Dental calculus (calcified tartar or plaque) is today widespread on modern human teeth around the... more Dental calculus (calcified tartar or plaque) is today widespread on modern human teeth around the world. A combination of soft starchy foods, changing acidity of the oral environment, genetic predisposition, and the absence of dental hygiene all lead to the build-up of microorganisms and food debris on the tooth crown, which eventually calcifies through a complex process of mineralisation. Millions of oral microbes are trapped and preserved within this mineralised matrix, including pathogens associated with the oral cavity and airways, masticated food debris, and other types of extraneous particles that enter the mouth. As a result, archaeologists and anthropologists are increasingly using ancient human dental calculus to explore broad aspects of past human diet and health. Most recently, high-throughput DNA sequencing of ancient dental calculus has provided valuable insights into the evolution of the oral microbiome and shed new light on the impacts of some of the major biocultural transitions on human health throughout history and prehistory. Here, we provide a brief historical overview of archaeological dental calculus research, and discuss the current approaches to ancient DNA sampling and sequencing. Novel applications of ancient DNA from dental calculus are discussed, highlighting the considerable scope of this new research field for evolutionary biology and modern medicine.
We have undertaken a preliminary survey of the occurrence of cranial perforations which have been... more We have undertaken a preliminary survey of the occurrence of cranial perforations which have been noted on the posterior portion of archaeological cattle skulls. The interest arose from the authors' independent encounter with unusually high frequencies of this condition in assemblages from Bruges and Lincoln and the subsequent search for an explanation. A rapid literature survey and direct contact with other colleagues in the field showed that the phenomenon is widespread in European material and represented throughout a range of time periods and geographical locations. It is also clear that a variety of diverse but untested theories have been proposed by various workers in an attempt to explain the condition.
For the last 150 y scholars have focused upon the roles of intentional breeding and genetic isola... more For the last 150 y scholars have focused upon the roles of intentional breeding and genetic isolation as fundamental to understanding the process of animal domestication. This analysis of ethnoarchaeological, archaeological, and genetic data suggests that long-term gene flow between wild and domestic stocks was much more common than previously assumed, and that selective breeding of females was largely absent during the early phases of animal domestication. These findings challenge assumptions about severe genetic bottlenecks during domestication, expectations regarding monophyletic origins, and interpretations of multiple domestications. The findings also raise new questions regarding ways in which behavioral and phenotypic domestication traits were developed and maintained.
The importance of commensal microbes for human health is increasingly recognized -5 , yet the imp... more The importance of commensal microbes for human health is increasingly recognized -5 , yet the impacts of evolutionary changes in human diet and culture on commensal microbiota remain almost unknown. Two of the greatest dietary shifts in human evolution involved the adoption of carbohydrate-rich Neolithic (farming) diets 6,7 (beginning ~0,000 years before the present 6,8 ) and the more recent advent of industrially processed flour and sugar (in ~850) 9 . Here, we show that calcified dental plaque (dental calculus) on ancient teeth preserves a detailed genetic record throughout this period. Data from 34 early European skeletons indicate that the transition from hunter-gatherer to farming shifted the oral microbial community to a disease-associated configuration. The composition of oral microbiota remained unexpectedly constant between Neolithic and medieval times, after which (the now ubiquitous) cariogenic bacteria became dominant, apparently during the Industrial Revolution. Modern oral microbiotic ecosystems are markedly less diverse than historic populations, which might be contributing to chronic oral (and other) disease in postindustrial lifestyles.
Samples from the fills of one of two reredorters at the Norman Hospital of St John, Canterbury, h... more Samples from the fills of one of two reredorters at the Norman Hospital of St John, Canterbury, have been examined for their content of plant and animal remains. The deposits represent accumulations of debris rich in plant macrofossils, invertebrate and vertebrate remains from (a) a basal layer likely to pre-date the construction of the reredorter in 1085 and (b) from later fills (following a period of reconstruction), which have been dated to the period from the late fifteenth/early sixteenth century to the early nineteenth century. Food remains formed the largest component, with an abundance of plant foods represented by fruitstones and pips, notably Prunus (plum, cherry, sloe), Rubus (blackberry, raspberry), elderberry (Sambucus), Fragaria (strawberry), Malus (apple), Ficus (fig), Mespilus (medlar) and Vitis (grape), together with nuts (hazel, Corylus, and walnut, Juglans), various herbs and spices. Wheat/rye >bran= was also present in most layers. Vertebrate remains included ...
