格陵兰语
格陵兰语(Kalaallisut),是爱斯基摩-阿留申语系中的一门语言,大约有五万七千使用者[3],大多数为居住在格陵兰的格陵蘭因紐特人。此语言跟包括伊努克提圖特語在内的加拿大的因纽特诸语言关系紧密。它是爱斯基摩-阿留申语系人数最多的语言,為格陵蘭的官方語言。
格陵兰语 | |
---|---|
kalaallisut | |
母语国家和地区 | 格陵兰 |
区域 | 北美洲 |
母语使用人数 | 57,000 (2007)[1] |
語系 | 爱斯基摩-阿留申语系
|
方言 |
东格陵兰语
极地因纽特语(北格陵兰语)
|
官方地位 | |
作为官方语言 | 格陵兰 |
承认少数语言 | 丹麦 |
管理机构 | 格陵兰语言秘书处 |
語言代碼 | |
ISO 639-1 | kl |
ISO 639-2 | kal |
ISO 639-3 | kal |
ELP | Kalaallisut |
瀕危程度 | |
联合国教科文组织认定的瀕危語言[2] 脆弱(UNESCO) |
格陵兰语的主要变体为西格陵兰语(Kalaallisut,或直接称为格陵兰语),此变体自2009年6月起成为格陵兰自治区域内的官方语言。格陵兰政府旨在以这个举动来强化格陵兰语跟其殖民语言丹麦语的竞争。格陵兰语的第二个变体为东格陵兰语(tunumiisut,格陵蘭語:tunumiusut)。格陵兰北部图勒因纽特人讲的极地因纽特语(Inuktun,格陵蘭語:avanersuarmiutut,又称北格陵兰语)是最后到达格陵兰的,为伊努克提圖特語的一门方言。
历史
编辑格陵兰语是由图勒人在13世纪带到格陵兰的。在图勒人到来之前的薩卡克文化和多尔塞特文化时期在格陵兰讲什么语言不太清楚。
最早对格陵兰语的描述是在17世纪时。随着18世纪初期丹麦传教士的到来以及丹麦对格陵兰殖民的开始,词典的编纂以及语法描述也相应开始了。传教士在1750年编写了第一部格陵兰语词典,1760年编写了第一部语法书。[4]
从18世纪丹麦殖民到1979年格陵兰开始自治,格陵兰语持续受到丹麦语的压力。在1950年代丹麦的语言政策旨在强化丹麦语的地位。其中最重要的做法是小学之后的教育以及官方事务都是通过丹麦语来进行的。[5]
从1851年到1973年,格陵兰语是用一套由传教士语言学家修订的复杂的正字法来书写。由于口语形式变化很大,1973年引进了一套新的正字法来把书面语靠近口语标准。改革非常有效,之后的多年内格陵兰的识字率大幅提高。[5]
另一个强化格陵兰语的发展趋势是自1979年自治后格陵兰社会的“格陵兰化”政策。这项政策把格陵兰语作为教育中的官方语言,来抵消之前把格陵兰语边缘化的趋势。把格陵兰语作为小学教育中的唯一语言这个事实意味着在格陵兰的单一丹麦语家庭把自己的孩子培养成丹麦语和格陵兰语双语者[6]。现在有几家专门的格陵兰语媒体。格陵蘭廣播公司提供格陵兰语的电视和广播节目。此外还有一家格陵兰语出版社。[7][8]
在2009年6月之前,格陵兰语与丹麦语共同为格陵兰的官方语言。但在之后格陵兰语则成为唯一的官方语言。这使得格陵兰语成为美洲原住民語言中的独特例子:由法律认定的半独立地区的唯一官方语言。尽管如此,联合国教科文组织濒危语言红皮书还是把格陵兰语列为“脆弱”的濒危程度。格陵兰有100%的识字率。由于西格陵兰语作为标准形式已成为主导语言,教科文组织的一份报告把其它方言列为濒危,现在在考虑如何保护东格陵兰方言的措施。
范例
编辑格陵兰语《世界人权宣言》第一条:
- Inuit tamarmik inunngorput nammineersinnaassuseqarlutik assigiimmillu ataqqinassuseqarlutillu pisinnaatitaaffeqarlutik. Silaqassusermik tarnillu nalunngissusianik pilersugaapput, imminnullu iliorfigeqatigiittariaqaraluarput qatanngutigiittut peqatigiinnerup anersaavani.
