2019
The site Tunnug 1 is located in the Republic of Tuva, in the area of the Uyuk Valley, the so-call... more The site Tunnug 1 is located in the Republic of Tuva, in the area of the Uyuk Valley, the so-called “Valley of the Kings”. The burial mound is located not on a high river terrace but in the flood plain (fig. 1), which seems to have led to permafrost conditions underneath the mound. These circumstances might have led to an excellent preservation of archaeological material. Preliminarily, the burial mound can be associated with the Arzhan horizon of the early Scythian material culture. Tunnug 1 slightly predates Arzhan 1. In the 2018 campaign, the early date of the mound was confirmed. The excavation on the southern periphery of the site revealed a dense cluster of structures postdating the construction of the main burial mound. This article presents the data gathered on several structures (fig. 2) of the first centuries AD (fig. 3, 4) and the Middle Ages (fig. 5, 6.-1). The location of the funeral and ritual stone structures in the low flood plain is uncharacteristic for all archaeological cultures presented in the recorded materials. Through reconstructing the paleolandscape and the paleoclimatic situation for all activity periods on the site we are further clarifying these circumstances. The excavation of the joint Russian-Swiss expedition will be continued in 2019.
Key words: Tuva, Tunnug, Arzhan, early Scythian time, burial types, Kokel, ritual objects, archaeology of the flood plain
Научное обозрение Саяно-Алтая. 2018. N21. С. 95-106
For the first stage of the Xiongnu-Xianbei time in Tuva there are several burial traditions: 1. C... more For the first stage of the Xiongnu-Xianbei time in Tuva there are several burial traditions: 1. Collective burials in underground wooden log cabins (sometimes with dromos). This is a direct continuation of the Scythian tradition with some objects of material culture of the Xiongnu. 2. Stone boxes. Sometimes stone boxes are dug into earlier mounds. The inventory includes both Scythian and Xiongnu items. 3. Collective burials in underground stone vaults. Only several objects are excavated. Inventory in general is similar to burials in underground wooden log cabins. 4. Xiongnu terrace tombs. Only one burial field is known (Bai-Dag 2) where ordinary burials under round mounds and ground burials without any mounds are also found. Some other single ground burials of the Xiongnu time are known but they are still unclassified. 5. Ground burials in cemeteries with a regular structure. Now the Ala-Tei 1 burial field is being studied and after publication it should become to be the model of this type. No settlements have been identified yet. The idea that some rectangular fortified settlements date back to the Xiongnu Epoch is still controversial.
For the later time only sites of the Kokel archaeological culture are known. The transition from the previous tradition still not explained. Maybe it was Xianbei influenced. The Kokel archaeological culture is represented by burials, ritual sites and settlements. There are at the moment all the known sites on the map (fig. 1, 2). The funeral rites are not very stable. Burials in a wooden coffin under a mound (stones without a ground) are usually stretched on the back, head to the North-West. The inventory includes a vessel or two, iron knives and buckles, and some meat food. Sometimes there are arrowheads and less often other objects of everyday life and weapons: parts of the bows, bone tubes, iron awls etc. The most specific category is ceramics. Ritual objects are «over-vessel mounds» where the main and usually the only object is a ceramic vessel installed on the horizon or level of the horizon. They can be very small, less than three meters in diameter, or large and high, not less in size than burial mounds. Under one mound there are often separately installed vessels and burials, and in many cases a vessel has a central position. Only 2 settlements are known, both are fortified, and one of them (Katylyg 5) was studied
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inner asia by timur sadykov
construction material and associated finds.
Key words: Tuva, Tunnug, Arzhan, early Scythian time, burial types, Kokel, ritual objects, archaeology of the flood plain
For the later time only sites of the Kokel archaeological culture are known. The transition from the previous tradition still not explained. Maybe it was Xianbei influenced. The Kokel archaeological culture is represented by burials, ritual sites and settlements. There are at the moment all the known sites on the map (fig. 1, 2). The funeral rites are not very stable. Burials in a wooden coffin under a mound (stones without a ground) are usually stretched on the back, head to the North-West. The inventory includes a vessel or two, iron knives and buckles, and some meat food. Sometimes there are arrowheads and less often other objects of everyday life and weapons: parts of the bows, bone tubes, iron awls etc. The most specific category is ceramics. Ritual objects are «over-vessel mounds» where the main and usually the only object is a ceramic vessel installed on the horizon or level of the horizon. They can be very small, less than three meters in diameter, or large and high, not less in size than burial mounds. Under one mound there are often separately installed vessels and burials, and in many cases a vessel has a central position. Only 2 settlements are known, both are fortified, and one of them (Katylyg 5) was studied
construction material and associated finds.
Key words: Tuva, Tunnug, Arzhan, early Scythian time, burial types, Kokel, ritual objects, archaeology of the flood plain
For the later time only sites of the Kokel archaeological culture are known. The transition from the previous tradition still not explained. Maybe it was Xianbei influenced. The Kokel archaeological culture is represented by burials, ritual sites and settlements. There are at the moment all the known sites on the map (fig. 1, 2). The funeral rites are not very stable. Burials in a wooden coffin under a mound (stones without a ground) are usually stretched on the back, head to the North-West. The inventory includes a vessel or two, iron knives and buckles, and some meat food. Sometimes there are arrowheads and less often other objects of everyday life and weapons: parts of the bows, bone tubes, iron awls etc. The most specific category is ceramics. Ritual objects are «over-vessel mounds» where the main and usually the only object is a ceramic vessel installed on the horizon or level of the horizon. They can be very small, less than three meters in diameter, or large and high, not less in size than burial mounds. Under one mound there are often separately installed vessels and burials, and in many cases a vessel has a central position. Only 2 settlements are known, both are fortified, and one of them (Katylyg 5) was studied