Samples and bones from deposits of Roman to modern date revealed in two trenches excavated in adv... more Samples and bones from deposits of Roman to modern date revealed in two trenches excavated in advance of major works at the Layerthorpe Bridge, and in Peaseholme Green, York, have been assessed for their potential in post-excavation analysis. Preservation of material by anoxic waterlogging was generally good and often excellent, especially in the Anglo-Scandinavian, medieval and 19th century levels. Providing the dating can be confirmed, the bioarchaeological material has potential in addressing a variety of questions. Plant and insect remains from Anglo-Scandinavian and medieval deposits suggest that the river edge was used for polluting activities such as retting flax and for tanning. The site may also have potential for research into differential patterns of residuality in bioarchaeological and artefactual materials.
Excavations at Tower 10, adjacent to Nunnery Lane, on the City Wall at York, produced a small ass... more Excavations at Tower 10, adjacent to Nunnery Lane, on the City Wall at York, produced a small assemblage of vertebrate remains of fifteenth/possible early sixteenth century date. The vast majority of the bones were of horse, and these provided an ideal opportunity to study an important domestic species so often under-represented in archaeological vertebrate assemblages. Preservation of the remains and the inclusion of small amounts of other species (particularly the human bones) suggests that the bones were redeposited and probably represent fellmongers refuse. The low incidence of butchery marks implies that the horse bones are unlikely to be the remains of animals slaughtered for human consumption, the few knife and chop marks probably being associated with skinning and carcase dismemberment. Biometrical data shows no evidence for the very large horses suggested by documentary records, although the height of individuals from Tower 10 is towards the upper end of the range of horse ...
Summary The small collection of animal bones from three separate excavations undertaken at Thorle... more Summary The small collection of animal bones from three separate excavations undertaken at Thorley, Hertfordshire, represented material from features of both prehistoric and Roman date. Individual contexts produced very limited quantities of animal bone, mostly from the major domestic mammals. Few measurable bones and mandibles with teeth were present and the material was fragmented, with fresh breaks evident throughout. This assemblage has an extremely limited research potential because of its small size and variable preservation, and the rarity of fragments providing biometrical or age-at-death data. As a consequence, the vertebrate remains are of very limited interpretative value and no further detailed work is recommended.
Summary A group of sediment samples and hand-collected bones and molluscs, from deposits of mostl... more Summary A group of sediment samples and hand-collected bones and molluscs, from deposits of mostly Roman date (2nd to 4th Century AD), have been assessed for their bioarchaeological potential. Plant and invertebrate remains were present in approximately one-third of the samples but, with the exception of one context (1277), in numbers too small to be of interpretative value. One other context yielded some material which may be peat or mor humus. The bone assemblage, though only of modest size, is of some importance: rural animal bone assemblages from the North of England, and of this period, are rare. Shell assemblages of this region and period are also rare, and selected further work on this material is recommended.
A dark humic silt, exposed beneath a feature interpreted as a parade ground for the Roman fort at... more A dark humic silt, exposed beneath a feature interpreted as a parade ground for the Roman fort at Stanwix, Carlisle, has been examined for its pedological characteristics and its content of biological remains. It appears to have been a soil which developed in situ before being buried by the parade ground make-up, its surface layers perhaps being disturbed, and even truncated, to an unknown extent.
Summary A small assemblage of animal bones of probable Iron Age date was submitted to the EAU for... more Summary A small assemblage of animal bones of probable Iron Age date was submitted to the EAU for preliminary evaluation. Given the limited size of the excavation, a rather large quantity of material was encountered, representing the range of common domesticates. Of particular interest were large numbers of red deer antler fragments, some of which obviously represented waste from antler working. These probably indicate craft activity centred on the site. It is recommended that further excavation be undertaken to collect a larger, more representative assemblage.
Summary The value for paleoecological interpretation of a series of sediment samples and a little... more Summary The value for paleoecological interpretation of a series of sediment samples and a little bone from Flandrian deposits close to the West Beck in the valley of the River Hull, near Brigham, N. Humberside, has been assessed. The deposits consisted primarly of peats and humic silts which were rich in plant and invertebrate remains consistent with deposition in water and representing a range of regimes from fairly deep, flowing water to still, shallow water. In the earliest deposits examined there were insects indicative of late-glacial or very early post-glacial environments together with plant remains suggesting a perhaps somewhat later date. The very small body of bones, some of them unstratified, are thought to be of little further value . It is recommended that further biological analyses—principally of plant and invertebrate remains— are undertaken when dating evidence (by means of radiocarbon assay) has been obtained.