对应的中文翻译:
- 人人生而自由,在尊严和权利上一律平等。他们赋有理性和良心,并应以兄弟关系的精神相对待。
參考文獻
编辑- ^ 格陵兰语于《民族语》的链接(第18版,2015年)
- ^ UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in danger, UNESCO
- ^ Lewis, M. Paul; Gary F. Simons; Charles D. Fennig (编). Ethnologue: Languages of the World 18th. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. 2015.
- ^ Rischel, Jørgen. grønlandsk. Den Store Danske. 2016-08-18 [2021-01-09]. (原始内容存档于2021-01-12) (丹麦语).
- ^ 5.0 5.1 Goldbach & Winther-Jensen (1988)
- ^ Iutzi-Mitchell & Nelson H. H. Graburn (1993)
- ^ Michael Jones, Kenneth Olwig. 2008. Nordic Landscapes: Region and Belonging on the Northern Edge of Europe. U of Minnesota Press, 2008, p. 133
- ^ Louis-Jacques Dorais. 2010. The Language of the Inuit: Syntax, Semantics, and Society in the Arctic. McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP, p. 208-9
参考书目
编辑- Bittner, Maria. On the Semantics of the Greenlandic Antipassive and Related Constructions (PDF). International Journal of American Linguistics. 1987, 53 (2): 194–231. doi:10.1086/466053. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2011-06-06).
- Bittner, Maria. Quantification in Eskimo. Emmon W. Bach (ed.) (编). Quantification in natural languages 2. Springer. 1995. ISBN 0-7923-3129-X.
- Bittner, Maria. Future discourse in a tenseless language. Journal of Semantics. 2005, 12: 339–388. doi:10.1093/jos/ffh029.
- Bjørnum, Stig. Grønlandsk grammatik. Atuagkat. 2003. ISBN 978-87-90133-14-6.(丹麦文)
- Fortescue, Michael. Affix Ordering in West Greenlandic Derivational Processes. International Journal of American Linguistics. 1980, 46 (4): 259–278 [2010-06-26]. doi:10.1086/465662. (原始内容存档于2017-01-26).
- Fortescue, Michael. West Greenlandic. Routledge. 1984. ISBN 0-7099-1069-X.
- Fortescue, Michael. Switch reference anomalies and ‘topic’ in west greenlandic: A case of pragmatics over syntax. Jef Verschueren (ed.) (编). Levels of Linguistic Adaptation: selected papers of the International Pragmatics Conference, Antwerp, August 17–22, 1987, volume II. Philadelphia: John Benjamins. 1991. ISBN 1-55619-107-3.
- Fortescue, Michael. Inuktun: An introduction to the language of Qaanaaq, Thule. Institut for Eskimologi, Københavns Universitet. 1991. ISBN 87-87874-16-4.
- Fortescue, Michael & Lise Lennert Olsen. The Acquisition of West Greenlandic. Dan Isaac Slobin (编). The Crosslinguistic study of language acquisition, vol 3. Routledge. 1992: 111–221. ISBN 0-8058-0105-7.
- Fortescue, Michael. Eskimo word order variation and its contact-induced perturbation. Journal of Linguistics. 1993, 29: 266–289 [2010-06-26]. doi:10.1017/S0022226700000335. (原始内容存档于2016-03-06).
- van Geenhoven, Veerle. Semantic incorporation and indefinite descriptions: semantic and syntactic aspects of noun incorporation in West Greenlandic. Stanford: CSLI Publications. 1998. ISBN 1-57586-133-X.
- van Geenhoven, Veerle. Raised Possessors and Noun Incorporation in West Greenlandic,. Natural Language & Linguistic Theory. 2002, 20 (4): 759–821.
- Goldbach, Ib & Thyge Winther-Jensen. Greenland: Society and Education. Comparative Education. 1988, 24 (2, Special Number (11)): 257–266.
- Grønlands sprognævn. Icelandic Council for Standardization. Nordic cultural requirements on information technology. Reykjavík: Staðlaráð Íslands. 1992. ISBN 9979-9004-3-1.
- Hayashi, Midori & Bettina Spreng. Is Inuktitut tenseless? (PDF). Claire Gurski (ed.) (编). Proceedings of the 2005 Canadian Linguistics Association Annual Conference. 2005 CLA Annual Conference. 2005 [2010-01-10]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2010-01-08).
- Iutzi-Mitchell, Roy D. & Nelson H. H. Graburn. Language and educational policies in the North: Status and Prospectus report on the Eskimo-Aleut languages from an international symposium. International Journal of the Sociology of Language. 1993, 1993 (99): 123–132. doi:10.1515/ijsl.1993.99.123.