Summary Samples of sediment, various 'spot' finds, residues from bulk-sieving, and bone f... more Summary Samples of sediment, various 'spot' finds, residues from bulk-sieving, and bone from site-riddling and hand collection from deposits of late medieval to modern date, but primarily associated with the house of the Austin Friars, in the Old Town in Hull, have been assessed for their potential for further bioarchaeological analysis. A good proportion of the GBA samples examined gave assemblages of plant and insect remains indicating the presence of various kinds of organic material, but often cut grassland vegetation (perhaps from hay, or in some cases, from stable manure). Especially interesting were assemblages from grave- and coffin-fills of the burials in and around the priory church and some of the spot finds associated with burials also gave evidence for plant remains, some of them clearly of ritual significance. Some of the human burials contained remains of what are thought to be brains; the mechanism of preservation of these requires investigation. The corpus o...
Summary Samples of raw sediment, sieved residues and vertebrate remains obtained from sieved samp... more Summary Samples of raw sediment, sieved residues and vertebrate remains obtained from sieved samples and by hand-collection from Roman to early modern deposits in the Swinegate area of York have been assessed to establish what further bioarchaeological work may be required. A programme of selected analyses is recommended, concentrating on organic levels in the early post-Conquest period and on a limited number of bone groups.
Summary Deposits of late medieval and modern date from two small trenches in St Saviourgate, York... more Summary Deposits of late medieval and modern date from two small trenches in St Saviourgate, York, were evaluated for their bioarchaeological potential. A series of pit fills from one trench proved to have good preservation by waterlogging of plant and invertebrate remains; they clearly included much material that was faecal in origin. An occupation layer from a second trench proved to have only modest preservation of biological remains; they were of more limited interpretative value. A small but excellently preserved assemblage of animal bones was recovered, most being from pit fill deposits of Trench 1. The material was particularly notable for its high concentrations of fish remains, with the bones of sheep and chickens indicating the disposal of both commercial butchery waste and kitchen/domestic refuse. Should further development be undertaken at this site, it is essential that an appropriate sampling and recovery strategy be employed and that a comprehensive post-excavation pr...
Dental calculus (calcified tartar or plaque) is today widespread on modern human teeth around the... more Dental calculus (calcified tartar or plaque) is today widespread on modern human teeth around the world. A combination of soft starchy foods, changing acidity of the oral environment, genetic predisposition, and the absence of dental hygiene all lead to the build-up of microorganisms and food debris on the tooth crown, which eventually calcifies through a complex process of mineralisation. Millions of oral microbes are trapped and preserved within this mineralised matrix, including pathogens associated with the oral cavity and airways, masticated food debris, and other types of extraneous particles that enter the mouth. As a result, archaeologists and anthropologists are increasingly using ancient human dental calculus to explore broad aspects of past human diet and health. Most recently, high-throughput DNA sequencing of ancient dental calculus has provided valuable insights into the evolution of the oral microbiome and shed new light on the impacts of some of the major biocultural transitions on human health throughout history and prehistory. Here, we provide a brief historical overview of archaeological dental calculus research, and discuss the current approaches to ancient DNA sampling and sequencing. Novel applications of ancient DNA from dental calculus are discussed, highlighting the considerable scope of this new research field for evolutionary biology and modern medicine.
We have undertaken a preliminary survey of the occurrence of cranial perforations which have been... more We have undertaken a preliminary survey of the occurrence of cranial perforations which have been noted on the posterior portion of archaeological cattle skulls. The interest arose from the authors' independent encounter with unusually high frequencies of this condition in assemblages from Bruges and Lincoln and the subsequent search for an explanation. A rapid literature survey and direct contact with other colleagues in the field showed that the phenomenon is widespread in European material and represented throughout a range of time periods and geographical locations. It is also clear that a variety of diverse but untested theories have been proposed by various workers in an attempt to explain the condition.
For the last 150 y scholars have focused upon the roles of intentional breeding and genetic isola... more For the last 150 y scholars have focused upon the roles of intentional breeding and genetic isolation as fundamental to understanding the process of animal domestication. This analysis of ethnoarchaeological, archaeological, and genetic data suggests that long-term gene flow between wild and domestic stocks was much more common than previously assumed, and that selective breeding of females was largely absent during the early phases of animal domestication. These findings challenge assumptions about severe genetic bottlenecks during domestication, expectations regarding monophyletic origins, and interpretations of multiple domestications. The findings also raise new questions regarding ways in which behavioral and phenotypic domestication traits were developed and maintained.
The importance of commensal microbes for human health is increasingly recognized -5 , yet the imp... more The importance of commensal microbes for human health is increasingly recognized -5 , yet the impacts of evolutionary changes in human diet and culture on commensal microbiota remain almost unknown. Two of the greatest dietary shifts in human evolution involved the adoption of carbohydrate-rich Neolithic (farming) diets 6,7 (beginning ~0,000 years before the present 6,8 ) and the more recent advent of industrially processed flour and sugar (in ~850) 9 . Here, we show that calcified dental plaque (dental calculus) on ancient teeth preserves a detailed genetic record throughout this period. Data from 34 early European skeletons indicate that the transition from hunter-gatherer to farming shifted the oral microbial community to a disease-associated configuration. The composition of oral microbiota remained unexpectedly constant between Neolithic and medieval times, after which (the now ubiquitous) cariogenic bacteria became dominant, apparently during the Industrial Revolution. Modern oral microbiotic ecosystems are markedly less diverse than historic populations, which might be contributing to chronic oral (and other) disease in postindustrial lifestyles.
Samples from the fills of one of two reredorters at the Norman Hospital of St John, Canterbury, h... more Samples from the fills of one of two reredorters at the Norman Hospital of St John, Canterbury, have been examined for their content of plant and animal remains. The deposits represent accumulations of debris rich in plant macrofossils, invertebrate and vertebrate remains from (a) a basal layer likely to pre-date the construction of the reredorter in 1085 and (b) from later fills (following a period of reconstruction), which have been dated to the period from the late fifteenth/early sixteenth century to the early nineteenth century. Food remains formed the largest component, with an abundance of plant foods represented by fruitstones and pips, notably Prunus (plum, cherry, sloe), Rubus (blackberry, raspberry), elderberry (Sambucus), Fragaria (strawberry), Malus (apple), Ficus (fig), Mespilus (medlar) and Vitis (grape), together with nuts (hazel, Corylus, and walnut, Juglans), various herbs and spices. Wheat/rye >bran= was also present in most layers. Vertebrate remains included ...
Samples and bones from deposits of Roman to modern date revealed in two trenches excavated in adv... more Samples and bones from deposits of Roman to modern date revealed in two trenches excavated in advance of major works at the Layerthorpe Bridge, and in Peaseholme Green, York, have been assessed for their potential in post-excavation analysis. Preservation of material by anoxic waterlogging was generally good and often excellent, especially in the Anglo-Scandinavian, medieval and 19th century levels. Providing the dating can be confirmed, the bioarchaeological material has potential in addressing a variety of questions. Plant and insect remains from Anglo-Scandinavian and medieval deposits suggest that the river edge was used for polluting activities such as retting flax and for tanning. The site may also have potential for research into differential patterns of residuality in bioarchaeological and artefactual materials.
Excavations at Tower 10, adjacent to Nunnery Lane, on the City Wall at York, produced a small ass... more Excavations at Tower 10, adjacent to Nunnery Lane, on the City Wall at York, produced a small assemblage of vertebrate remains of fifteenth/possible early sixteenth century date. The vast majority of the bones were of horse, and these provided an ideal opportunity to study an important domestic species so often under-represented in archaeological vertebrate assemblages. Preservation of the remains and the inclusion of small amounts of other species (particularly the human bones) suggests that the bones were redeposited and probably represent fellmongers refuse. The low incidence of butchery marks implies that the horse bones are unlikely to be the remains of animals slaughtered for human consumption, the few knife and chop marks probably being associated with skinning and carcase dismemberment. Biometrical data shows no evidence for the very large horses suggested by documentary records, although the height of individuals from Tower 10 is towards the upper end of the range of horse ...
Summary The small collection of animal bones from three separate excavations undertaken at Thorle... more Summary The small collection of animal bones from three separate excavations undertaken at Thorley, Hertfordshire, represented material from features of both prehistoric and Roman date. Individual contexts produced very limited quantities of animal bone, mostly from the major domestic mammals. Few measurable bones and mandibles with teeth were present and the material was fragmented, with fresh breaks evident throughout. This assemblage has an extremely limited research potential because of its small size and variable preservation, and the rarity of fragments providing biometrical or age-at-death data. As a consequence, the vertebrate remains are of very limited interpretative value and no further detailed work is recommended.