- Jacobsen, Birgitte. The Question of 'Stress' in West Greenlandic:An Acoustic Investigation of Rhythmicization, Intonation, and Syllable Weight. Phonetica. 2000, 57: 40–67. doi:10.1159/000028458.
- Kappel Schmidt, Bodil. West Greenlandic Antipassive. Nordlyd (Proceedings of the 19th Scandinavian Conference of Linguistics). 2003, 31 (2): 385–399 [2010-06-26]. (原始内容存档于2008-12-02).
- Mahieu, Marc-Antoine & Nicole Tersis. Variations on polysynthesis: the Eskaleut languages. Typological studies in language, 86. John Benjamins. 2009. ISBN 978-90-272-0667-1.
- Malouf, Robert. West Greenlandic noun incorporation in a monohierarchical theory of grammar. Gert Webelhuth, Andreas Kathol, and Jean-Pierre Koenig (eds.) (编). Lexical and Constructional Aspects of Linguistic Explanation (PDF). Studies in constraint-based lexicalism. Stanford: CSLI Publications. 1999 [2010-06-26]. ISBN 1-57586-152-6. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2003-07-12).
- Mennecier, Philippe. Le tunumiisut, dialecte inuit du Groenland oriental: description et analyse. Collection linguistique, 78. Société de linguistique de Paris, Peeters Publishers. 1995. ISBN 2-252-03042-9.(法文)
- Mithun, Marianne. The evolution of noun incorporation. Language. 1984, 60 (4): 847–895 [2010-06-26]. (原始内容存档于2017-01-26).
- Mithun, Marianne. On the nature of noun incorporation. Language (journal). 1986, 62 (1): 32–38 [2010-06-26]. (原始内容存档于2016-03-03).
- Petersen, Robert. The Greenlandic language: its nature and situation. Dirmid R. F. Collis (ed.) (编). Arctic languages: an awakening. Paris: Unesco. 1990: 293–308. ISBN 92-3-102661-5.
- Rischel, Jørgen. Topics in West Greenlandic Phonology. Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag. 1974. ISBN 87-500-1438-2.
- Rischel, Jørgen. Was There a Fourth Vowel in Old Greenlandic?. International Journal of American Linguistics. 1985, 51 (4): 553–555.
- Rosen, Sara T.. Two types of noun incorporation: A lexical analysis. Language. 1989, 65 (2): 294–317 [2010-06-26]. (原始内容存档于2016-03-03).
- Sadock, Jerrold. Noun incorporation in Greenlandic: A case of syntactic word-formation. Language. 1980, 57 (2): 300–319 [2010-06-26]. (原始内容存档于2017-01-26).
- Sadock, Jerrold. Some notes on noun incorporation. Language. 1986, 62 (1): 19–31 [2010-06-26]. (原始内容存档于2017-01-26).
- Sadock, Jerrold. The Nominalist Theory of Eskimo: A Case Study in Scientific Self Deception. International Journal of American Linguistics. 1999, 65: 383–406 [2010-06-26]. doi:10.1086/466400. (原始内容存档于2017-01-26).
- Sadock, Jerrold. A Grammar of Kalaallisut (West Greenlandic Inuttut). Munich: Lincom Europa. 2003. ISBN 978-3-89586-234-2.
- Shaer, Benjamin. Toward the tenseless analysis of a tenseless language (PDF). Jan Anderssen, Paula Menéndez-Benito and Adam Werle (eds.) (编). Proceedings of SULA 2. 2nd Conference on the Semantics of Under-represented Languages in the Americas. GLSA, University of Massachusetts at Amherst: 139–56. 2003 [2010-06-26]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2011-09-15).
- Underhill, Robert. The Case for an Abstract Segment in Greenlandic. International Journal of American Linguistics. 1976, 42 (4): 349–358 [2010-06-26]. doi:10.1086/465439. (原始内容存档于2017-01-26).
- Woodbury, Anthony C.. Switch-reference, syntactic organization, and rhetorical structure in Central Yup’ik Eskimo. John Haiman and Pamela Munro (eds.) (编). Switch-reference and universal grammar. Typological studies in language, 2. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 1983: 291–316. ISBN 90-272-2862-0.
延伸閱讀
编辑- Fortescue, M. D. (1990). From the writings of the Greenlanders = Kalaallit atuakkiaannit. [Fairbanks, Alaska]: University of Alaska Press. ISBN 978-0-912006-43-7