Summary A group of sediment samples and hand-collected bones and molluscs, from deposits of mostl... more Summary A group of sediment samples and hand-collected bones and molluscs, from deposits of mostly Roman date (2nd to 4th Century AD), have been assessed for their bioarchaeological potential. Plant and invertebrate remains were present in approximately one-third of the samples but, with the exception of one context (1277), in numbers too small to be of interpretative value. One other context yielded some material which may be peat or mor humus. The bone assemblage, though only of modest size, is of some importance: rural animal bone assemblages from the North of England, and of this period, are rare. Shell assemblages of this region and period are also rare, and selected further work on this material is recommended.
A dark humic silt, exposed beneath a feature interpreted as a parade ground for the Roman fort at... more A dark humic silt, exposed beneath a feature interpreted as a parade ground for the Roman fort at Stanwix, Carlisle, has been examined for its pedological characteristics and its content of biological remains. It appears to have been a soil which developed in situ before being buried by the parade ground make-up, its surface layers perhaps being disturbed, and even truncated, to an unknown extent.
Summary A small assemblage of animal bones of probable Iron Age date was submitted to the EAU for... more Summary A small assemblage of animal bones of probable Iron Age date was submitted to the EAU for preliminary evaluation. Given the limited size of the excavation, a rather large quantity of material was encountered, representing the range of common domesticates. Of particular interest were large numbers of red deer antler fragments, some of which obviously represented waste from antler working. These probably indicate craft activity centred on the site. It is recommended that further excavation be undertaken to collect a larger, more representative assemblage.
Summary The value for paleoecological interpretation of a series of sediment samples and a little... more Summary The value for paleoecological interpretation of a series of sediment samples and a little bone from Flandrian deposits close to the West Beck in the valley of the River Hull, near Brigham, N. Humberside, has been assessed. The deposits consisted primarly of peats and humic silts which were rich in plant and invertebrate remains consistent with deposition in water and representing a range of regimes from fairly deep, flowing water to still, shallow water. In the earliest deposits examined there were insects indicative of late-glacial or very early post-glacial environments together with plant remains suggesting a perhaps somewhat later date. The very small body of bones, some of them unstratified, are thought to be of little further value . It is recommended that further biological analyses—principally of plant and invertebrate remains— are undertaken when dating evidence (by means of radiocarbon assay) has been obtained.
Summary Samples of sediment, various 'spot' finds, residues from bulk-sieving, and bone f... more Summary Samples of sediment, various 'spot' finds, residues from bulk-sieving, and bone from site-riddling and hand collection from deposits of late medieval to modern date, but primarily associated with the house of the Austin Friars, in the Old Town in Hull, have been assessed for their potential for further bioarchaeological analysis. A good proportion of the GBA samples examined gave assemblages of plant and insect remains indicating the presence of various kinds of organic material, but often cut grassland vegetation (perhaps from hay, or in some cases, from stable manure). Especially interesting were assemblages from grave- and coffin-fills of the burials in and around the priory church and some of the spot finds associated with burials also gave evidence for plant remains, some of them clearly of ritual significance. Some of the human burials contained remains of what are thought to be brains; the mechanism of preservation of these requires investigation. The corpus o...
Summary Samples of raw sediment, sieved residues and vertebrate remains obtained from sieved samp... more Summary Samples of raw sediment, sieved residues and vertebrate remains obtained from sieved samples and by hand-collection from Roman to early modern deposits in the Swinegate area of York have been assessed to establish what further bioarchaeological work may be required. A programme of selected analyses is recommended, concentrating on organic levels in the early post-Conquest period and on a limited number of bone groups.
Summary Deposits of late medieval and modern date from two small trenches in St Saviourgate, York... more Summary Deposits of late medieval and modern date from two small trenches in St Saviourgate, York, were evaluated for their bioarchaeological potential. A series of pit fills from one trench proved to have good preservation by waterlogging of plant and invertebrate remains; they clearly included much material that was faecal in origin. An occupation layer from a second trench proved to have only modest preservation of biological remains; they were of more limited interpretative value. A small but excellently preserved assemblage of animal bones was recovered, most being from pit fill deposits of Trench 1. The material was particularly notable for its high concentrations of fish remains, with the bones of sheep and chickens indicating the disposal of both commercial butchery waste and kitchen/domestic refuse. Should further development be undertaken at this site, it is essential that an appropriate sampling and recovery strategy be employed and that a comprehensive post-excavation pr...
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